2001-01-1235
A Simplified Model for the Spatial Distribution of Temperature
in a Motored DI Diesel Engine
Copyright © 2001,Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to present an alternative
method to predict the temperature and flow field in a
motored internal combustion engine with bowl in piston.
For the fluid flow it is used a phenomenological model
which is coupled to a computational fluid dynamic method
to solve the energy conservation equation and therefore the
temperature field. The proposed method has the advantage
of simplicity and low computational time. The
computational procedure solves the energy conservation
equation by a finite volume method, using a simplified air
motion model (estimating axial and radial velocities) to
calculate the flow field. The finite volume discretization
employs the implicit temporal and hybrid central upwind
spatial differencing. The grid used contracts and expands
following the piston motion, and the number of nodes in the
direction of piston motion vary depending on the crank
angle. The mean cylinder pressure, the local temperature
distribution and the flow field are calculated at each crank
angle. Experiments have been conducted in our Laboratory,
on a DI diesel engine with bowl in piston at various speeds
and the experimental compression curve is compared with
the theoretical one. A very good agreement between the
predicted and the experimental cylinder pressure is
observed. The results obtained provide information
concerning the distribution of gas temperature and gas
velocity. The current model can be used either to examine
the combustion mechanism in homogeneous charge engines
or it can be combined with a jet model to develop a
sophisticated but always simple model for the air-fuel
mixing mechanism. This allow us to examine the
combustion and pollutant formation mechanisms on an
engine cycle basis, which is extremely difficult when using
sophisticated CFD models. Thus the current proposal seems
to be a compromise between detailed CFD models and
sophisticated multi-zone phenomenological ones, offering
the advantage of low computational time and examining in
a more fundamental way compared to the
phenomenological models the various processes taking
D. T. Hountalas and E. G. Pariotis
National Technical University of Athens
Mechanical Engineering Department
place inside the engine cylinder. In the present work are
presented the results of the first step which is necessary
before expanding the analysis to describe the fired part of
the engine as well.
INTRODUCTION
Computer modeling of the various processes taking
place inside the combustion chamber of a diesel engine has
advanced considerably and its contribution to the
fundamental understanding of these processes is essential.
Depending on the objectives, various computer models
have been developed that can predict the flow field inside
the engine, the spray behavior, the fuel-air mixing process,
the heat transfer, the combustion mechanism and the
formation of pollutant emissions. The purpose of the
modeling defines which of these models should be used, in
order to model the various processes effectively. There are
two main categories of computer models. The first one is
based on empirical and phenomenological relations [1-4]∗ ,
whereas the second one is based on computational fluid
dynamics [5-9]. The phenomenological models have the
advantage of low computational time and simplicity, but do
not offer enough information about the mixing and
combustion mechanism. On the other hand using a
multidimensional CFD model the local characteristics of
the various processes can be predicted reliably, but these
models are very complex and require great computational
time and even these have limitations in their application.
In this study a new simplified model has been
developed to predict the spatial gas temperature distribution
and the flow field in a motored diesel engine. The present
model offers a compromise between the simple
phenomenological models and the complex but more
detailed CFD ones. To check and validate the various sub-

*Numbers in brackets designate references at the end of the
paper.
models involved it was decided to describe initially the
motored operation and in the future the fuel injection and
combustion mechanisms will be modeled.
The cylinder is divided in finite volumes (cells) where
the energy conservation equation is numerically solved to
calculate the temperature distribution. For the solution of
the energy equation, the flow field has to be known. In this
study, contrary to what usually CFD models do, the flow
field is computed by a newly developed phenomenological
gas motion model. In this way, the required computational
time is limited, while the model gives more information
compared to existing phenomenological models, but it
cannot replace CFD models for fundamental studies.
At first an attempt was made to use the axial and radial
velocities calculated by a widely used and simple
phenomenological gas motion model which is presented in
Appendix A. Given that this model gives the values of the
radial and axial velocities normal to the surfaces f and fch
(Fig. A1) a linear distribution of these velocities had to be
assumed to obtain the velocity field. Applying this method,
it was observed that the spatial pressure distribution inside
the cylinder was greatly non-uniform. High local pressure
differences were observed, which are not acceptable, given
that the pressure field inside the cylinder is nearly uniform
[1]. To overcome this problem and to avoid using a CFD
model it was decided to use the criterion of uniform
pressure field to calculate the local values of the radial and
axial velocities. Following this method a velocity field is
predicted at each time step. Moreover the energy equation
is solved using this simply calculated velocity field and the
spatial temperature distribution is obtained. It has to be
mentioned that the proposed gas motion model can be
applied only for the closed part of the engine cycle.
Furthermore, it should be mentioned that at multi-zone
phenomenological models the problem of maintaining the
pressure uniform is encountered by a simpler but less
reliable way. Mass transfer between the zones is neglected
and the volume of each zone is computed
thermodynamically to maintain the pressure uniform. It is
obvious that this is not the case and mixing between the
zones should occur. The problem is to define how this mass
exchange should take place. This is the final target of the
present work.
The application of the model is made on a high-speed
small DI diesel engine. A comparison between computed
and experimental data for cylinder pressure is made, and the
effects of engine variables such as piston cavity diameter
and engine speed on the velocity and temperature
distribution are examined. The main purpose is to have a
first evaluation of the model against conventional engine
data i.e. cylinder pressure and then couple it to an existing
jet formation and combustion model for diesel engines [2,3]
to simulate the combustion, air-fuel mixing and pollutant
formation mechanism. In this way we wish to develop an
intermediate tool offering the benefits of phenomenological
models while examining in more detail the fundamentals of
the mixing and combustion mechanism. Thus the purpose
of the present work is not to replace CFD models since its
use is strictly limited to a certain part of the engine cycle.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW MODEL
As far as the computer model is concerned, a simple
flow diagram is given in Fig.1. At each time step the
cylinder is divided in finite volumes (computational cells).
The gas temperature and velocity is defined at each node of
the computational cells. The model consists of two sub-
models that are related and solved simultaneously through
an iterative procedure. The flow model, which is the first,
calculates the flow field, based on the assumption that the
pressure should be practically uniform inside the cylinder at
each time step [1,10] using an empirical method. The
spatial distribution of the density is calculated solving the
equation of mass conservation at each computational cell.
On the other hand to predict the temperature field, the
energy conservation equation is numerically solved by the
finite volume technique using the velocities and the
densities at each computational cell estimated from the flow
model.
At the beginning of each time step it is assumed that the
gas velocity relative to the grid is zero. A first estimation of
the temperature field is provided by solving the energy
conservation equation and the static pressure at each
computational cell is calculated from the perfect gas state
equation. This pressure field is obviously non-uniform,
given that the mass transfer between the computational cells
has been neglected. Taking into account that the pressure
field should be nearly uniform, a new velocity field is
determined. The energy conservation equation is solved
again in this newly developed velocity field and the former
procedure iterates until the temperature field has converged
and the pressure field is nearly uniform. Using this method
for each time step the velocities, temperatures and densities
are calculated at each computational cell, while the time
required compared to CFD models is relatively low.
COMPUTATIONAL DOMAIN
The engine considered in this study has a piston cavity
centered in the cylinder bore. Thus the domain where the
computations are made is symmetric and the computation
can be confined to the quarter cylindrical coordinates (r,è,z)
as shown in Fig.2.
The area inside the cylinder is divided into cylindrical
computational cells as shown in Fig.3. The number of cells
in the r and è direction is constant, in contrast to the number
of cells outside the piston bowl in the z direction, which is
variable depending on piston position. The number of cells
inside the piston bowl in direction z is constant. The grid
follows the piston motion contracting and expanding
[7,11,12,13]. The axial grid velocity inside the piston bowl
is equal to the piston velocity, in contrast to the axial
velocity of the grid in the area between the top of the piston
and the cylinder head, which is given from EQ(1). In the
radial direction the cylinder is divided into an annular and
inner volume. Thus the number of nodes, referring to the r
direction, in the annular volume may differ from the
corresponding one in the inner volume.
Read Initial Values

