PROPELLER ROTATING IN A WATER STREAM ‘The photograph shows cavitation bubbles of water vapour leaving the blades and thus making visible the vortices in the slipstream THEORETICAL AERODYNAMICS BY L. M. MILNE-THOMSON, C.B.E, EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS, UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE ROYAL NAVAL COLLEGE PROFESSOR OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS IN BROWN UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR IN THE MATHEMATICS RESEARCH CENTER AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN VISITING PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITIES OF ROME, QUEENSLAND, CALGARY, OTAGO FOURTH EDITION Revised and enlarged DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. NEW YORKThe time will come when thou shalt lift thine eyes To watch a long drawn battle in the skice While aged peasante too amazed for words Stare at the flying fleets of wondrous birds ‘Tuomas Gray Luna Habitabilis, 1737 Copyright © 1958 by L. M. Milne-Thomson. All rights reserved under Pan American and Inter- national Copyright Conventions. Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto, Ontario. Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Company, Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London WC 2. ‘This Dover edition, first published in 1973, is an unabridged and unaltered republication of the fourth edition (1966) of the work originally pub- lished by Macmillan and Company Limited in 1958. International Standard Book Number: 0-486-61980-X Library of Congress Catalog Gard Number: 73-85109 Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc. 180 Varick Street New York, N. Y. 10014 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Tue airflow round an aircraft is a phenomenon of high complexity. To study it, in the present state of our knowledge, demands simplifying assump- tions. These must be largely based on experimental observation of what actually happens; that is one aspect of the practical side of aerodynamics. To make mathematical deductions and predictions belong to the theoretical side and it is the theoretical* side with which this book is concerned. The aim is therefore.to lay bare the assumptions, to bring them to explicit statement so that the reader may be consciously aware of what is assumed, and then to examine what can be deduced from the assumptions as a first approximation, . The treatment is based on my lectures to junior members of the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors at the Royal Naval College during the past ten years. . The mathematical equipment of the reader is presumed not to extend beyond the elements of the differential and integral calculus. What further is needed is mostly developed in the course of the exposition, which is thus reasonably self-contained. It is therefore hoped that the book will provide a solid introduction to the theory which is the indispensable basis of practical applications. Since the use of vectors, or in two-dimensions the complex variable, intro- duces such notable simplifications of physical outlook and mathematical technique, I have had no hesitation in using vector methods. On the other hand the subject has been presented in such fashion that the reader who prefers cartesian notations should encounter little difficulty in adapting the vector arguments to a cartesian presentation. Chapter XXI on vectors has been added for the benefit of those with little or no previous acquaintance with vector methods. This chapter may be read first, or just before Chapter IX, or merely used as a compendium for reference. Apart from Chapters I and II which are of a preliminary general character, and Chapter XXI on vectors, the work falls into four fairly well-defined parts, Chapters III to VIII contain the theory of two-dimensional, Chapters IX to XIV that of three-dimensional aerofoils, including propellers and wind tunnel corrections. Chapters XV, XVI, XVII deal with the effect of