...... eile WUAR NSU VSCOM AAR aL OPO RG 00D n b. vn? =n Solution: a. Ifn= 1, we will have 1? = 1, Since 1?is not greater than 1, so we have found a counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers 7, 7? > "is a false statement. b. For n = -2, (2)? = V4 = 2. Since -2 is not equal to 2, we have found a counterexample. Therefore, “for all numbers 1, Vn? = n" isa false statement. Deductive Reasoning Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Itis distinct from inductive reasoning because the process of arriving at the conclusion develops by applying general principles and procedures.Deduetive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles. Example 4. Using deductive reasoning to establish a conjecture Instruction Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, then divide the sum by 2, and finally subtract 3 from the quotient. Use deductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number. Solution: Let x be the original number. Original number: x Multiply by 8 : ax Add 6 : Bx+6 8x46 Divide by 2 Bran es Subtract 3 : 4x +3-35 4x Observe that we started with x and ended with 4x. By applying the procedure, we resulted to a number that is four times the original number. Hence, our conjecture is that, “the resulting number is four times the original number.” Inductive Reasoning versus Deductive Reasoning In the following examples we will analyze arguments to determine whether inductive or deductive reasoning is used Example 5. Determining types of reasoning Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning. a. During the past 8 years, a tree bears fruits every other year. This year the tree did not bear fruits, so next year it will bear fruits. b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The Architect estimated that my home improvement will cost P500,000.00. Thus my home improvement will cost more than P500,000.00Solution: a. The argument demonstrates an inductive reasoning because it reaches a conclusion based on specific examples. b. The conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption. So, the argument is an example of deductive reasoning. Lesson 2. Problem Solving with Patterns Sequence A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. Each number in a sequence is called a term of the sequence. Ina sequence, , is the first term, a, is the second term, and so on, and the a, is used to designate the n'" term ‘A formula that can be used to generate all the terms of a sequence is called an nth — term formula. When we are given a sequence, we usually ask the questions: a. What is the next term? b. What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms? Example 1: Predicting the next term in a sequence Let us consider the sequence 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, Here, a, = 2, 2is the first term of a sequence a= 7, 7 is the second term of a sequence. While 24, 59, and 118 are the third, fourth, and fifth term of a sequence, respectively. To determine the next term, and the rule used to generate the other terms, it is useful to construct a difference table and look for a pattern. The following illustration is the difference table for the sequence 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, Sequence: 2 7 be 118 207 First differences: io + . Second differences: 12 18 24 30 Ss rs oo SC O™ Third differences: 6 6 6The third differences, as shown on the last row, are both 6. Extending the last row to the right will include an additional 6 and when added to 24 will enable us to predict the next second difference after 24 that is 30. Adding 30 to 59 will lead us to 89 as the next first difference. Finally, adding 89 to 118 (the 5” term in the sequence) will now enable as to predict the next term in a sequence, that is 207. Example 2: Finding an nth-term formula Let us use the given sequence in example 1: 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, ... Given the first few terms of a sequence, to find an nth-term formula for the sequence: 1. Look for a pattern among the terms. 2. If the terms are fractions, look for a separate pattern among the numerators and denominators. 3. Look for a pattern among the signs of the terms. 4. Write a formula for a, in terms of n. Test your formula forn = 1, n= 2, andn=3 Using several guesses and testing, the nth-term formula for the sequence 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, ... is? — 2n + 3. To showa test of the formula for m = 1, we have 1°— 2(1) +3 -2+3=2. Forn=5, we have 5? -2(5) +3 = 125-10 +3= 118. So, forn =6, we get 6° - 2(6) +3 = 216-12 +3 = 207 ‘A knowledge of algebraic functions is also helpful in finding the nth-term formula. First, determine the level of differences (first, second, third, etc.) that will result to equal differences. If we get equal first differences, the degree of n is 1 or the nth formula is a first degree polynomial. If the sequence yields equal second differences, the nth-term formula is a second degree polynomial. A nth-term formula on the third degree results when there is equal third differences. Other higher degree nth-term formula may also result, Ifthe first differences recur as the second, third, and so on, an exponential function develops. In the case of example 2, the nth-term formula is of the third degree, and is resulting to n° - 2n + 3. Lesson 3. Problem Solving Strategies One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was George Polya (1877-1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps.Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy 1. Understand the problem 2. Devise a plan 3. Carry out the plan 4, Look back Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem solver, it helps to examine each of these steps and determine what is involved. Below, you will find some questions you can ask yourself while you are solving a problem. The questions are divided into four phases, based loosely on those found in George Pélya’s 1945 book "How to Solve It Understand the problem + What area of mathematics is this? What exactly am | being asked to do? What do | know? What do | need to find out? What am | uncertain about? Can | put the problem into my own words? Devise a plan + Work out the first few steps before leaping in! + Have | seen something like it before? + Isthere a diagram | could draw to help? + Isthere another way of representing? + Would it be useful to try some suitable numbers first? + Isthere some notation that will help? Carry out the plan Try special cases or a simpler problem Work backwards Guess and check Be systematic Work towards sub-goals Imagine your way through the problem + Has the plan failed? Know when it’s time to abandon the plan and move on Look back + Have | answered the question? + Sanity check for sense and consistency + Check the problem has been fully solved + Read through the solution and check the flow of the logic.Example 1: Apply Polya’s Strategy - Make an organized list A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders. could they have two wins and two losses in four games? Solution: Understand the problem. There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games and lost the last two (WALL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last two (LLVWV). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLW. Devise a plan. We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is an enumeration of all feasible outcomes using a systematic recording that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and only once. Carry out the plan. Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplication. We can start writing with two Ws first, followed with one W, then two Ls, and lastly with one L. This strategy will produce all the six different orders, as shown below. Start with two Ws - WWLL Start with one W - WLVVL, WLLW Start with two Ls - LWW Start with one L—- LWWLW, LWWL Look back. We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two out of four games. Example 2: Apply Polya’s Strategy - Solve a similar but simpler problem Ina basketball league consisting of 10 teams each team plays each of the other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be played? Solution: Understand the problem. There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays exactly three games against each be of the other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of league games that will played. Devise a plan. Let us try to work on a similar but simpler problem. Consider a league with only four teams (denoted by A, B, C and D) in which each team plays with each of the other teams only once. The diagram on the next page illustrates that the games can be represented by line segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D. An BSince each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other three, we might conclude that this would result in 4 x 3 = 12 games. However, the diagram above shows only six segments. It appears that our procedure has counted each game twice. For instance, when team A plays with team B, team B also plays with team A. To produce the correct result, we must divide our previous result, 12, by 2. Hence, four teams can play each other once in =. 6 games. Carry out the plan. Using the process developed above, we see that 10 teams can play each other once in a total of = 45 games. Since each team plays each opponent exactly three times, the total number games is 45 x 3 = 136. Look back. We could check our work by making an organized list, as in example 1, that includes all 10 teams represented by A, B,C, D, E,F, G,H, |, andJ, The organized listing below would illustrate the 45 games that are required for each team to play with each other teams once. AB AC AD AE AF AG AH Al AJ BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ cD CE CF CG GH GI GW DE DF DG DH DI DJ EF &G EH El BJ FG FH FI FJ GH Gl GJ HE HJ W Notice that first row has nine games, the second row has eight games, and so on Thus, the 10 teams require 9+ 8+7+6+5+4+3+2+1 = 45 games if each team plays with every other team once. Since each team is required to play with each of the other teams thrice, then 45 x 3 = 135 games in all will be played in the league. Example 3: Apply Polya’s Strategy — Make a table and look for a pattern Determine the digit 50 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal representation of 5. Solution: Understand the problem. Express the fraction = in decimal form and look for a pattern that will enable us to determine the digit 50 places to the right of the decimal point. Device a plan. Dividing 5 by 27 using a calculator will give us 0.185185185... Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 185 over and over again, we know that the digit located 50 places from the right of the decimal point is either 1, 8, or 5. A table may be useful for us to see the pattern and enable us to determine which one of the three digits is in the 50" place. Since there are three digits that keeps on repeating and repeating, we use a table with three columns. 10The first 12 decimal digits of the fraction = are shown in the table below. Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Location | Digit [Location | Digit | Location | Digit ist 1 2nd 8 3rd 5 ath 1 sth 8 eth 5 7th 1 ath 8 3th 5 70th 1 Tith 8 72th 5 Carry out the plan. Only in Column 31s each of the decimal digit locations are consistently divisible by 3. From this pattern we can tell that 48th decimal digit is divisible by 3 and must be 5. Since 50" place is two digits away from the 48", then it falls on Column 2 and therefore must be 8. Look back. |f we look back to the table above, additional pattern is illustrated. If each of the location numbers is Column 1 is divided by 3, the remainder is 1. If each of the location numbers in Column 2 is divided by 3, the remainder is 2. When we divide 50 by 3, the remainder is 2, so itis in Column 2. Therefore, the 50" digit is 8. Example 4: Apply Polya’s Strategy — Work backwards When Maureen won a certain amount in a raffle draw, she saved half of it, one- third of the other half she spent for a furniture and the remaining amount for a colored television worth P10,000. How much did she win? Solution: Understand the problem. We need to determine the amount that Maureen won in a raffie draw. Devise a plan. We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses before we found the correct solution. An algebraic solution might work, but setting up the necessary equation could be challenging. Since we are given the end result (the P10,000 worth of colored television), let us try the method of working backwards. Carry out the plan. Maureen must have P15,000 before buying the furniture; and 30,000 before