Calculate coefficients
NO Test: Has the
Ai,i=e,w,n,s,t,b, Temperature
Su,Sp, etc field converged?
Advance time t=t+dt

Iterate on temperature YES

Grid Generation field using line
iteration and finite
difference technique.
(Energy conservation Test: Has
NO
Set the relative to the equation) required time
grid velocity of the gas interval been
equal to zero covered?
Pressure distribution
calculation using the
equation of state. Esti-
Calculation of the mation of the velocity YES
density distribution field.
(Mass conservation
equation) END
Calculation of the
mean Pressure and
Temperature.

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of the computational procedure.

r direction

θ direction

E N
e n
P
z direction

w
S s W

r direction
Fig.2 Computational domain

B
θ r W
N

S
E

z
T
Fig. 3. Computational cell and coordinates
  w piston if z > z piston  Heat transfer rate through
 S =  
w grid = z (1)  the cylinder boundaries 
z × w piston if z ≤ z piston
 piston  Power due to pressure
+   ⇒ (4)
 variation 
In the present study the grid used has: seven cells in the ⇒ S = S convection + S pressure
r-direction inside the piston cavity, seven cells in the r-
direction outside the piston cavity, six cells in the z The heat exchanged between cylinder walls and the gas
direction inside the piston bowl, and twelve to five cells in computational cells by convection is defined by :
the z-direction out of the piston bowl. At present, given that (T − Tcell )  W  (5)
S convection = h × A × wall
there is no fuel injection, the quarter is not divided in the è Vcell  m 3 
direction. The convection heat transfer coefficient is obtained
Reducing the number of cells during piston movement from the following correlation:
towards TDC, a significant decrease of the required k
c2 c3
computational time is observed. Moreover this technique h = c1 × Re × Pr × (6)
lchar
provides a more uniform grid since the computational cells
in the piston bowl retain their shape in contrast to the ones lchar
where : Re = ρ × w char × (7)
outside the bowl which contract and expand [13]. µ
cp
TEMPERATURE FIELD – ENERGY CONSERVATI- Pr = µ (8)
ON EQUATION k
The energy conservation equation is described in terms a n d c1 ,c2 ,c3 : constants. In this study c1 =0.30, c2 =0.80,
of the cylindrical coordinates [11], which expand and c3 =0.33
contract with piston motion as follows: In the Reynolds number expression, lchar is the
characteristic length and wchar is the characteristic velocity.
1 (
∂ ρ zpiston h ) + 1 ∂(ρ u r h ) + 1 ∂( ρv h ) As far as the energy source rate due to pressure changes
is concerned, it is defined as:
∂t ∂r ∂θ
[ ]
zpiston r r ∂P 3
S pressure = W/m (9)
 ∂h   ∂h  ∂t
∂  r Γϕ  ∂  rΓ ϕ 
∂ (ρ w h ) 1  ∂r  1  ∂θ  It is assumed that the gas is ideal which means that the
+ = + (2)
∂z r ∂r r ∂θ pressure at each computational cell can be defined by,
P = ρ× R× T (10)
 ∂h 
∂ Γϕ  The density of the gas at each computational cell is
∂z 
+  +S calculated from the gas motion model described later on.
∂z Solving EQ(2) using the finite volume technique at every
computational cell, the spatial distribution of temperature is
Substituting specific enthalpy with “ c p × T ” and obtained at each crank angle. Consequently the local
k pressures can be computed from the perfect gas state
Γϕ with into EQ(2) we obtain the following equation: equation EQ(10). The calculation of the spatial distribution
cp
of pressure is essential for the gas motion model, as