the compres- sibility of air in subsonic and supersonic flow. Chapters XVIII to XX are concerned with the aircraft as a whole. The chapters are divided into sections numbered in the decimal notation. The equations are numbered in each section independently. Thus 7-14(3) refers to equation (3) in section 7-14 which, as the integer before the decimal point indicates, occurs in Chapter VII. Backward and forward references are *To “the uninstructed and popular world” practical and theoretical are antonyms; a palpably false proposition.vi PREFACE freely used to aid the reader in following an argument or in comparing similar situations. Each diagram, of which there are 260, bears the number of the section to which it belongs and may therefore be traced without delay or exasperation. About 300 exercises have been provided, collected into sets of Examples at the ends of the chapters. Some of these are very easy, others quite difficult, and many supplement the text. The majority were composed specially for this book. References to literature are given where they appear to me to be appropri- ate or useful, but no attempt has been made to give systematic citations. I have made absolutely no endeavour to settle or assign priority of discovery. The coupling of a particular name with a theorem or method simply indicates an association in my own mind. The proper historical setting I must leave to those who have the time and the taste for such research. This book was intended to appear long since, but other preoccupations during the war years prevented that. The delay has, however, allowed the presentation of matter which has appeared in the interim, and has also given me the fortunate opportunity of having the whole book read in manuscript by my colleague Mr B. M. Brown, to whom I owe a great debt for his criticisms and improvements. Another friend, Mr A. C. Stevenson, has likewise rendered invaluable service by his diligent help in proof reading and by important suggestions. To both these friends I wish to express my lively gratitude and appreciation. I also take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to the officials of the Glasgow University Press for the care and attention which they have given to the typography, and for maintaining a standard of excellence which could scarcely have been surpassed in the pre-war years. L, M. Mine-Toomsoy Royal Naval College Greenwich May 1947 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION ‘Tue gratifying reception accorded to this work has encouraged me to strive for improvements. Opportunity has been taken to make several corrections, to revise certain passages and to carry out extensive rearrangements. Additional matter has been introduced particularly in connection with supersonic flow. Moreover a new circle theorem, here called the “ second circle theorem ”, to deal with flow of constant vorticity is given for the first time. L. M. M.-T. Mathematics Department The University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona April 1966 CONTENTS SymsBois - : : - - - . - se REFERENCES TO LITERATURE : - : - soe GreEx ALPHABET - - - - : - - - - CHAPTER I 21, 211. 2-12, 2-13, 23. PRELIMINARY NOTIONS Aerodynamic fore - - - + + = = Liftanddag - = = + 2 + + Monoplane aircraft - - + - - + = Chord ofaprofle - - - + + + = Chordofanaerofoil - - + - - = = Aspectratio =- = = + = + + = Camber = = = = 7 2 eee Incidence = = = st eee Fluids = 7 ee eee Velocity - = - - + + 2 es Streamlines and paths of particles = = + - Stream tubesand filaments 9 - 9 - = + Desity - - - = - 2 2 = = Thrust due to pressure = = = se The speed ofsound - - = + + = = Maxwell’s definition of viscosity = - = = - Physical dimensions - - - - + - - Aerodynamic force; dimensional theory - - - Similar systems; scale effect - - - + - Cofficints = - - - = + + = The boundary layer - = 0-7 ee Approximations = = | = 7 see ExamumsI = = 7 7 ee CHAPTER IL BERNOULLI’S THEOREM Bernoulli's theorem - + = = + = = Incompressible fluid in the gravitational field - — - ‘The constant in Bernoulli's theorem - - = - Aerodynamic pressure = = = st ThePitottube - - - + = = = = The work done by air inexpanding - - - - PAGE + xvii CHISAATR Oeviii CONTENTS CONTENTS ix PAGE PAGE 2-31. Bernoulli’s theorem for compressible flow - - - . - . : 34 4-11. Velocity distribution - : - - - . - - - - - 72 232. Application of Bernoulli’s theorem to adiabatic expansion - - - + 34 412. Size ofacircular vortex - - - + + - + + 2 = 7 24, TheVenturitube - - - - += + «© «© - . . 