energies

Article
Visual Experimental Study on Gradation
Optimization of Two-Stage Gravel Packing Operation
in Unconventional Reservoirs
Xingbang Meng 1 , Minhui Qi 1 , Zhan Meng 2, *, Tong Li 3 and Zhongxiao Niu 3
1 Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266000, China;
mengxingbang@upc.edu.cn (X.M.); b17020077@s.upc.edu.cn (M.Q.)
2 Petroleum Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Regina, Regina,
SK S4S 0A2, Canada
3 PetroChina Huabei Oilfield Company, Cangzhong 062552, China; cy3_lt@petrochina.com.cn (T.L.);
cy3_nzx@petrochina.com.cn (Z.N.)
* Correspondence: Zhan.Meng@uregina.ca; Tel.: +001-306-501-7159




Received: 2 April 2019; Accepted: 18 April 2019; Published: 22 April 2019


Abstract: During the development of unconventional reservoirs with high sand production rate and
fine silt content such as heavy oil and hydrate reservoirs, silt sand blockage problem is a serious
issue. A two-stage gravel-packing sand control technique is applied to solve the silt sand blockage
now. However, traditional experiments on this technique could not obtain the dynamic distribution
law of intrusive sand in the gravel pack. In this study, a new visualization experiment based on
hydrodynamic similarity criterion for studying particle blockage in gravel packs was conducted.
Real-time monitoring of sand particle migration in the gravel pack could be achieved. Also, the stable
penetration depth and the distributing disciplinarian of invaded particles could be determined.
The results show that when the gravel-to-sand median size ratio of gravel bed I is less than five,
the sand bridge can be formed at the front end of the gravel pack. This could prevent sand from
further intruding. As the grain size of gravel bed II is increased, the flow velocity is reduced. Thus,
the sand invading into gravel bed II tends to settle at the interface. A large amount of sand intrusion
can happen to gravel pack II when the pore filling front breaks through the gravel bed I.

Keywords: unconventional reservoirs; gravel pack; sand control; gradation optimization; visual experiment

1. Introduction
Sand production has become one of the main factors restricting the efficient development of
unconventional reservoirs such as hydrate and heavy oil reservoirs. It is mainly reflected in the damage
to the near region of the wellbore, artificial lift, and surface equipment. A high-rate gravel-packing
sand control technique has been widely applied to solve this problem. This technique has high sand
control efficiency, a long validity period, and alleviation of the productivity impairment caused by the
sand blocking material [1–3]. However, after a period of production, the gravel pack could be blocked
by silty sand. Sparlin studied the permeability of common size gravel with different percentages of
silty sand [4]. The study showed that the permeability of the gravel would be seriously decreased
after mixing a small amount of silty sand. When the gravel pack blockage occurred in tubing-casing
annulus and perforation holes, the additional pressure in the gravel layer could be raised significantly.
Thus, well productivity would be decreased, and unnecessary reservoir energy loss would occur.
For unconventional reservoirs with high sand production rate and fine silt content, it is necessary
to adopt appropriate sand control technology to achieve effective exploitation [5]. Two-stage gravel
packing sand control technology is one of the most mature appropriate sand control technologies.

Energies 2019, 12, 1519; doi:10.3390/en12081519 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14

For
Energies unconventional
2019, 12, 1519 reservoirs with high sand production rate and fine silt content,2 of it 14
is
necessary to adopt appropriate sand control technology to achieve effective exploitation [5].
Two-stage gravel packing sand control technology is one of the most mature appropriate sand
This technology
control can effectively
technologies. solve thecan
This technology sandeffectively
blockage problem
solve theinsand
high argillaceous and silty
blockage problem in sand
high
reservoirs. Gravel bed I with smaller grain size is packed to prevent the invasion of
argillaceous and silty sand reservoirs. Gravel bed I with smaller grain size is packed to prevent the particles of
larger grain
invasion size. Theofbigger
of particles largergrain
grainsize
size.ofThe
gravel bedgrain
bigger II allows thegravel
size of silt particles transported
bed II allows the siltto gravel
particles
bed
transported to gravel bed II to be discharged with the produced fluid. This can effectively avoid the
II to be discharged with the produced fluid. This can effectively avoid the blockage, and the
permeability
blockage, and could be impaired, could
the permeability as shown in Figure as
be impaired, 1. shown
Good application
in Figure 1.efficiency was achieved
Good application [6,7].
efficiency
The
wasadvantage of this
achieved [6,7]. Thesand-control
advantage oftechnique is that ittechnique
this sand-control can effectively
is that alleviate the blockage
it can effectively of the
alleviate the
gravel layer and increase the effective period of the gravel pack.
blockage of the gravel layer and increase the effective period of the gravel pack.

Figure 1. Diagram of two-stage gravel packing well.

Figure 1. Diagram of two-stage gravel packing well.
The main causes of permeability damage of a gravel pack are particle migration, deposition,
The main
and blockage causespores.
in gravel of permeability
Clarifying the damage
plugging of amechanism
gravel pack of are particle
a gravel packmigration, deposition,
is of great significance
and blockage
when optimizing in sand
gravelcontrol
pores.design.
ClarifyingAlso,the plugging
it can help tomechanism
predict the of a gravel pack
productivity of sand is of great
control
significance
wells when optimizing
more accurately. Due to the sandheterogeneity
control design. Also,throat
of pore it canandhelpparticle
to predictsize the productivity
distribution in theof
sand control wells more accurately. Due to the heterogeneity of pore
gravel pack, it is difficult to describe the clogging process accurately by analytical and theoretical throat and particle size
distribution
methods only.inItthe gravel pack,
is necessary it is difficult
to conduct to describe
physical simulationthe clogging process
research and revise accurately by analytical
the theoretical model
and theoretical
based methods only.
on the experimental It is of
results necessary
studying to particle
conducttransport
physical simulation researchMany
in porous media. and revise the
scholars
theoretical
have model
conducted based of
a series onstudies
the experimental
on particle results
migration of studying
in porousparticle
media transport
and obtained in porous
many media.
useful
Many scholars
results. Bouhroum haveand conducted
Civan studied a series theofpore
studies on particle
structural changesmigration in porous
of the gravel pack media
due to andthe
obtainedprocess
clogging many useful results.
of intruding Bouhroum
particles and Civan
by visualizing studied the
laboratory pore structural
investigation. changes ofthat
They concluded the
gravel
the pack due
particulates to theprocess
migration clogging process ofbyintruding
is characterized particles
a discontinuity by visualizing
of particulates laboratory
concentration [8].
investigation.
Bigno et al. studiedTheythe concluded that the
trends of gravel pack particulates
permeability migration
reductionprocess is characterized
as a function of pore blocking by a
discontinuity
and identified of fiveparticulates
prevailing pore concentration [8]. Bigno et[9].al.Tostudied
blocking mechanisms estimate thethetrends
amount of ofgravel pack
deposited
permeability
material reductionAil
quantitatively, as et
a function
al. used an of on-line
pore blocking and apparatus
linear X-ray identified tofive
studyprevailing pore blocking
the deposition profile
mechanisms
in [9]. To during
deep bed filtration estimate the amount
produced waterofre-injection
deposited [10].material
Deepquantitatively,
penetration canAil be et al. used an
distinguished
on-line
from linear filter
external X-raycake
apparatus
buildup to by
study
thisthe deposition
method. profile in
Shirinabadi et deep bed filtration
al. studied the effect during produced
of gravel pack
water
size onre-injection
sand production [10]. Deep penetrationand
experimentally can numerically
be distinguished [11]. from external
Villarroel et al.filter cake
built buildup
a gravel packby
this method.
prototype of theShirinabadi
two most common et al. meshstudied sizesthe effect
(16/20 andof20/40)
gravel
andpack
testedsize on sandofproduction
the influence the gravel
experimentally
size under high in-situand numerically
stress contrast[11].[12].
Villarroel
Lawal et al. builtcarried a gravel pack of
out a series prototype
studies on ofporous
the twomedia
most
common mesh
permeability sizes (16/20
impairment by and 20/40) andthe
incorporating tested the of
kinetics influence
dynamical of the gravel
particle size under
deposition intohigh in-situ
the classic
stress contrast [12].
deep-bed-filtration Lawal
theory [13].et Gravelle
al. carried et al.out a series of
reproduced studies
particle on porous
generation and media
particlepermeability
transport in
impairment
porous mediaby andincorporating
detachment after the ionic
kinetics
strengthof dynamical
reduction byparticle
laboratorydeposition
experiments into [14].
the Liclassic
et al.
deep-bed-filtration
studied the blockage theory [13].
rule of Gravelle
particles in aetgravel
al. reproduced particle generation
pack experimentally and particle
and established thetransport
damage
in porous media
evaluation modeland detachment
of physical after ionic
parameters of strength
the gravel reduction by laboratory
filling layer using theexperiments
deposition model [14]. Liofet
particles in the liquid phase [15,16]. In addition to the above, many other scholars have characterized
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 3 of 14