( ) + 1 ∂(ρ u r T ) + 1 ∂(ρ v T )
explained later on.
1 ∂ ρ zpiston T
zpiston ∂t r ∂r r ∂θ NEWLY PROPOSED SIMPLIFIED GAS MOTION
MODEL
 k ∂T   k ∂T  The definition of the velocity field inside the cylinder is
∂ r  ∂ r 
∂ (ρ w T ) 1  cp ∂r  1  cp ∂θ 
very important given that in the energy conservation
+ = + (3) equation the convection term depends on the magnitude and
∂z r ∂r r ∂θ direction of the local velocity field. However the solution of
 k ∂T  the momentum equation needs special treatment given that
∂ 
 c p ∂z  S the convective terms contain non-linear quantities, and that
+  + the momentum equation (containing the local pressure) and
∂z cp the continuity equation are intricately coupled. Although
there have been proposed many computational fluid
Velocities u, v, and w are obtained from the gas motion dynamic methods for the calculation of the velocity field
model described later on. The volumetric source rate S is inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine [5-9],
defined by the following expression: they have in common that they are complicated and
extremely time consuming. On the other hand they appear
to be quite accurate. To overcome the disadvantage of high r direction
computational time with some sacrifice to accuracy, at first
it was decided to use the flow field that was estimated from Start
a simple phenomenological model [14], like the one
presented in details in Appendix A, and solve the energy
conservation equation, using the implicit finite volume
method. However, great variations of local pressure inside
the cylinder at each crank angle were observed, which were
not acceptable, given that the pressure is practically
uniform at each crank angle.
Based on the assumption that the gas pressure is
practically uniform inside the engine cylinder, a new
simplified gas motion model has been developed. The

z direction
velocity field is obtained following an iterative procedure.
First, at each crank angle the energy equation is solved, and
a spatial distribution of the temperature is obtained
assuming that the velocity of the gas relative to the grid is Finish
zero. Then the pressure distribution is obtained using the direction 1
perfect gas state equation. Given that the pressure must
practically be uniform, an amount of mass dmcell should be Fig. 4a Sweeping direction 1 for the estimation of the
transferred to each computational cell through its velocity field.
boundaries from the neighboring cells to eliminate the
pressure difference and make it practically equal to the r direction
mean pressure of the cylinder. The required mass is defined
from, Finish
P × Vcell
dm cell = mean − m cell (11)
R × Tcell
The total transferred mass “dmcell” for all computational
cells at each crank angle should be equal to zero, given that
the total mass of the gas inside the cylinder is constant.
Thus the mean cylinder pressure can be estimated from,
∑m cell × R
i, j,k
Pmean = (12)
z direction

∑T
Vcell
i, j, k cell

In this way the amount of mass “dmcell” transferred to each

computational cell is estimated.
This amount of mass has to be taken from the
neighboring cells. The amount of mass transferred between
the neighboring cells depends on the local pressure
differences. Sweeping the computational cells, the
velocities of the gas at the boundaries of each cell are
calculated. Two sweeping directions are considered as
shown in Fig. 4a,b.
The process for velocity estimation is described for
sweeping direction 1, given that the procedure for sweeping
direction 2 is similar. The velocity boundary conditions are
defined by the following equations:
u = 0 on the solid boundaries
u = 0 on the symmetry axis
(13)
w = 0 on the solid boundaries
v = 0 at each computatio nal cell
Moreover the radial velocity of each computational cell
on its North boundary should be equal to the South radial
velocity of the neighbor cell located on its North EQ(14).
Start
direction 2
Fig. 4b Sweeping direction 2 for the estimation of the
velocity field.
Similarly the axial velocity of each computational cell on
its Bottom boundary should be equal to the Top axial
velocity of its neighbor cell located on its Bottom EQ(15).
(u n )i, j,k = (u s )i+1, j, k (14)
(w b )i, j,k = (w t )i, j-1,k (15)
Thus, for each computational cell, there are two unknown
velocities that have to be calculated and these are the radial
velocity on the south boundary and the axial on the Top
boundary. The amount of mass that will be transferred
through the south and top boundary of the computational
cell is defined from:
dm st,cell = dm cell − w b × ρ b × A b × dt +
(16)
+ u n × ρn × A n × dt
 The fraction of mass dmst ,cell transferred through the The source term S is a function of the dependent variable
south or top boundaries depends on the pressure of the
Tp and is approximated by,
neighbor cells on the south and top direction. Quantities
dp mean,s and dp mean,t are computed for the south and the top SVcell = Su + SP TP
neighbor cells as follows, 1  t +dt z piston ∂P 
dp mean,s = Pcell,s − Pmean Eq(17) = ∫ dt ∫ r dz dr dθ  + (22)
∆t  t c p ∂t 

dp mean,t = Pcell,t − Pmean Eq(18)
1  t + dt z pistonh A (Twall − TP ) 
The contribution of the cells located at the top and south + ∫ dt ∫ r dz dr d θ 
direction, to the dmst ,cell mass transfer is assumed to be ∆t  t cp Vcell 

analog to the dp mean,s and dp mean,t , in case they are positive.
Coefficients α i , i=E,W,N,S,T,B used in EQ(21) for the hybrid
If the pressure of the top and south located cells is lower
than the mean cylinder pressure, then the contribution of differencing scheme are given in the following Table :
these cells to the mass transfer dmst,cell , is assumed to be
reversibly analog to dp mean,s and dp mean,t . If the south and the Table 1. Neighbor coefficients for the hybrid differencing
top located cells have opposite signs then it is decided that sheme.
only one of them will contribute to the required mass I Di Fi αi
transfer depending on the sign of the dmst ,cell. E ke (ρ × v )e × A e  D e Α (Pe e ) + 
×Ae   z p, m
cp × (δθ )PE
In this way the mass transferred from the south and the
top boundaries of the computational cell is defined and  max (- Fe , 0 ) 
consequently the velocities relative to the grid at the W kw (ρ × v )w × A w  D w Α (Pe w ) + 
× Aw   z p, m
cp × (δθ )WP
boundaries of the cell are calculated. This procedure is
repeated for all computational cells and the velocity field is  max (Fw , 0 ) 
defined.
At each iteration the total mass transferred to each N kn (ρ × u )n × A n  D n Α (Pe n ) + 
× An   z p,m
computational cell from the beginning is computed from: cp × (δr )PN  max (- Fn ,0 ) 
dm total,cell = dm total,cell + dm cell (19)

