1.

Chemical reaction
a. Balancing equations

2. Atomic structure
a. Subatomic particles

3. Rates of reaction theory

a. collision theory
For a chemical reaction to happen:
reactant particles must collide with each other
the particles must have enough energy for them to react
b. measuring rate of reaction

4. Factors affecting rate of reactions

a. Surface area
b. Temperature
c. Concentration
d. Catalysts

5. Fuels
a. Measuring energy content of different fuels
b. Combustion
Chemical Reactions

- Chemical reactions create new substances

- Chemical reactions can also be used to transfer energy
- The atoms rearrange and join back together in a different way

Atomic Structure

- Atoms of different elements are distinguished by:

- The number of protons there are
- In normal circumstances, the number of protons cannot change
- Atoms contain charged particles, but have no overall electrical charge

Terminology
superscript
- Isotopic mass number H (number of protons + neutrons)
- Atomic number H
subscript (number of protons)

Isotopes
- Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
- Calculating the Relative Atomic Mass
- ( x 0.10) + ( x 0.90) = RAM
Sub-atomic structure

Relative Mass Charge Position

Electrons 1/1840 -1 Orbits N

Protons 1 +1 Nucleus

Neutrons 1 0 Nucleus

- Protons and neutrons are small heavy particles that

make up the nucleus (a tiny, dense core)
- Neutrons “glue together” the protons and electrons
- Electrons are fast-moving points of electrical charge (don’t weight much)
- The electrons orbit the nucleus in shells
- First shell: 2 electrons
- Second shell: 8 electrons
- Third shell: 8 electrons
- Atoms aim to have a full outer shell
- Number of electrons = number of protons
Rates of Reaction

Collision Theory
- For a chemical reaction to happen
- Reactant particles must collide with each other
- The particles must have enough energy (activation energy) for them to react

How to measure the rate of reaction

- The amount of product formed in a certain period of time
- Three types of measuring:
- Volume of gas given off by a reaction over time
- Loss of mass of a reaction over time when a gas is produced
- Amount of light that passes through a reaction mixture (w/ precipitate) over
time – can be done by inspection / light sensor / data logger

Factors affecting rate of reaction

- Temperature
- Increased temperature → particles have more energy → move quicker
- This means the particles collide more often and with more energy
- The higher the temperature, the faster the rate a reaction
- Concentration / pressure
- Increased concentration → more reactant particles moving together
- There will be more collisions and so the reaction rate is increased
- The higher the concentration, the faster the rate of reaction
- Surface area / particle size
- Greater surface area → higher chance of collisions
- TThe smaller the particle size the faster the reaction
- Catalyst
- Speeds up the rate of reaction but is not used up in the reaction
- What does it do? - Lower activation energy
- This means a larger chance of a successful collision
Fuels

- Fuel - a substance that can be burned to get a useful amount of energy

- Reacts exothermically with oxygen
- Energy contained in the fuel is released when it combusts / burns
- How are fuels formed?
- Dead animals and plants build up on the sea bed
- It is covered by mud which eventually turns into rock
- The rock puts pressure on the dead animals and plants
- They turn into crude oil
- Fossil Fuels
- Finite energy resources
- Do not renew themselves
- Released carbon dioxide when burnt (adds to global warming)
- Coal and oil contain sulfur impurities (creates breathing problems + acid rain)

Types of fuels and their uses

Petroleum Transportation, industrial power, heating, lighting, lubricants

Gasoline Power heat engines (cars, recreational vehicles, boats)

Naphtha Solvent for paint, dry-cleaning solvent, [precursor to gasoline]

Kerosene Solvent for grease & insecticide, k. lamps, domestic heaters

Gas Oil Diesel generator, excavators, dumper trucks, generators, pumps

Residue Power plants, industrial boilers, ocean-going ships

Measuring Energy Content

- Energy released per gram of fuel = energy given out / fuel burned (g)
- Energy given out (J) = mass of water (g) × 4.2 × temperature change ©️
- Energy captured by fuel = mass of water (q) × cp × temperature change ©️
Combustion
- Also known as ‘burning’
- An exothermic reaction
- Releases energy to the surroundings
- Mostly thermal, but light and sound energy is also released
- (Endothermic - take in energy from the surroundings)
- Fire triangle
- Fuel, Oxygen, Heat
- If one of the sides of the fire triangle is removed
- A fire will not start
- A fire that is already burning will go out

Fire How to put it out Part removed

Chip pan (oil) fire Cover the pan with a damp cloth Oxygen

Forest fire Make a fire break Fuel

(cut down a line of trees)

Forest fire Spray with water Heat