the deposition and plugging mechanism of particles in porous media through laboratory experiments
and theoretical study [17–24].
Traditional experimental studies of gravel packs are usually conducted in invisible metal
sand-filling pipes. The results typically obtained from the experiments convey little pressure
distribution along the pipes [25–27]. The sand front interface and the penetration depth in a gravel
pack cannot be obtained from the experiments. Also, simulation studies with a one-dimensional
phenomenological model based on the average particle concentration obtained by experiments have
been conducted [28–32]. However, these simulation studies cannot characterize the particle distribution.
These studies cannot provide an effective guidance for gravel packing design. To meet the need of the
two-stage gravel packing design, visualization experiments need to be conducted to determine the
penetration depth of intrusive particles in a gravel pack. In this paper, newly designed visualization
experiments were conducted to study the dynamic distribution of intrusive particles in the two-stage
gravel pack. The influence of the two-stage gravel size and the packing ratio was analyzed based
on our experimental results. The design optimizations of the two-stage gravel packing process are
described herein.

2. Experimental Design

2.1. Methodology
There is no chromatic aberration between the packed gravel and the sand. Thus, the visualization
cannot be achieved. Moreover, it is difficult to separate sand from gravel after the experiment, and the
measurement of retained particles is hard to carry out. In this experiment, the prototype was enlarged.
Glass beads were used instead of gravel to meet the experimental requirements of visibility and
measurability. In the process of hydrodynamic and solid-liquid two-phase flow experiments, it was
necessary to ensure a certain flow similarity between the model and the prototype. This required
a fixed proportional relationship of physical quantities (geometrical, kinematical, and dynamical).
To fit the motion modes of the sand particle in an actual stratum, similarity criteria needed to be
established to determine the similarity scale of time, velocity, and flow in the visualization model.
For the solid-liquid two-phase flow, flow and particle Reynolds criterion, Stokes criterion, and Freud
criterion were the four dominant similarity criteria in designing the experiments.