(ρ × u )s × A s
With the new velocity field the mass conservation equation
S ks  D s Α (Pe s ) + 
is solved for each computational cell to determine the local ×As   z p, m
densities, cp × (δr )SP  max (Fs ,0 ) 
mcell,old + dm total,cell
ρcell = (20) T kt (ρ × w )t × A t  D t Α(Pe t ) + 
×At   z p,m
cp × (δz )PT
Vcell
 max (- Ft ,0 ) 
and the energy conservation equation is then solved, to
determine a new temperature field. The final solution of the B kb (ρ × w )b × A b  D b Α (Pe b ) + 
× Ab   z p, m
velocity and the temperature field is achieved when the cp × (δz )BP  max (Fb ,0 ) 
temperature field has converged.
It has to be mentioned that the velocity field is obtained
following the two sweeping directions of computational
cells alternatively through the iterations to limit the effect In the previous expressions values Pei , i=E,W,N,S,T,B, are
of the sweeping direction on the flow field calculations calculated from the following formulae:
even though no serious differences have been observed. F
Pe i = i , where i = e, w, n, s, t, b (23)
Di
SOLUTION OF THE ENERGY CONSERVATION Function A(Pei ) where i=e,w,n,s,t,b is defined by the
EQUATION following equation for the hybrid spatial differencing
The energy conservation equation is solved using the fully scheme,
implicit finite volume method. The discretized equation has
the following form,
(
A(Pei ) = max 0,1- 0,5× Pei )(24)

α P TP = α W TW + α E TE + α N TN + α STS It was decided to use the hybrid-differencing scheme

(21) due to its ability to exploit the advantages of the upwind
+ α T TT + α B TB + α0 PT 0 P + Su and the central differencing scheme. It switches to the
where αP = αW + αE + αN + αS + αT + αB + α0 p − SP upwind differencing when the central differencing produces
inaccurate results at high Peclet numbers. The scheme is
0
ρP Vcell fully conservative and since the coefficients are always
with α 0P = zpiston,mean
∆t positive it is unconditionally bounded [15]. As far as the
1 t + dt temporal differencing is concerned it is decided to apply the
and z piston,mean = ∫ zpistondt . fully implicit method due to its unconditionally stable
∆t t behavior for any time step. However, the accuracy of the
scheme is only first-order in time, which is the reason for
selecting a rather small time step. In this study the time Table 3. Cases examined
increment is equivalent to 0.5 degree crank angle. 1500 2000 2500
Discretising the energy equation results to a system of rpm rpm rpm
linear algebraic equations that are solved by the tri-diagonal d/D = 44%,
matrix algorithm (TDMA) which is applied iteratively, in a X X X
Bowl Height=20mm
line by line fashion. In this study the Top-Bottom sweep d/D = 54%,
direction has been applied for the line by line solution of X X X
Bowl Height=13mm
the system. d/D = 64%,
X X X
Bowl Height=9,1mm
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES AND PROCEDURE
To have a first evaluation of the present model an maintained constant at 18. The compression stroke starts at
experimental investigation has been conducted on a single 41 CA deg, were the air temperature is Tair=47 K and the
cylinder, Lister LV1, direct injection diesel engine located pressure is Pair=1,1 bar according to available engine data.
at the authors’ laboratory. The results of this investigation
are used to calibrate and evaluate the model as far as the EVALUATION OF THE PROPOSED MODEL
prediction of the cylinder pressure is concerned. We Mean Cylinder Pressure - The proposed model consists of
decided to do this comparison since a fine prediction of the two main sub-models which compute the temperature and
cylinder pressure during compression will reveal if our velocity fields. The temperature field is used to calculate
computational method is in the correct direction so that we the mean cylinder temperature at each time step and
can then expand it into the combustion and expansion consequently the mean cylinder pressure can be determined
stroke. by means of the ideal gas law. To determine the overall
The technical data of the engine are given in Table 2. It validity of the proposed method, the computed cylinder
is a naturally aspirated, air-cooled, four-stroke engine, with compression pressure diagram is compared with the
a bowl-in-piston combustion chamber and its speed range is compression part of the measured one at 20% of full load,
1000-3000 rpm. and for d/D=54% which is the standard piston cavity/bore
Table 2. Engine basic design data, Lister LV1 ratio, for various engine speeds. In Figs. 5a,b – 7a,b are
high speed diesel engine given the computed and measured cylinder pressure
Type Single Cylinder, diagrams. As mentioned the comparison between the
4-Stroke,DI computed and the measured pressure values is made only
Bore 85.73mm for the compression stroke i.e. from the inlet valve closure
Stroke 82.55mm up to fuel injection. Also an enlarged diagram is shown,
Connecting Rod Length 148.59mm referring to the crank angle interval from 120 to 170
Compression Ratio 18
Inlet Valve Opening 15o CA before TDC 60
Inlet Valve Closure 41o CA after BDC 1500 rpm, d/D=54%
Exhaust Valve Opening 41o CA before BDC
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

50
Exhaust Valve Closure 15o CA after TDC Calculated

40 Measured
Experimental results have been obtained at 1500, 2000,
2500 rpm engine speed. The comparison between the
experimental and the calculated data focuses on the cylinder 30
pressure diagram using the part from inlet valve closure up
to fuel injection. In the near future an effort will be made to 20
present results obtained by a CFD model in order to
compare the temperature and velocity fields which are
10
predicted.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 0

TEST CASES EXAMINED –Computations are made
for various piston bowl configurations at three different
engine speeds under motoring conditions in an effort to
determine the effect of these parameters on the spatial
distribution of gas temperature and mainly the flow field. In
Table 3, the various combinations examined are given.
The cylinder wall and piston crown temperatures are
fixed at 400 K for the 2000 and 2500 rpm engine speed and
375 K for 1500 rpm engine speed. The compression ratio
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Crank Angle deg.
Fig. 5a Computed and Measured Mean Cylinder Pressure
diagram for 1500 rpm engine speed and d/D=54%
degrees which offers a closer view of the pressure diagram.
Comparing the diagrams, a very good agreement is
observed which is quite encouraging considering that a
 40 40
Cylinder Pressure (bar) 1500 rpm, d/D=54% 2000 rpm, d/D=54%

Cylinder Pressure (bar)

Measured Measured
30 Calculated 30 Calculated

20 20

10 10

0 0
120 130 140 150 160 170 120 130 140 150 160 170

Crank Angle deg. Crank Angle deg.