saving an amount. This means that she won P30,000. Look back. To check our solution, we start with P30,000 and proceed through each event that happened. P30,000 less half of it is P15,000. One-third of P15,000 is P5,000. The remaining amount is P10,000, which was the amount of the colored television. Example 5: Apply Polya’s Strategy - Guess and check The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are of the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers? Solution: Understand the problem: We need to determine three distinct counting numbers. Take note that teenagers are usually of ages 13 to 19, So we need to find out which of these numbers have a product of 4590. unDevise a plan. If we present the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590. We are unable to solve this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5, which means that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at least one must have 5 asa factor. The only number that has a factor of 5 from numbers 13 to 19 is 15. So, 15 is one of the numbers, and at least one of the other numbers must be an even number. At this point we try to solve by guessing and checking Carry out the plan. Let us try the following, 18x 16x 17 = 4,080 - No. This product is too small. 15 x 16 x 18 = 4,330 - No. The product is still too small. 15x 16x 19 = 4,560 - No. The product is still small. 15x 17x 18 = 4,590 - Yes. This is the correct product. The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18. Look back, Because 15 x 17 x 18 = 4,590 and each of the ages represents the age of a teenager, we know that our solution is correct. Also, none of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 isa factor (or divisor) of 4,590, so there are no other solutions, Learning Activities Check your progress by answer each of the following. Write your answers in a short bond paper or you may opt to have it in @ soft copy (format is to be given by your teacher). You may submit your answers through any available means (e.g. online submission, sending it thru carrier service, or personally hand it over to your teacher — if practicable) A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following: a. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20,7 b.5, 10, 14, 17, 19,2 2. Write the month of your birth using a numeral (eg.1, 2, etc.). Multiply the number by 2, add 5 to the product, muttiply the sum by 50, add your present age to the product, and subtract 365, Finally, add 115 to the difference. Complete the above procedure using several other birth months and ages. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the birth-month and age, and digits in the number resulting from the final step (after adding 115) 3. Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample for each For all numbers x: xe a nar +1 b. vet +16 = 044 24. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three times the original number. Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product, then divide the sum by 2, and finally subtract 5 from the quotient. Hint: Use any letter to represent the original number. 5. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning: a. Alll topics in Mathematics in the Modern World are worth studying. Problem solving is one of the topics. Thus problem solving is worth studying b. | know | will pass the GE 104 course this semester, because no one fails during the previous semesters, . Problem Solving with Patterns Use the difference table to predict the next term in the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, _ . What is the nth-term formula for the sequence given in number 1? yoo C. Problem Solving Strategies Solve the following using any of the Polya’s strategy: 1. Atrue-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a student answer the questions if the student answers two of the questions “false” and the other three with “true”/ 2. If each of the 20 students discuss their GE 104 lessons with one another in the social media, using their personal account, once every week, how many discussion events will take place during a week? 3. Determine the units digit of 3'°°7 (Hint: The units digit is the ones digit or the last digit.) 4, Andrei picks a number. He doubles the number, squares the result, divides the square by 3, subtracts 30 from the quotient, and gets 18. What are the possible numbers that Andrei could have picked? 5. The following is a cryptarithm. Ss E—E N D + M ORE M ON E Y Each letter in the cryptarithm represents one of the digits 0 through 9. The leading digits, represented by S and M, are not zero. Determine which digit is represented by each of the letters so that the addition is correct. A letter that is used more than once, such as M, represents the same digit in each position in which it appears. 3Reflection +. What new things did | learn about the module? 2. What problem solving strategy gets me interested in mathematics? Why? 3. What should | do to enhance my skills in problem solving? References A Guide to Problem Solving. https://nrich.maths.org/10218 Alberta Education (n.d.). Mathematics Strategies: Problem-solving Strategies for Word Problems. Knowledge and Employability Studio Mathematics. Alberta, Canada https:www.LeamAlberta.ca Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J. S., Nation, R. D. & Clegg, D. K. (2013). Mathematical Excursions, Third Edition. CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning Ball, D. L. (2005). Teaching and Learning Mathematics Through Problem Solving. The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat. Ontario, Canada Florida Department of Education (2010), Classroom Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies for Teachers. https://www.fidoe.org/ese Hall, G. (2016). Mathematics Problem Solving Strategies. https:!/garyhall.org.uk/maths- problem-solving-strategies. htm! Pimot, T. (2014). Mathematics All Around: Problem Solving Strategies and Principles. Pearson Education, Inc. Polya, G. (1945). How to Solve It. Princeton University Press. USA. Quinn, L. and Mai, A. (2002). Problem Solving and Investigations. Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID). Video Sources: http://www. eworkshop.on.ca/edui/mediaivideo/mod 18/tab2/mod18_tab2_sc04_400k.flv http://www. eworkshop.on.ca/edui/mediaivideo/mod 18/tab2/mod18_tab2_sc05_400k.flv 4