lp ρp up lm ρm um
= (Re)p = (Re)m (1)
µfp µfm

dsp ρsp urp dsm ρsm urm

= (Res )p = (Res )m (2)
µfp µfm

d2sp ρsp urp d2sm ρsm urm

= (Stk)p = (Stk)m (3)
µ f p lp µ f m lm

ρp l2p u2p ρm l2m u2m

= (Fr)p = (Fr)m (4)
ρp gl3p ρm gl3m
where subscript p represents prototype and subscript m represents model; Re and Res are the flow and
particle Reynolds number, dimensionless; Stk is the Stokes number, dimensionless; Fr is the particle
Freud number, dimensionless; l is the geometric characteristic length, m; ds is the particle diameter, m;
ρ and ρs are the fluid and particle density, kg/m3 ; u and ur are the fluid velocity and relative velocity
between solid and liquid phases, m/s; µ is the fluid viscosity, N·s/m2 .
In the experiment, the prototype and the model could not satisfy all the above similarity criteria
at the same time [33,34]. The approximation model was adapted to ignore the secondary factors.
By ignoring the difference of surface roughness between gravel and glass beads, the fluids and the
particles used in the experiment could be regarded as the same as those in natural conditions. When the
diameter, m; ρ and ρs are the fluid and particle density, kg/m3; u and ur are the fluid velocity and
relative velocity between solid and liquid phases, m/s; μ is the fluid viscosity, N·s/m2.
In the experiment, the prototype and the model could not satisfy all the above similarity criteria
at the same time [33,34]. The approximation model was adapted to ignore the secondary factors. By
ignoring the12,difference
Energies 2019, 1519 of surface roughness between gravel and glass beads, the fluids and4 ofthe
14
particles used in the experiment could be regarded as the same as those in natural conditions. When
the Reynolds number of the prototype and the model was in the same self-modeling region, the
Reynolds number of the prototype and the model was in the same self-modeling region, the similarity
similarity with criterion number Re could be ignored. For the flow in the sand-packing tube, the
with criterion number Re could be ignored. For the flow in the sand-packing tube, the vertical distance
vertical distance that the gravity acted on was relatively short, thus the Froude number (Fr) that
that the gravity acted on was relatively short, thus the Froude number (Fr) that reflected the gravity
reflected the gravity action could be ignored. After the above simplification, it was concluded that
action could be ignored. After the above simplification, it was concluded that the prototype and
the prototype and the model should have obeyed the particle Reynolds and Stokes similarity criteria
the model should have obeyed the particle Reynolds and Stokes similarity criteria for designing
for designing the experiment.
the experiment.
The following scale relations were obtained according to the established modeling law:
The following scale relations were obtained according to the established modeling law:
λv = λl−1
λv = λ−1
λ l 22 (5)(5)
λtt == λλlvl =
= λλll
λv
where λl is the length similarity coefficient equal to lp /lm ; λv is the velocity similarity coefficient equal
where λl is the length similarity coefficient equal to lp/lm; λv is the velocity similarity coefficient
to up /um ; λt is the time similarity coefficient equal to tp /tm .
equal to up/um; λt is the time similarity coefficient equal to tp/tm.
According to the selected similarity criterion, the velocity magnification of the experiment was
According to the selected similarity criterion, the velocity magnification of the experiment was
determined to be equal to the λl . For example, if the quartz sand with ten times enlarged median grain
determined to be equal to the λl. For example, if the quartz sand with ten times enlarged median
size was selected to simulate the intrusive sand in the real situation, the injection rate of the visual
grain size was selected to simulate the intrusive sand in the real situation, the injection rate of the
experiment should be set as ten times the traditional displacement experiments.
visual experiment should be set as ten times the traditional displacement experiments.
2.2. Experiment Materials
2.2. Experiment Materials
The experimental set-up is shown in Figure 2. The Kamoer Lab UIP-S25-6 peristaltic pump
was The experimental
selected set-up is shown
as the displacement pump inwith
Figure 2. TheofKamoer
a range 1–1300 Lab UIP-S25-6
mL/min. peristaltic
The liquid pump
injection was
caliber
selected
was 8 mm,as the
anddisplacement pump with
the sand production wasa measured
range of 1–1300
by theml/min.
containerThe liquidatinjection
placed the outletcaliber
of thewas 8
pipe.
mm, and the sand production was measured by the container placed at the outlet
To achieve the visualization of sand migration and blockage in the gravel bed, a clear cylindrical PMMA of the pipe. To
achieve the visualization
(poly methyl methacrylate)ofpipe sand migration
with a diameter and blockage
of 40 mm andina length
the gravel
of 300bed,mmawas clear cylindrical
selected as the
PMMA (poly methyl methacrylate) pipe with a diameter of 40 mm and a length
sand-packing tube. The gravel used in traditional experiments were replaced by scale-up glass beads of 300 mm was
selected as the sand-packing tube. The gravel used in traditional experiments
to monitor particle transportation. The injection rate was determined according to the hydrodynamic were replaced by
scale-up glass
similarity beads discussed
criterion to monitorbefore,
particlethus,
transportation.
the motionThe injection
of sand rate was
particles in thedetermined
simulation according
bed was
to
similar to the real situation. During the experiment, the movement and the blockage of particlesin
the hydrodynamic similarity criterion discussed before, thus, the motion of sand particles inthe
the
simulation bed was similar to the real situation. During the experiment, the
gravel layer were monitored by real-time photography. When the gravel-sand interface was stable, movement and the
blockage
the glass of particles
beads and the in retained
the gravelsandlayer
werewere
takenmonitored by real-time
out and weighed photography.
separately. Thus, theWhen the
plugging
gravel-sand interface was stable, the
degree of each section could be obtained. glass beads and the retained sand were taken out and weighed
separately. Thus, the plugging degree of each section could be obtained.

(a) Schematic of experiment (b) Equipment of the experiment

Figure
Figure2.2.The
Theflowchart
flowchartand
andset-up
set-upof
ofthe
theexperimental
experimentaldevice.
device.

According to the selected similarity criterion, the geometric magnification of the experiment was
determined to be ten times. Taking sand with 0.1 mm median grain size as an example, the quartz
sand with ten times enlarged median grain size was selected to simulate the intrusive sand in a real
reservoir. The glass beads with specific particle size were selected to simulate gravel packs to ensure
the visibility and measurability of intrusive particles. During the experiment, the temperature was
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 5 of 14

kept at 20 degrees and the pressure was 1 atm. The injection fluid was the glycerol mixture with the
viscosity of 5 cP.

2.3. Experiment Procedure

A schematic of the experiment is illustrated with Figure 2. The general procedure of the experiment
is described as follows:

(1) Clean up the tube and place the metal gauze at the outlet joint to prevent the glass beads from
discharging at the outlet. This can help to ensure the flow stability during the experiment.
(2) The end of the tube is sealed, and the composite simulated quartz sand sample is filled to one
side. After packing to the design depth, the sand sample is compacted. Then, pack glass beads
into the pipe from the other end and compact slightly. During packing, the quartz sand should be
kept at the bottom to prevent a large amount of pre-intruding sand before the experiment.
(3) After calibrating the flow rate of the peristaltic pump, the displacement container, the peristaltic
pump, and the sand-packing tube are connected. The depth of sand invasion, the movement of
the gravel-sand interface, and the sand distribution characteristics are recorded every 10 min
during the experiment.
(4) After displacement, unfold the sand-packing tube from the exit end. The glass beads and the
retained sand are extracted from segments. The mixture is filtered, and the glass beads and the
retained sand are recovered separately. The amount of retained sand of this packing section can
be obtained by weighing the dried recycled sand.

2.4. Experiment Scheme

In order to investigate the influence of the two-stage gravel size and packing length on the
two-stage gravel bed, the experimental scheme was designed as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Experimental scheme.

Group Sand Median Gravel Bed I Gravel Bed II Displacement Packing Length Packing Length
Number Grain size (mm) Grain Size (mm) Grain Size (mm) Rate (mL/min) (I)/cm (II)/cm
1# 0.85 3.5 7 200 10 20
2# 0.85 4 7 200 10 20
3# 0.85 4.5 7 200 10 20
4# 0.85 5 7 200 10 20
5# 0.85 4.5 6 200 10 20
6# 0.85 4.5 8 200 10 20
7# 0.85 4.5 7 200 5 25
8# 0.85 4.5 7 200 7 23
9# 0.85 4.5 7 200 15 15

The experimental design adopted in this work was based on the principle of moderate sand
control. Moderate sand control should raise the sand retention rate of gravel bed I to avoid the
blockage of gravel bed II. The design of gravel bed I grain size was based on the criterion proposed by
Saucier. After taking both conductivity and sand retention rate into account, Saucier proposed that the
gravel-sand size ratio should be 5–6 [35]. The selection of gravel bed II grain size was mainly based
on field experience and the commonly used size of industrial gravel derived from the operation of
two-stage gravel packing in Shengli Oilfield, China [7]. The design of the injection rate was based on
the experimental data of Li et al. in the conventional gravel packing displacement experiments [15,16].
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 6 of 14