Fig. 5b Enlarged Computed and measured mean cylinder Fig. 6b Enlarged Computed and Measured Mean Cylinder
pressure diagram for 1500 rpm engine speed and d/D=54% Pressure diagram for 2000 rpm engine speed and d/D=54%

60 60
2000 rpm,d/D=54% 2500 rpm,d/D=54%

Calculated
Cylinder Pressure (bar)

Cylinder Pressure (bar)

50 50 Calculated
Measured Measured
40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

Crank Angle deg. Crank Angle deg.

Fig. 6a Computed and Measured Mean Cylinder Pressure Fig. 7a Computed and Measured Mean Cylinder Pressure
diagram for 2000 rpm engine speed and d/D=54% diagram for 2500 rpm engine speed and d/D=54%

complicated method is used to simulate the compression surfaces f and fch shown in Fig. A1. The mean gas velocities
stroke. U, W through surfaces f and fch respectively are computed
Evaluation of the proposed Flow Model - To evaluate from the following equations:
qualitatively the flow field obtained from this new method a
comparison is made with the one obtained using a well
proven simple phenomenological model [14], which is
∑ u s i, j ×ρi, j × Α s
presented in Appendix A. In the simple phenomenological d
r=
model it is assumed that the gas density is uniform and that U= 2 (25)
the gas axial and radial velocity components in the annular ρ × Αf
volume Vr and in the piston bowl Vch are zero, respectively.
To compare the two gas motion models, we compare gas
∑ w t i, j ×ρ i, j × A t
axial w0 EQ(A10) and radial wr EQ(A18) velocities z =z piston
computed from the simple phenomenological model, with W= (26)
ρ × A fch
the corresponding mean gas velocities obtained from the
newly developed gas motion model, at the corresponding
 40 2 5 0 0 r p m , d / D = 5 4 %
2
Wo/Wp,m

(Axial velocity) / (Mean Wp)

Cylinder Pressure (bar)
M e a s u r e d

Wm/Wp,m
30 C a l c u l a t e d

20 0

10 -1

0 -2
120 130 140 150 160 170 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Crank Angle Degree
Crank Angle deg. Fig. 8b Comparison between the Axial Gas Velocity
Fig. 7b Enlarged Computed and Measured Mean Cylinder computed by the simple phenomenological model (Wo) and
Pressure diagram for 2500 rpm engine speed and d/D=54% the one obtained by the proposed gas motion model (Wm)
at 1500 rpm and d/D=44%.
The results are shown in Figs. 8a,b - 10a,b for 1500 rpm
engine speed and for various piston bowl geometry
conditions. As observed the two gas motion models provide 4
similar gas velocities revealing that the newly proposed
(Radial velocity) / (Mean Wp)

method is in the correct direction, which is encouraging. 3

2
6
1
(Radial velocity) / (Mean Wp)

5
4 0

3 -1
2
-2
1 Wr/Wp,m
0 -3
Um/Wp,m
-1 -4
-2
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
-3 Wr/Wp,m
Crank Angle Degree
-4 Um/Wp,m Fig. 9a Comparison between the Radial Gas Velocity
-5 computed by the simple phenomenological model (Wr) and
the one obtained by the proposed gas motion model (Um) at
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
1500 rpm and d/D=54%.
Crank Angle Degree
Fig. 8a Comparison between the Radial Gas Velocity
computed by the simple phenomenological model (Wr) and respectively using 20 deg intervals. As observed the gas
the one obtained by the proposed gas model motion (Um) at motion model provides a realistic view of the in-cylinder
1500 rpm and d/D=44%. flow field, compared to the simple phenomenological
model described by detail in Appendix A. To make some
FLOW FIELD– In the following paragraphs the statements about the flow field, it is decided to divide the
computed flow field and the effect of piston bowl geometry cylinder volume into three regions. The first one called (A)
and engine speed on it, is examined. is the annular cylindrical region of the cylinder, the second
Computed Velocity Field - The flow field computed one called (B) is the inner cylindrical region above the
from the gas motion model in the case of 2000 rpm engine piston bowl, and the third one, called (C) is the region
speed, and the standard piston bowl dimensions, is shown inside the piston bowl. It is observed that at 140 CA deg
in Figs 11a-e for 140 to 220 crank angle degrees
 2 1
Wo/Wp,m Wo/Wp,m
(Axial velocity) / (Mean Wp)

(Axial velocity) / (Mean Wp)

Wm/Wp,m Wm/Wp,m
1

0 0

-1

-2
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Crank Angle Degree
Fig. 9b Comparison between the Axial Gas Velocity
computed by the simple phenomenological model (Wo) and
the one obtained by the proposed gas motion model (Wm)
at 1500 rpm and d/D=54%.
-1
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Crank Angle Degree
Fig. 10b Comparison between the Axial Gas Velocity
computed by the simple phenomenological model (Wo) and
the one obtained by the proposed gas motion model (Wm)
at 1500 rpm and d/D=64%.

3
(Radial velocity) / (Mean Wp)

-0.00
2
-0.01

1
-0.01

0 142.87 m/sec

-0.02

-1 0.015 m/sec

0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

-2 Wr/Wp,m
Fig. 11a Velocity field at 140 CA deg, 2000 rpm engine
Um/Wp,m speed and d/D=54%
-3
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Crank Angle Degree -0.00

Fig. 10a Comparison between the Radial Gas Velocity 142.87 m/sec
computed by the simple phenomenological model (Wr) and -0.01

the one obtained by the proposed gas motion model (Um) at 0.015 m/sec
1500 rpm and d/D=64%. -0.01
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

(Fig. 11a) vortex flows are developed inside regions A, B,

and C. The gas has a rotating motion and is driven into the Fig. 11b Velocity field at 160 CA deg, 2000 rpm engine
piston bowl. Moreover gas is going out of the piston bowl speed and d/D=54%
close to the cylinder symmetry axis. As compression
continues on, we observe that at 160 CA deg (Fig. 11b) the
vortex flow is been restricted in region C, and its direction
-0.00
has changed compared to the corresponding one at 140 CA 142.87 m/sec

deg. Moreover the magnitude of the velocity vectors is

increased, especially the ones at the piston crown in region -0.01 0.015 m/sec

A, and at the cylinder symmetry axis inside the piston bowl.