36 42, Point rectilinear vortex - - - = - + + + + + 7% 2-41. Flow of air measured by the Venturitube- + - - + «© «© 37 421. Vortex pair - oe Be 25, Standard atmosphere er 2 4-22, Image of a vortex in a plane 7) Examenes [To - - = ee ee ee ee 8D 43. Vortex between parallel planes - - - - - - - = + 16 4-4, Force on a vortex . - - - : - - - - - - 17 CHAPTER III 4-5. Mutual action of two vortices - - - - - : - - - 77 4-6, Energy due to a pair of vortices - - - - see 78 TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION 4-7. Continuous line of vortices- = - = - = see eee 4-71, Evaluation of the definite integral ee ee ee 80 3-0. Motion intwodimensions - - - - - + - - - « 42 Exawpurs IV - - se BE 31. Streamfunction- - 9. = - - 2 2 ee ee ge 3-11. Velocity derived from the stream function - - + - - - = 44 CHAPTER V 312, Rankine’s theorem - - = - = - 2 . . 2. 4 3-13, The stream function ofa uniformwind - - - - - = ~ 465 THE CIRCULAR CYLINDER AS AN AEROFOIL S14. Circulareylinder ss 7 ee eee 315. The dividing streamline - - - - - - . - . . 4 50. Preliminary - - - - + + 2 + 2 ew ee 88 32. Cirulatim- = = = ee ee eg 51. Thepointszandatz- - - + - - 2 - ee 83 B21L Vorticity - = = - 2 . 2 ee ee kg 52, Thecireletheorem - - - - - + - + « - « 8 3-22, Motion ofaftuidelement - - - - - - - - 2 = 60 53. Circulation about a circular cylinder - - = + = + - = 85 33. Irrotational motion - - - - : oe : oe . 51 5:31, Circular cylinder in a wind with circulation. —- - - see 86 3:31. Velocity potential - - - - - - - . . 2. pe 5:31]. Given stagnation point = - = se ee eee 87 3-311. Laplace’sequation - - - - - - - - 2 2. 58 5:32. The pressureonthecylinder - - + - - - = + + 88 332. Cyclicmotion - = - - - 2 ee ee 5:33. Forceonthecylinder- 9 - - = = + + 2 7 ee 8g 34. Complexnumbers - - - - - - - - 2. 2. Bg 54. ThetheoremofBlasius - - - - - + + + «© « 8g 341, Theargument - - - - - . - 2. 2 ee. 85 5-41, Theorem of Blasius in terms of the stream function - - + + = 91 342, Differentiation - - - - - - - 2 - 2 2 2 5:5. The theorem of Kutta and Joukowski- = - + = = = =e OQ 3-43, Holomorphic functions - - - . - - . - 2 2 87 57. The second circle theorem - - - - = se ee OB 3-44, Conjugate functions - - - - - «© - -« « - 2. 87 5-72. Uniform shear flow - — - te 88 345. Thefunctin f(z) - - - - - 2. . 2. 2 2. 58 574. Circular cylinder in uniform shear flow - = = > sO 3-47, Thecoordinateszandz - - - - - . 2 2... 59 Examines Vo - 7 ee ee ee 3:5. Cauchy's integraltheorem - - - - . - - . - . 60 351 Singularities - - - 2 2 2. 2 ee ee. CHAPTER VI 352. Residues - - - - - 2 ee ee eee Ot 3-53. Cauchy's residue theorem - - - - + - - «© - = 61 JOUKOWSKI'S TRANSFORMATION 36. Conformal mapping - - - - - - 2 . e ee 37. Complex potential - - - - - . - 2 2 ee 63 6-1. Joukowski’s transformation - - - - - - 2 = 7 3-71. The complex velocity Be ek 8 6-11. Circles with centre at the origin - - = 0 se eee OB 3:8. Application of conformal mapping - - - - - - += - 66 6-2. Joukowski fins, rudders, and struts - - - = = eee ExameersUE - - - - 2 7 ee ee ee 63. Cireularare profiles - - - - - - -. + -. . . 99 6-4. The general Joukowski profile - - - - - - - + + 10 65. Geometrical construction - - - - + + + + = + OL CHAPTER IV 651, Mappingacircle- - - - + - 2 + = 2 «© « 102 RECTILINEAR VORTICES 66. Reversal = = ee 105; 6-7. Construction of tangents - - - - - - + += + = 106 40. Two-dimensional vortices woe ee kk 68 Theaiflow- - - - - - - - © - « s+ 106 41. Cieularvorter - - - - - - 2 ee Lk. Exameces VI - = 0-0-0 ee ee ee 8