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

3. Results and Discussions

3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Particle Grain Size of Gravel Bed I
3.1. Particle Grain Size of Gravel Bed I
The grain size of packing gravel in gravel bed I is one of the most critical factors impacting the
The grainofsize
permeability the of packing gravel
two-stage gravel packs.
in gravel bed I is one
Currently, the of the most
selection critical
criteria forfactors
gravelimpacting
grain sizethe
of
permeability of the two-stage gravel packs. Currently, the selection criteria for
field operation mainly refer to the research of Saucier, which suggested a five to six times gravel-size gravel grain size of
field
median operation
grain sizemainly
ratio. By refer
our to the experimental
visual research of study,
Saucier, thewhich suggested depth
sand penetration a fiveoftofour
sixgroups
times
gravel-size median grain size ratio. By our visual experimental study, the sand
of different gravel-sand grain size ratio was obtained. This could provide an accurate and quantitative penetration depth of
four
basisgroups
for the of different
design gravel-sand
of two-stage grainproportion.
packing size ratio wasTheobtained. This could
experimental scheme provide an accurate
is illustrated with
and quantitative
groups 1#–4#, Table 1. basis for the design of two-stage packing proportion. The experimental scheme is
illustrated withgroups
In the four groupsof1#–4#, Table 1.the sand-to-gravel grain size ratio of gravel bed I was conformed
experiments,
to theIndesign
the four groups
criterion of experiments,
of field operation. Bythe sand-to-gravel
conducting the visualgrain size ratio the
experiments, of gravel bed Idepth
penetration was
conformed to the design criterion of field operation. By conducting the visual
and the distribution characteristics of the intruding particles of different gravel size was obtained. experiments, the
penetration depth and the distribution characteristics of the intruding particles
Thus, it could help to design the packing gravel grain size and the effective packing depth of gravel bed of different gravel
size was obtained.
I. It could effectivelyThus,
prevent it deep
couldintrusion
help to of design the packing
sand into gravel bed gravel grain
II. Also, sizeway,
in this andoverall
the effective
gravel
packing depth of gravel bed I. It could effectively prevent deep intrusion of
pack permeability could be maintained or increased. During the experiment, the dynamic settlement sand into gravel bed II.
Also,
and the inblockage
this way, of overall
intrusive gravel
sand in pack
the permeability could
pore space of the be maintained
gravel were observed or and
increased.
regularlyDuring the
recorded,
experiment, the
as shown in Figure 3. dynamic settlement and the blockage of intrusive sand in the pore space of the
gravel were observed and regularly recorded, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by grain size of gravel bed I.
Figure 3. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by grain size of gravel bed I.
The sand-gravel interface, the pore filling front, and the sand penetration front are shown in Figure 3.
The filling
The pore sand-gravel interface,
zone refers to the the pore filling
gravel-sand front,
mixing areaand the the
where sand penetration
pore throat wasfront areseverely
blocked shown in at
Figure 3. The pore filling zone refers to the gravel-sand mixing area where the pore
the gravel-sand interface due to the massive invasion of the sand particle. The sand penetration front throat was
blocked
indicates severely at distance
the longest the gravel-sand
of intrusiveinterface due to the
sand migrated intomassive invasion
the gravel pack. Itof
canthe
besand particle.
seen that The
the grain
sand penetration front indicates the longest distance of intrusive sand migrated
size of grade I gravel had an obvious influence on sand migration and blockage in formation. into the gravel pack.
It canThe
be influence
seen that of
thegravel
grain bed
size Iofgrain
grade I gravel
size on sandhad an obvious
migration andinfluence
blockage on sand
in the migration
gravel and
pack was
blockage
obviouslyinobserved
formation.
during the experiment. When gravel grain size was 3.5–4 mm, gravel bed I had a
The influence
better sand controlledof gravel bedcompared
efficiency I grain size on sand
with other migration
groups. This andresulted
blockagein in
thethe gravel
shorter pack
sand was
filling
obviously observed during the experiment. When gravel grain size was 3.5–4 mm, gravel bed I had a
better sand controlled efficiency compared with other groups. This resulted in the shorter sand
filling length, the slower expansion speed, and the lower level of the gravel pack plugging the
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 7 of 14

degree near the sand-gravel interface. Also, a stable sand bridge could be formed in the pore space
of thethe
length, packed
slower gravel. A stable
expansion sandand
speed, bridge could level
the lower restrain the gravel
of the expansion pack ofplugging
the particlethepenetration
degree near
front. The amount of retained particles of the gravel pack could be increased substantially with the
the sand-gravel interface. Also, a stable sand bridge could be formed in the pore space of the packed
enlargement of packed grain size. With the increase of pore space, it took a longer time to form a
gravel. A stable sand bridge could restrain the expansion of the particle penetration front. The amount of
sand bridge that could exclude further particle intrusive. Thus, the penetration depth of particles
retained particles of the gravel pack could be increased substantially with the enlargement of packed
was increased obviously.
grain size. With the increase of pore space, it took a longer time to form a sand bridge that could exclude
It can be seen from Figure 4a that when the gravel grain size was less than five times that of the
further
medianparticle
grainintrusive.
size of theThus, the penetration
formation sand (group depth of particles
1# and group 2#), wastheincreased
gravel bed obviously.
I entirely excluded
the further intrusion of the production sand. The variation characteristics of porefive
It can be seen from Figure 4a that when the gravel grain size was less than times
filling thatwere
depth of the
median
similargrain size of1#the
in groups and formation sand
2#. Both of them (group 1# andpore
had a stable group 2#),depth
filling the gravel
of 3–4 bed I entirely
cm, which wasexcluded
nearly
thetwo
further intrusion of the production sand. The variation characteristics of
times smaller than that of groups 3# and 4#. When the gravel-to-sand grain size ratio was more pore filling depth were
similar in groups 1# and 2#. Both of them had a stable pore filling depth of 3–4 cm,
than five according to the Saucier criterion (group 3#), the depth of the gravel-sand mixing zone was which was nearly two
times smallersignificantly.
increased than that of groups 3# and
However, when4#.the
When grainthesize
gravel-to-sand
continued tograin size to
increase ratio was there
5 mm, more was
thanno
five
according
obvioustochange
the Saucier
in the criterion (group
trend of the pore3#), the front.
filling depthThe of the gravel-sand
stable filling depthmixing
was zone wasincreased
slightly increased
significantly.
from 7 to 7.5 However,
cm. when the grain size continued to increase to 5 mm, there was no obvious change
in the trend of the pore filling front. The stable filling depth was slightly increased from 7 to 7.5 cm.

8 30

7
Depth from sand-gravel interface /cm

Depth from sand-gravel interface /cm

25

20
5

4 15
1#
2#
3 3#
10
1# 4#
2 2#
3# 5
1 4#

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

Time/min Time /min

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4. 4.
TheThe dynamicdiversification
dynamic diversification chart
chart of
of the
the pore
pore filling
filling and
and the
the particle
particlepenetration
penetrationdepth
depth
influenced
influenced by by grain
grain size
size ofof gravelbed
gravel bedI:I:(a)
(a)pore
porefilling
fillingdepth;
depth; (b)
(b) particle
particle penetration
penetrationdepth.
depth.