0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

Fig. 11c Velocity field at 180 CA deg, 2000 rpm

engine speed and d/D=54%
-0.00 -0.00

-0.01 -0.01

-0.01 -0.01
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

Fig. 11d Velocity field at 200 CA deg, 2000 rpm -0.02

engine speed and d/D=54%
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

Fig. 14 Velocity field at 160 CA deg, 2000 rpm

engine speed and d/D=44%
-0.00

-0.01

-0.00
142.87 m/sec
-0.01

-0.01 0.015 m/sec

-0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 Fig. 15 Velocity field at 160 deg, 2000 rpm engine
Fig. 11e Velocity field at 220 deg, 2000 rpm engine speed and d/D=64%
speed and d/D=54%

The majority of gas mass flows from the piston bowl to

region B through the surface near the cylinder axis, and the
-0.00 surface of the piston bowl near region A. Moreover it is
142.87 m/sec
observed that in regions A and B, the fluid particles located
-0.01 near the plane defined by the piston crown have higher
0.015 m/sec
velocities. Finally as expansion continues on at 220 CA deg
-0.01
(Fig. 11e) the velocity field is analogous to the velocity
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 field obtained at 140 CA deg., but as observed the
Fig. 12 Velocity field at 160 CA deg, 1500 rpm magnitude of the gas velocity has been slightly decreased
engine speed and d/D=54% compared to 140 CA deg (symmetrical piston position).
Moreover it should be noticed that the magnitude of fluid
velocities at the boundaries between regions A-B, and B-C
are higher compared to the ones computed from the simple
-0.00 phenomenological model. This can be attributed to the fact
that the gas flow from region A to B and from B to C
-0.01 occurs mainly through a fraction of surfaces f and fch
respectively as shown in Fig. A1 of the Appendix A.
-0.01

0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

Fig. 13 Velocity field at 160 deg, 2500 rpm engine
speed and d/D=54%
Relatively increased velocities are observed in region B
while the gas is still driven into the piston bowl. At TDC
(Fig. 11c) a significant decrease at the magnitude of the
velocity vectors is observed which is in accordance to what
the simple phenomenological model predicts. During
expansion at 200 CA deg (Fig. 11d) the flow has changed
direction and the gas moves from the piston bowl to the
regions B and A. The flow field is analogous to the one
obtained at 160 CA deg but towards the opposite direction.
Effect of engine speed on the estimated velocity field –
In Figs. 12, 11b and 13 are given the computed flow fields
for 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm engine speed respectively, for
the standard piston bowl geometry d/D=54%. As observed
the maximum speed is augmentative as the engine speed is
increased. Moreover the flow fields at 2000 and 2500 rpm
engine speed are quite similar.
Effect of bowl geometry on the estimated velocity field
– To investigate the effect of piston bowl geometry on the
predicted flow field we compare Figs. 14, 11b and 15
corresponding to d/D=44%, 54%, 64% respectively at 160
CA deg and 2000 rpm engine speed. The flow field for
d/D=54% is similar to that at d/D=64%, in contrast to the
one computed at d/D=44% where the vortex flows that are
generated have opposite directions. Moreover at d/D=44%,
in region B and close to the piston cavity radius, a vortex
has been generated which does not exist at d/D=54% and
d/D=64%.
Comparing the axial and radial gas velocities computed
from the phenomenological model presented in Appendix
A, at 2000 rpm engine speed for the various piston bowl
geometries respectively (Figs. 16a,b), it is observed that the
decrease of the ratio d/D, causes an increase of both
5 in the following paragraphs. It should be mentioned that the
(Radial Velocity)/(Mean Wp)
effect of bowl geometry on the velocity field is estimated at
least qualitatively in a correct manner by this newly
developed model, despite the preliminary nature of the
present work.
ESTIMATION OF THE TEMPERATURE FIELD –
The estimated temperature field and how it is affected by
the engine speed and piston bowl geometry, is investigated

4 absolute temperature differences are relatively small.

Spatial Temperature Distribution - As far as the spatial
3 temperature distribution is concerned, in Figs. 17a-f are
2 given the predicted temperature fields at 2000 rpm engine
speed for the standard piston bowl geometry (d/D=54%), at
1
various crank angles. At 140 CA deg. (Fig. 17a) the
0 temperature inside the cylinder has raised above the
-1 2000 rpm cylinder wall temperature, and heat is transferred from the
gas to the cylinder walls. Due to this the gas temperature
-2
d/D=44% near the cylinder walls is lower than the one in the center of
-3 the cylinder. As compression continues at 160 CA deg.
d/D=54%
-4 (Fig. 17b) the cylinder temperature rises further, and the
d/D=64% warmest fraction of the gas is restricted towards the center
-5 of the piston bowl. Around TDC (180 CA deg -Fig. 17c)
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 the gas temperature has reached its maximum value, and the
Crank Angle Degree maximum temperature difference is observed inside the
Fig. 16a Mean Radial Velocity computed by the cylinder. The heat transfer through the boundaries of region
Phenomenological model at 2000 rpm engine speed and A is higher than the one through regions B and C and for
d/D=44%, 54%, 64% this reason, the lowest gas temperatures are observed in
region A. Inside the piston bowl and near the cylinder
2 symmetry axis, which is assumed to be an adiabatic
2000 rpm boundary, the gas temperature is maximized. At 200 CA
(Axial Velocity)/(Mean Wp)

deg. (Fig. 17d) the gas temperature has decreased and

d/D=44%
region A continues to have the lowest temperatures
1
d/D=54% compared to the regions B and C. The hottest fraction of the
gas which exists in the piston bowl has moved, drifted by
d/D=64%
the reversed gas motion, from the cylinder bowl to regions
0 B and C. At 220 CA deg. (Fig. 17e) the vortex flow which
has been developed in region B affects the temperature
distribution inside the hot region. Finally at 240 CA deg
-1 (Fig. 17f) the gas temperature is further reduced and in
some regions is lower than the cylinder’s wall temperature,
thus a reversed heat flux from the cylinder walls to the gas
occurrs.
-2
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Crank Angle Degree
584
Fig. 16b Mean Axial Velocity computed by the -0.00
Phenomenological model at 2000 rpm engine speed and 579
d/D=44%, 54%, 64% -0.01
574

radial and axial gas velocities. Examining Figs 14, 11b, and -0.01 569
15 the former observation can be verified by the computed
flow field with the proposed gas motion model. In case of 564
-0.02
d/D=44% the flow from region A to B is more intensive 559
compared to what occurs at d/D=54%, 64%. Moreover the
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
increase of the axial gas velocity as d/D decreases can be 554

attributed to the fact that the area fch through which the gas Fig. 17a Temperature field at 140 CA deg, 2000 rpm
mass has to flow is decreased. Thus it appears that the engine speed and d/D=54%
 747
-0.01
739