TheThe particle
particle penetrationfront
penetration frontofofthe
thegravel
gravel pack
pack could
could be be divided
dividedinto intotwotwogroups
groupsbased
basedonon
whether
whether it was
it was fivefive times
times larger
larger than
than thethe median
median grain
grain size
size ofofthethe intrudingsand,
intruding sand,asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure4b.
In groups 1# and 2# with gravel bed I grain sizes of 3.5 mm and 4 mm (gravel-sand size ratioless
4b. In groups 1# and 2# with gravel bed I grain sizes of 3.5 mm and 4 mm (gravel-sand size ratio less
thanthan five),
five), a stable
a stable sandbridge
sand bridgeexisted
existedthatthatcould
couldprevent
prevent the the particles
particles from
fromfurther
furtherintrusion
intrusioninto
into
thethe gravel-sand
gravel-sand mixing
mixing zone.With
zone. Withthetheincrease
increase of of packing
packing gravel
gravel size,
size,aalarge
largenumber
numberofofintrusive
intrusive
sands migrated to the deep place. Both of the experiments for group
sands migrated to the deep place. Both of the experiments for group 1# and group 2# had a particle 1# and group 2# had a particle
penetration
penetration depth
depth ofofupuptoto2020cm.
cm.Additionally,
Additionally,because
because the the overall
overall blockage
blockageininthe thegravel
gravelpack
packwas
was
not critical, this part of the sand could usually be settled in the lower part of the pipe wall due to the
not critical, this part of the sand could usually be settled in the lower part of the pipe wall due to the
action of gravity, as shown in Figure 3.
action of gravity, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 5 shows the distribution of sand retention in the two-stage gravel beds. The sand
Figure 5 shows the distribution of sand retention in the two-stage gravel beds. The sand retention
retention of the two groups of experiments with smaller grain size could only be detected in gravel
of the two groups of experiments with smaller grain size could only be detected in gravel bed I,
bed I, which was mainly concentrated at 3–4 cm, where the pore fill took place. The mass of retained
which was mainly concentrated at 3–4 cm, where the pore fill took place. The mass of retained sand all
sand all over the gravel beds of groups 1# and 2# was about 7.8 g, which was much less than the
over the
other twogravel beds of
groups. Thegroups
amount 1#ofand
sand2# was about
retained in 7.8
the g, which
first 3 cmwas much
of the less than the
experimental other
group two
with
groups.
gravelThe amount
grain of 4.5ofmm sand retained
was similarintothe firstin3 the
that cm experimental
of the experimental group group
with 3.5withmmgravel
and 4grain
mmof
4.5 diameters.
mm was similar However, it covered deeper gravel bed in longitudinal depth since there was retained it
to that in the experimental group with 3.5 mm and 4 mm diameters. However,
covered deeper gravel
sand detected in thebed in longitudinal
gravel pore with a depthdistancesinceof there
27 cmwas from retained sand detected
the interface. Although in the
the pore
gravel
pore withand
filling a distance of 27 cm depth
the penetration from the interface.
of the Although the
two experimental porewith
groups filling and the
particle penetration
sizes of 4.5 mmdepth
and 5of
themmtwo were
experimental
similar, the groups with
overall particleamount
blockage sizes of of4.5the
mm and 5pack
gravel mm wasweremuchsimilar, the overall
larger becauseblockage
of the
amount of the gravel pack was much larger because of the larger pore inlet area and the accumulation
space. The mass of retained sand all over the two gravel beds in group 4# was 26 g, which was much
larger than that in group 3#.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

larger pore inlet area and the accumulation space. The mass of retained sand all over the two gravel
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 8 of 14
beds in group 4# was 26 g, which was much larger than that in group 3#.

26 1.6
25
24 1.5
23

Cumulative mass of rentained sand /g

Cumulative mass of retained sand /g 1.4
22
21 1.3
20
19 1.2
18 1#
1.1
17 2#
16 3# 1.0
15 4#
14 0.9
13 0.8
12
11 0.7
10
9 0.6 3#
8 0.5
4#
7
6 0
2 4 6 8 10 10 15 20 25 30
Distance from sand-gravel interface /cm Distance from sand-gravel interface /cm

(a) (b)
Figure5.5.The
Figure Thecumulative
cumulativemass
massof ofretained
retainedsand
sandin
intwo-stage
two-stagegravel
gravelbeds
bedsinfluenced
influencedby
bygrain
grainsize
sizeofof
gravel
gravelbed
bedI:I:(a)
(a)gravel
gravelbed
bedI I(b)
(b)gravel
gravelbed
bedII.
II.

By
Byanalyzing
analyzingthe theobtained
obtainedexperimental
experimentalresults,
results,ititcan
canbebeconcluded
concludedthatthatwhen
whenthe thegravel-sand
gravel-sand
grain size ratio was less than five, sand bridges that formed in the pore space of the
grain size ratio was less than five, sand bridges that formed in the pore space of the gravel gravel pack could
pack
restrain further penetration of particles intrusion. The depth of the gravel-sand
could restrain further penetration of particles intrusion. The depth of the gravel-sand mixing mixing zone was
zone
decreased, and there
was decreased, were few
and there wereparticles entering
few particles gravelgravel
entering bed II.bed
Therefore, the gravel-sand
II. Therefore, grain ratio
the gravel-sand grain
of gravel bed I could be controlled within five. At the same time, the packing length of
ratio of gravel bed I could be controlled within five. At the same time, the packing length of gravel gravel bed I
should have been
bed I should reduced,
have and the packing
been reduced, and thegrain size grain
packing of gravel
sizebed
of II should
gravel have
bed been increased
II should to
have been
improve
increased the
togravel
improve pack’s overallpack’s
the gravel permeability.
overall permeability.