415
731
-0.01 410
-0.00 723 405
400
715 395
-0.02
-0.01 390
707
385
699 -0.02 380
-0.01 375
691 370
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
365
683 -0.03
360
675 355
350
Fig. 17b Temperature field at 160 CA deg, 2000 rpm -0.03
345
engine speed and d/D=54% 340

-0.04

850 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

835
Fig. 17f Temperature field at 240 CA deg, 2000 rpm
820
805 engine speed and d/D=54%
790
775
-0.00
760
745
730
-0.01
715
700
Generally, a gradually developed temperature field from
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
685 the cylinder walls to the inner volume, is observed.
670
655
Moreover it can be noticed that in the region near the
640 cylinder symmetry axis, the temperature field is not
Fig. 17c Temperature field at 180 CA deg, 2000 rpm uniform, although the boundary condition is that the
engine speed and d/D=54% symmetry axis is adiabatic. This is due to the fact that
convection has a significant contribution to the heat transfer
inside the cylinder, and examining the velocity field, the
690
spatial distribution of the temperature can be explained.
670
Effect of piston bowl shape on the Temperature
-0.00
650 Distribution - Comparing the spatial distribution of
630 temperature at 2000 rpm engine speed and 160 CA deg for
-0.01 610
different piston bowl geometry as shown in Figs. 18, 17b,
and 19, we observe that the temperature spatial distribution
590
is similar although the various temperature contour lines
-0.01
570
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
encompass different areas.
550

530

Fig. 17d Temperature field at 200 CA deg, 2000 rpm

engine speed and d/D=54%

742
510
734
500
-0.00
-0.00 726
490

480 718
-0.01
470 -0.01
710
460
-0.01 702
450 -0.01
694
440
-0.02 686
430 -0.02

678
420
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
410 670

Fig. 17e Temperature field at 220 CA deg, 2000 rpm Fig. 18 Temperature field at 160 CA deg, 2000 rpm
engine speed and d/D=54% engine speed and d/D=44%
 750 745

740 739
733
730 727

720 721
-0.00 715
-0.00 710 709
703
700
-0.01 697
-0.01 690 691
685
680
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 -0.01 679
670 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 673
667
660
661
650 655
Fig. 19 Temperature field at 160 CA deg, 2000 rpm Fig. 21 Temperature field at 160 CA deg, 2500 rpm
engine speed and d/D=64% engine speed and d/D=54%