3.2.
3.2.Particle
ParticleGrain
GrainSize
SizeofofGravel
GravelBed
BedIIII
Until
Until now,
now, there
there hadhad beenbeen no no reliable
reliable criterion
criterionfor forpacking
packinggravel
gravelselection
selectionof of gravel
gravel bedbed II.
II. To
To increase the validity period and the permeability of the gravel pack,
increase the validity period and the permeability of the gravel pack, the following principles should the following principles should
be
befollowed
followedinindesigning
designingpacking packing gravel in in
gravel gravel
gravelpackpackII. Packed
II. Packed gravel
gravelshould effectively
should prevent
effectively the
prevent
gravel
the gravel in bedin Ibed
from further
I from migration.
further migration.
In
In the three experimentalgroups,
the three experimental groups, thethemedian
median grain
grain sizesize ratio
ratio ofof gravel
gravel bedbed IIIIto
togravel
gravelbed bedII
ranged from 1.33 to 1.78, which covered the possible combination range
ranged from 1.33 to 1.78, which covered the possible combination range of industrial gravel selection of industrial gravel selection
of
ofthe
thefield
fieldoperation.
operation.The Thedynamic
dynamicblockage
blockageininthe thegravel
gravel pack
pack ofof
the experiment
the experiment is shown
is shown in inFigure
Figure 6.
The pore filling front of the three groups had similar regularity, while
6. The pore filling front of the three groups had similar regularity, while the penetration depth was the penetration depth was quite
different.
quite different.With the With increase
the increasein packing grain size
in packing grainofsize
gravel bed II,bed
of gravel theII,gravel pack’spack’s
the gravel pore space was
pore space
increased,
was increased, and the fluid velocity in the pore of the gravel layer was decreased. This resultedininaa
and the fluid velocity in the pore of the gravel layer was decreased. This resulted
significant
significantincrease
increaseininthe thesedimentation
sedimentationsand sandatatthetheinterface
interfacebetween
betweengravel
gravelbedsbedsI Iand
andII.II.
ItIt can
can be beseen
seenfrom from Figure
Figure 7 that
7 that thesethesethree three
groupsgroups had change
had similar similar regulation.
change regulation.
Also, the
Also,
steady-state values of the pore filling depth were all about 7 cm. The grain size ofsize
the steady-state values of the pore filling depth were all about 7 cm. The grain gravelof gravel
bed II
bed
mainly affected the dynamic development law of the particle penetration depth. During the firstthe
II mainly affected the dynamic development law of the particle penetration depth. During 90
first
min90 of min of the experiment,
the experiment, the intrusive
the intrusive particles particles
mainlymainly
migrated migrated
in gravel in bed
gravel bedthe
I, thus I, thus
three the three
groups’
groups’
penetration penetration
depthsdepths
had similarhad similar development
development characteristics.
characteristics. As As
thethefrontier
frontierof
of penetrated
penetrated sand sand
migrated to the junction of gravel beds I and II, the increase in gravel size
migrated to the junction of gravel beds I and II, the increase in gravel size led to more sand intrusion. led to more sand intrusion.
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,because becausethe the fluid
fluidflowflowvelocity
velocityin the
in pore
the porethroatthroat
became slower,slower,
became the experimental group
the experimental
of the larger gravel bed II gravel had more sand settlement at
group of the larger gravel bed II gravel had more sand settlement at the two-stage gravel pack the two-stage gravel pack interface.
Compared with groupwith
interface. Compared 5# with group gravel graingravel
5# with size ofgrain
6 mm, the
size ofpenetration depth of group
6 mm, the penetration depth 3# of
with grain
group 3#
size
with grain size of 7 mm was increased significantly by 8 cm. Meanwhile, when the grain sizefrom
of 7 mm was increased significantly by 8 cm. Meanwhile, when the grain size was changed was
7changed
mm to 8from mm in 7 mmgroup to 86#,mm theinpenetration
group 6#, the depth was onlydepth
penetration changed wasbyonly
2 cm. changed by 2 cm.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

Energies 2019,12,
Energies2019, 12,1519
x FOR PEER REVIEW 99ofof14
14

Figure 6. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by grain size of gravel bed II.

Figure 6. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by grain size of gravel bed II.
Figure 6. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by grain size of gravel bed II.
8 30

7
/cminterface /cm

/cminterface /cm

25

6
8 30
20
5
7
25
sand-gravel

sand-gravel

4 15
6
Depth from interface

Depth from interface

20
3
5
10
5#
Depth from sand-gravel

Depth from sand-gravel

2
4 3# 15
5#
6# 5 3#
1
3 6#
10
0 5# 0
2
0 50 100 150 200 3# 250 0 50 100 150 200
5#
250

Time /min 6# 5 Time /min 3#

1
6#
0 0
0 50 100 (a) 150 200 250 0 50 100 (b) 150 200 250

Time /min Time /min

Figure7.7.The
Figure The dynamic
dynamic diversification
diversification chartchart
of the of
porethefilling
poreand
filling andpenetration
particle particle penetration depth
depth influenced
by grain sizeby
influenced ofgrain
gravel(a)
bedofII:gravel
size (a) pore
bedfilling
II: (a)depth (b) particle
pore filling depthpenetration (b)
(b) particle depth.
penetration depth.

Figure 7. The dynamic diversification chart of the pore filling and particle penetration depth
influenced by grain size of gravel bed II: (a) pore filling depth (b) particle penetration depth.
Energies 2019,12,
Energies2019, 12,1519
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1010ofof1414

In group 5# with a gravel bed II grain size of 6 mm, the channel for blocked sand migration at
In group was
the interface 5# with a gravel
relatively bed thus
small, II grain sizemore
it was of 6 mm, the channel
difficult for blocked
for particles sand
to further migration
enter at
gravel bed
the interface was relatively small, thus it was more difficult for particles
II, and this reduced the amount of retained particles, as shown in Figure 8. to further enter gravel bed II,
and this reduced the amount of retained particles, as shown in Figure 8.
1.1

12 1.0

Cumulative mass of retained sand /g

Cumulative mass of retained sand /g

0.9
11
0.8

0.7
10
0.6
5#
9 0.5 3#
0.4 6#
5#
8
3# 0.3
6#
0.2
7
0.1

6 0
2 4 6 8 10 10 15 20 25 30
Distance from sand-gravel interface /cm Distance from sand-gravel interface /cm

(a) (b)
Figure8.8.The
Figure Thecumulative
cumulativemass
massofofretained
retainedsand
sandinintwo-stage
two-stagegravel
gravelbeds
bedsinfluenced
influencedby
bygrain
grainsize
sizeofof
gravelbed
gravel bedII:II:(a)
(a)gravel
gravelbed
bedI I(b)
(b)gravel
gravelbed
bedII.II.