We will be then in position to describe in a more

Effect of engine speed on the Temperature Distribution
– Examining the temperature distributions for engine
speeds 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm, for d/D=54% and 160
CA deg. shown in Figs 20, 17b, 21, no serious effect of
engine speed on temperature distribution can be observed.
The temperature distribution and the absolute values of
temperature are similar. It should be noticed that the
slightly lower values of temperatures for the case of 1500
rpm engine speed is attributed to the lower Temperature of
the cylinder walls.
From the previous results it is revealed that the new
computational method developed in the present work is in
the correct direction. The results obtained especially for
temperature distribution appear logical taking into account
both experimental data and also data obtained from
phenomenological modeling [16-18]. It is also encouraging
that the prediction of the cylinder pressure is quite accurate
for motoring conditions and for all operating speeds
examined without making any adjustment. Finally using the
new approach we are in position without using
sophisticated
-0.00
-0.01
-0.01
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04
Fig. 20 Temperature field at 160 CA deg, 1500 rpm
engine speed and d/D=54%
CFD codes to examine the temperature distribution inside
the combustion chamber of DI diesel engines and have a
realistic prediction of the in-cylinder gas flow field and its
variation with engine speed and piston bowl geometry. This
information is of great importance when coupled to existing
phenomenological models.
fundamental way the fuel air mixing mechanism. Even
though the accuracy of the proposed model will probably be
less, compared to CFD ones, we will be in position to
consider at least qualitatively for the effect of combustion
chamber geometry on the combustion mechanism Existing
phenomenological models do not appear capable to
consider for this effect without the use of adjustable
parameters.
CONCLUSIONS
In the present work a simplified model for the prediction of
the flow field and the spatial distribution of gas temperature
has been developed for motored DI Diesel Engines. From
the application of the model on a DI diesel engine located at
the authors’ laboratory, it is revealed that the developed
model predicts adequately well the engine cylinder pressure
diagram. Special emphasis is given on the modeling of the
flow field inside the cylinder using a newly developed
simple model very efficient in time. The results obtained
from this newly developed gas motion model are in
accordance to the overall ones obtained from a well tested
phenomenological model. The proposed gas motion model
seems to offer the ability to investigate in a more
741 fundamental way the effect of engine design parameters on
733 the in-cylinder flow field.
725 Combining the sophisticated phenomenological gas
717
motion model which predicts the flow field with a simple
709
701
fluid dynamic one, we manage to offer information
693 concerning the temperature distribution and the heat
685 transfer mechanism. On the other hand it is quite
677 encouraging that the proposed model manages to predict the
669
effect of engine speed and piston bowl geometry on both
661
653
the flow and temperature field. This conclusion is based on
645 known mean data values for motored engines either
experimental or computational derived from tested
phenomenological models. In the near future comparison
will be made to the results obtained by a CFD model in
order to have a more detailed evaluation of the proposed
model Another advantage of the proposed method is the
relatively low computational time required for a complete
run from compression start to expansion end which is for a
time increment equivalent to 0.5 CA deg., about 14 min. on
a Pentium III 450 MHz PC. However it should be
mentioned that the proposed gas flow model can be applied where ù is the angular crankshaft speed and Ω (ϕ) ,
only for the closed part of the cycle. R cr
Currently following the preliminary results obtained Ω (ϕ) = sinϕ + sin 2 ϕ (A6)
from this new type of modeling an effort is conducted to 2×L
combine it with a jet model to simulate the air-fuel mixing Making use of the above equations and after an appropriate
and combustion mechanism inside the combustion chamber mathematical rearrangement it follows that
of modern DI diesel engines. The challenge is promising 1 dV Ω (ϕ)
= (A7)
V dϕ
+ ψ (ϕ)
and it seems that the present model may offer great 2
assistance during the task of providing a simple but detailed ε -1
model capable to consider the effect of engine speed and When both valves are closed it is assumed that the mass of
bowl geometry on the processes occurring inside the air inside the cylinder remains constant: m=const. The
combustion chamber of DI diesel engines. density of the air above the piston crown can be calculated
as a function of crank angle from the following equation:
APPENDIX A m 1 dρ Ω (ϕ)
SIMPLE PHENOMENOLOGICAL DETERMINATION ρ= ⇒ =− ω (A8)
ρ dt
+ ψ (ϕ)
V 2
OF THE AXIAL wo AND RADIAL wr VELOCITY OF
THE GAS - As the piston moves towards the TDC, it ε -1
squishes the air into the chamber bowl [14]. Relations for Axial Velocity - The mass of air contained in the chamber
the axial and radial velocities of the developed flow are is,
derived here under the fundamental assumption that the air m ch = Vch ρ (A9)
density in the entire space above the piston crown is As piston moves towards TDC the air is squished into the
uniform. Moreover, the air is assumed to be an ideal gas. piston bowl, changing the mass “mch” contained in it. The
air mass flow rate through area fch is given from the
D following expression :
Vd d
f Vr dm ch d ρ (A -8)
d f ch ρ w o = = Vch ⇒
dt dt
Ω(ϕ)
Vx (A10)
Wr V
⇒ w o = − ch ω
+ ψ(ϕ)
f ch 2
ε -1
Wo fch Fr Radial Velocity- The mass of air contained inside volume
Vr is :
Vch m r = Vr ρ (A11)
As piston moves, the air is squished and flows through area
r-z plane view f. The air radial velocity wr is derived from the mass flow
Fig. A1 Graphical representation of the quantities necessary rate through area f as follows:
for the determination of axial and radial velocities. dm r dVr dρ r
=ρ + Vr = f ρwr ⇒
dt dt dt
(A12)
The instantaneous volume of the space above the piston 1 dVr 1 dρ
⇒ wr = + Vr
crown shown in Fig. A1 is: f dt ρf dt
V = V ch + V x + V δ (A1) Replacing the derivative with respect to time by that with
The compression ratio is defined as : respect to “ϕ ” the following expression for the radial
V + V s + Vδ velocity is derived:
ε = ch (A2)
V ch + Vδ ω  dV V dV 
w r =  r − r  (A13)
The instantaneous piston stroke is : f  dϕ V dϕ 
s x = R cr ψ (ϕ) (A3) where :
where Rcr is the crank radius, and the function ψ (ϕ) is V r = Fr (s x + δ ) (A14)
expressed as follows : and Fr is the area of the piston upper surface (except the
combustion chamber area) as shown in Fig. A1.
 2  From Fig. A1 it follows that:
ψ (ϕ) = 1 − cosϕ +
L   R cr 
1 − 1 − 

 sin ϕ 
2 V x + V δ = F(s x + δ ) ⇒

R cr   (A4)
 L   V + Vδ (A15)
  ⇒ (s x + δ ) = x
The piston speed is F
where F is the cross-section of the cylinder. Substituting
= ωR cr Ω(ϕ)
ds x
(A5) EQ(A15) into EQ(14) it follows that :
dt
 wpiston :Axial velocity of the piston
(Vx + Vδ )
Fr
Vr = (A16) wr :Radial velocity of the gas computed by the
F
and consequently phenomenological gas motion model
z :Axial direction
dVr Fr dVx F dV
= = r (A17) zpiston :Distance between the gas face of the cylinder
dϕ F dϕ F dϕ head and the piston top
Substituting EQ(A17) and EQ(A16) into EQ(A13) ,and (δr) :Distance between the nodes of two neighbor
taking into account EQ(A7) we finally end up to: cells in radial direction
V F Ω (ϕ) (δz) :Distance between the nodes of two neighbor
w r = ch r ω (A18)
+ ψ (ϕ)
f F 2 cells in axial direction
ε -1 (δθ) :Distance between the nodes of two neighbor
cells in circumferential direction
NOMENCLATURE
A :Area of a computational cell which heat is in Greek Symbols
contact to the solid wall Γϕ :Diffusion coefficient
A(P) :Function of the Spatial discretisation scheme θ :Circumferential direction
cp :Specific heat of the gas µ :Dynamic viscocity
d :Piston bowl diameter ρ :Gas density
D :Cylinder bore ϕ :Crank angle degree
dmcell :Mass which need to be tranfered to a ω :Angular crankshaft speed
computational cell in order to have a pressure
equal to the mean pressure Subscripts
dmst,cell :Mass which is transfered to each P :Central point of the computational cell
computational cell through the South and the e :East side face of a control volume
Top cell walls w :West side face of a control volume
h :Specific enthalpy of the gas t :Top side face of a control volume
k :Conduction heat transfer coefficient b :Bottom side face of a control volume
lchar :Characteristic length n :North side face of a control volume
L :Connecting rod length s :South side face of a control volume
mcell :Mass of the gas which is contained in a
computational cell Dimensionless Groups
P :Pressure Re :Reynolds number
Pmean :Mean pressure of the gas in the cylinder Pe :Peclet number
r :Radial direction Pr :Prandtl number
R :Gas constant
Rcr :Crank radius REFERENCES
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wgrid :Axial velocity of grid lines procedure for the calculation of flows in reciprocating
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790356, 1979.
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“Heat Transfer Predictions and Experiments in a
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