When
Whenthe thegrain
grainsize
sizeofofgravel
gravelbedbedIIIIwas
wasincreased
increasedtoto77mm, mm,the theamount
amountofofsand sandretained
retainedatatthe
the
interface
interface was increased by 0.4 g compared with the group of 6 mm. The reason is that theamount
was increased by 0.4 g compared with the group of 6 mm. The reason is that the amountofof
sand
sandintruded
intrudedwas wasincreased
increasedby bythe
theincrease
increaseofofthe thepore
porethroat
throatand andthe
theparticle
particlesettlement
settlementcaused causedby by
the
the decrease of flow velocity at the interface. However, the sand deposited at the interfacedid
decrease of flow velocity at the interface. However, the sand deposited at the interface didnot
not
further
furthermigrate,
migrate,thus thusnonoblockage
blockageoccurred
occurredtotogravel
gravelbed bedII.
II.The
Theexperimental
experimentalgroupgroupofofpacking
packinggrain
grain
size with 8 mm had a similar regularity in retained sand distribution law as
size with 8 mm had a similar regularity in retained sand distribution law as the group with 7 mm, the group with 7 mm, with
only
withaonlyminor increase
a minor of 0.2 g.
increase of 0.2 g.
The following conclusions
The following conclusions can
canbebedrawn
drawn fromfromthethe
above
abovestudy: the grain
study: size size
the grain of gravel bed IIbed
of gravel hadII
little effect on the length of the pore filling zone and the amount of retained particles
had little effect on the length of the pore filling zone and the amount of retained particles of gravel of gravel beds I and
II.beds
It mainly affected the amount of retained sand at the two-stage interface and
I and II. It mainly affected the amount of retained sand at the two-stage interface and the the particle penetration
depth.
particle During the experiment,
penetration the amount
depth. During the of retained sand
experiment, theatamount
the interface of the experimental
of retained sand at the group withof
interface
athegrain size of 7 mm was larger than that of the experimental group with 6
experimental group with a grain size of 7 mm was larger than that of the experimental group mm, but it was a bit smaller
than
withthat of thebut
6 mm, experimental
it was a bitgroup
smallerwiththan
a grain
thatsize
of of
the8 mm. From the group
experimental perspective
with of maximizing
a grain size ofoverall
8 mm.
permeability, 8 mm should be selected as the grain size of packed gravel in gravel
From the perspective of maximizing overall permeability, 8 mm should be selected as the grain size bed II.
of packed gravel in gravel bed II.
3.3. Two-Stage Gravel Packing Length
3.3. The
Two-Stage Gravel
two-stage Packing
packing Length
length ratio is a critical factor that influences the sand control effect of the
gravel packs. However, because of the limitations of objective factors such as the length of the sand
The two-stage packing length ratio is a critical factor that influences the sand control effect of
packing tube and the distribution of pressure measuring points, very few conventional gravel packing
the gravel packs. However, because of the limitations of objective factors such as the length of the
experiments had the pack length ratio taken into account. In this experiment, because the packing quantity
sand packing tube and the distribution of pressure measuring points, very few conventional gravel
of the two-stage gravel could be controlled, the influence of packing length was investigated in this study.
packing experiments had the pack length ratio taken into account. In this experiment, because the
It can be observed from Figure 9 that the sand pore filling phenomenon only existed in gravel
packing quantity of the two-stage gravel could be controlled, the influence of packing length was
bed I, while sedimentation occurred when particles intruded into the gravel bed II layer instead of
investigated in this study.
pore filling. For all four groups, in the first 60 min, the intrusive sand was filled in the pore space
It can be observed from Figure 9 that the sand pore filling phenomenon only existed in gravel
of gravel bed I with the same expansion regularity. From 60 to 180 min, the pore filling depth of
bed I, while sedimentation occurred when particles intruded into the gravel bed II layer instead of
group 7# exceeded 5 cm, which was the packing length of gravel bed I. The sand fell into gravel bed
pore filling. For all four groups, in the first 60 min, the intrusive sand was filled in the pore space of
II, and this resulted in sand sedimentation on the pipe wall and a large amount of retained sand at
gravel bed I with the same expansion regularity. From 60 to 180 min, the pore filling depth of
the two-stage interface. The pore filling front of groups 8# and 3# broke through gravel bed I around
group 7# exceeded 5 cm, which was the packing length of gravel bed I. The sand fell into gravel bed
120 min. Sand settlement took place at the two-stage gravel interface as well. However, the amount of
II, and this resulted in sand sedimentation on the pipe wall and a large amount of retained sand at
retained sand was quite a bit smaller than group 7#. Intrusive sand in group 9# migrated within gravel
the two-stage interface. The pore filling front of groups 8# and 3# broke through gravel bed I around
bed I all through the displacement process, and no visible penetration front formed.
120 min. Sand settlement took place at the two-stage gravel interface as well. However, the amount
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

of retained sand was quite a bit smaller than group 7#. Intrusive sand in group 9# migrated within
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
gravel bed I all through the displacement process, and no visible penetration front formed.
of retained
Energies sand
2019, 12, 1519 was
quite a bit smaller than group 7#. Intrusive sand in group 9# migrated 11
within
of 14
gravel bed I all through the displacement process, and no visible penetration front formed.

Figure 9. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by two-stage packing length.

Figure 9. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by two-stage packing length.

From Figure 10, it can be seen that the pore filling of the intrusion sand was only formed in
Figure 9. Sand distribution in gravel packs affected by two-stage packing length.
gravel
FrombedFigure
I. After 10,the porebefilling
it can of gravel
seen that bedfilling
the pore I was ofcompleted in group
the intrusion sand7# with
was a packing
only formed in length of
gravel
5 cm, the
bed I.From pore
After Figure filling
the pore front
10,filling had
it canofbe not been
seen bed
gravel extended
thatI the
waspore to gravel
filling in
completed bed
of group II. Sand
the intrusion particles
7# with sand only
was only
a packing migrated
lengthformed in
in
of 5 cm,
gravel
gravel
the bed
porebed I of group
I. After
filling frontthe 9#,
hadpore thus the
not filling pore filling
of graveltobed
been extended depth
I was
gravel of group
completed
bed 9# with a packing
in grouponly
II. Sand particles 7# with length of
a packing
migrated 15 cm
length
in gravel was
of
bed
Ionly
5ofcm, slightly
the 9#,
group pore less
thus than
filling 7 cmfilling
front
the pore andnot
had 10 cm.ofHowever,
been
depth group 9# since
extended to
with agravel
gravel bedbed
packing I hadof
II.length
Sand a 15
lower
particles porosity,
onlyonly
cm was particle
migrated in
slightly
penetration
gravel
less thanbed7 cmI depth
ofand 10was
group 9#,apparently
cm. thus the pore
However, lessfilling
since than
gravelthat
bedofI of
depth the
had aother
group 9#two
lower with groups, withlength
a packing
porosity, particle a value of cm
of 15
penetration 10 cm.
was
depth
Because
was the stability
onlyapparently
slightly less than
less value
than 7 cm ofand
that pore10filling
of the depth
cm. However,
other under
two groups,sincethe experimental
gravel
with bed of
a value I hadsetting
10 wasporosity,
a lower
cm. Because morethethan 7 cm
particle
stability
but
value less
penetrationthan
of poredepth10 cm,
fillingwas the
depth sand intrusion
apparently
under theless depth of group
than that of
experimental 3# was
the other
setting significantly
two groups,
was more reduced
than 7 cm with compared
buta less
value 10with
of 10
than cm.
cm,
that
the of
Because group
sand intrusion 8#.
the stability depth value of pore3#filling
of group depth underreduced
was significantly the experimental
comparedsetting wasofmore
with that groupthan8#. 7 cm
but less than 10 cm, the sand intrusion depth of group 3# was significantly reduced compared with
8 30
that of group 8#.
7
/cm interface /cm
/cm interface /cm

25

6
8 30
20
5
7
25
sand-gravel
sand-gravel

4 15
6
Depth frominterface
Depth frominterface

3 20
5 10
7#
Depth from sand-gravel
Depth from sand-gravel

2 7#
4 8# 15
8#
3# 5
1 3#
3 9#
10
9#
0 7# 0
20 50 100 150 200 7# 250
8# 250 0 50 100 150 200
8#
Time /min 3# 5 Time /min
1 3#
9#
9#
0 0
0 50 100
(a) 150 200 250 0 50 100
(b) 150 200 250
Time /min Time /min

Figure 10.The
Figure10. Thedynamic
dynamicdiversification chartchart
diversification of theof
porethefilling
poreand particle
filling andpenetration depth influenced
particle penetration depth
by two-stage packing (a)
length: (a) pore filling depth; (b) particle penetration (b)
depth.
influenced by two-stage packing length: (a) pore filling depth; (b) particle penetration depth.

Figure
As shown10. in
The dynamic
Figure 11, indiversification chart ofsand
group 9#, intrusive the was
pore only
filling and particle
distributed penetration
in gravel bed I,depth
while in
influenced by two-stage packing length: (a) pore filling depth; (b) particle penetration depth.
the first 10 cm or so of gravel bed I, the degree of blockage was similar to that of group (c), but no sand
intrusion occurred after 10 cm. In the other three groups of experiments, the retained sand was all
distributed along the whole of the two-stage gravel packs. The masses of retained particles in gravel
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

As shown in Figure 11, in group 9#, intrusive sand was only distributed in gravel bed I, while in
the first 10 cm or so of gravel bed I, the degree of blockage was similar to that of group (c), but no
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 12 of 14
sand intrusion occurred after 10 cm. In the other three groups of experiments, the retained sand was
all distributed along the whole of the two-stage gravel packs. The masses of retained particles in
gravel
bed I of bed I of7#
groups groups
and 8#7#were
and16 8#gwere 16 g,
and 15 g respectively,
and 15 g, respectively,
which werewhich were significantly
significantly higher than higher
11.5 g
than 11.5 g and 10.4 g in groups 3# and 9#. A large amount of sand
and 10.4 g in groups 3# and 9#. A large amount of sand migrated into gravel bed II in migrated into gravel
groupbed II in
7# and
group 7#toand
intruded theintruded
end fronttoofthe
theend front
gravel of the
pack, gravel pack,
consequently consequently
forming forming sand-production.
sand-production. Retained sand
Retained sand in gravel bed II of group 3# was about 0.5 g and was mainly
in gravel bed II of group 3# was about 0.5 g and was mainly concentrated at the two-stage concentrated at the
interface,
two-stage
while interface,
the sand blockagewhile
in thethe sand of
middle blockage
gravel bed in II
the middle
was of gravel
less serious bed IIto was
compared less
that of serious
group 8#,
compared to that of group
which had 1.6 g of sand retention. 8#, which had 1.6 g of sand retention.

18

17
3

Cumulative mass of retained sand /g

Cumulative mass of retained sand /g

16
7#
15 8# 7#
3# 8#
14
9# 3#
2
13

12

11

10 1

7 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Distance from sand-gravel interface /cm Distance from sand-gravel interface /cm

(a) (b)
Figure 11. The
Figure11. Thecumulative
cumulative mass
mass ofofretained
retainedsand
sandin
intwo-stage
two-stagegravel
gravelbeds
bedsinfluenced
influencedby
bytwo-stage
two-stage
packing
packinglength:
length:(a)
(a)gravel
gravelbed
bedII(b)
(b)gravel
gravelbed
bedII.
II.

Through
Throughthe theabove
aboveexperiments,
experiments,the thefollowing
followingconclusions
conclusionscancanbe bedrawn:
drawn: after
after the
the completion
completion
of
of pore filling in gravel bed I of groups (a) and (b) with packing lengths of 5 cm and77cm,
pore filling in gravel bed I of groups (a) and (b) with packing lengths of 5 cm and cm, no
no pore
pore
filling
fillingphenomenon
phenomenonoccurred
occurrediningravel
gravelbedbedII, II,
however, a large
however, amount
a large amountof sand settlement
of sand formed
settlement at the
formed at
two-stage interface. Under the experimental conditions, the pore filling front of group
the two-stage interface. Under the experimental conditions, the pore filling front of group (c) would (c) would not
break through
not break gravelgravel
through bed I,bed
andI,the majority
and of intrusive
the majority sand settled
of intrusive sand at the two-stage
settled interfaceinterface
at the two-stage instead
of furtherofpenetration.
instead It is suggested
further penetration. that the packing
It is suggested depth
that the of gravel
packing depthbedof Igravel
shouldbedbe I10should
cm in this
be 10case.
cm
in this case.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this study, particle migration and blockage in a two-stage gravel pack were obtained by
conducting our newly designed visualization experiment. The effect of the two-stage gravel size and
In this study, particle migration and blockage in a two-stage gravel pack were obtained by
the packing ratio on pore filling length and particle penetration depth was analyzed. Also, the particle
conducting our newly designed visualization experiment. The effect of the two-stage gravel size and
retained in each gravel pack section was analyzed. By obtaining the stable value of pore filling depth
the packing ratio on pore filling length and particle penetration depth was analyzed. Also, the
and pore plugging degree, the basis for gradation and grain size selection in sand control operations of
particle retained in each gravel pack section was analyzed. By obtaining the stable value of pore
two-stage gravel packing was proposed. Our work can provide guidance for designing a two-stage
filling depth and pore plugging degree, the basis for gradation and grain size selection in sand
gravel pack during the development of unconventional reservoirs with high sand production rates
control operations of two-stage gravel packing was proposed. Our work can provide guidance for
and fine silt content. The following conclusions can be drawn from this work:
designing a two-stage gravel pack during the development of unconventional reservoirs with high
sandThe
(1) production rates
pore filling and could
depth fine silt
becontent. The
shorter in following
the cases whereconclusions canofbe
grain ratio drawn
gravel bedfrom
I to this
sandwork:
was
less thanpore
(1) The five.filling
The reason is thatbethe
depth could sand in
shorter bridge formed
the cases in the
where pore
grain space
ratio of thebed
of gravel gravelI topack
sand
could restrain further particle penetration.
was less than five. The reason is that the sand bridge formed in the pore space of the gravel pack
(2)
couldThe grain further
restrain size of gravel
particlebed II had little influence on the length of the pore filling zone and the
penetration.
amount of retained particles
(2) The grain size of gravel bed in gravel beds influence
II had little I and II. Itonmainly affected
the length thepore
of the amount of zone
filling retained
and
sand at the two-stage interface and the particle penetration depth.
the amount of retained particles in gravel beds I and II. It mainly affected the amount of retained
(3)
sandAfter
at thecompletion of pore filling
two-stage interface and thein gravel
particlebed I in casesdepth.
penetration with packing lengths of 5 cm and 7 cm,
no pore filling phenomenon occurred in gravel bed II.
(3) After completion of pore filling in gravel bed I in cases withHowever, a large amount
packing of sand
lengths of 5settlement
cm and 7
cm, formed
no poreatfilling
the two-stage interface.
phenomenon occurred in gravel bed II. However, a large amount of sand
settlement formed at the two-stage interface.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.M.; Methodology, X.M., M.Q. and Z.M.; Formal analysis, Z.M. and
T.L.; Investigation, X.M., Z.M. and M.Q.; Writing—original draft preparation, X.M.; Writing—review and editing,
T.L., Z.N., and M.Q.; Funding Acquisition, X.M.
Energies 2019, 12, 1519 13 of 14

Funding: This research was funded by Shandong Natural Science Foundation Funded Project (Grant ZR2018BEE011),
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities National Science (Grant No. 18CX02027A), and Technology
Major Project of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (Grant No. 2016ZX05011004-003).
Acknowledgments: The Sand Control Lab in China University of Petroleum (East China) is highly appreciated.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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