Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 3

1. Outline and explain two features of fundamentalist religion. (10 marks)

Model response

2. Read Item A below and answer the question that follows

Item A

Aune points out that female church-going is on the decline, especially among
younger women, because feminist ideas have challenged religious ideas about the
subordinate role of women and because women feel that traditional religions
disapprove of changes in women’s sexual behaviour or non-nuclear family types.
Also, women have less time for religion because they have paid work and the
money to invest in alternative non-religious activities.

However, some women are attracted to fundamentalist movements because they

want to be wives and mothers because these roles offer more moral certainty and
community than the diversity of social roles available to women in modern society
today.

Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, analyse two reasons why
females may be more attracted to religions than males. (10 marks)

Model answer

 Grace Davie argues that females are attracted to religion and are more likely
than men to believe in God because their role as mothers, nurturers and carers
gives them insight into the creation of life as well as death. Greeley argues
that women’s caring role makes them more sympathetic to religious ideas.
Similarly, Miller & Hoffman argue that gender role socialisation involves
females learning ‘feminine’ values and norms such as obedience,
submissiveness and being passive. These values are especially compatible
with the theological belief system of many religious organisations. Women
are also less likely than men to subscribe to risk-taking behaviour, for
example, not believing in God is considered by some as ‘risky’ behaviour.
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 3

 There is some evidence that some women are attracted to the moral certainties
of fundamentalist religions, both Christian (as indicated by the heavy female
involvement in fundamentalist sects in the USA such as the Westboro Baptist
church investigated by Louis Theroux and Islamist groups such as ISIS which
define the roles of women in a very traditional way. These women may be
rejecting the modern notion that women can have the best of all possible
worlds and especially the idea that women should aim to balance both career
and family. These women may be attracted to Christian and Islamic
fundamentalism because these religions value women’s traditional gender
roles of mother and home-maker, as well as their subordination to men.
Fundamentalist religious texts are very clear in their insistence that men and
women are very different and that women should defer to traditional roles as
mothers and that they should reject liberal modern ideas such as
contraception, abortion, sex before marriage and divorce. A recent trend that
has been documented among teenage girls in the USA is the wearing of purity
rings as a symbol of their virginity and their rejection of sex before marriage.
There has also been an upsurge in the number of teenage girls and their
fathers taking part in ceremonies known as ‘purity balls’ which have spread
across 48 American states. These involve fathers and daughters who belong to
conservative Christian groups making pledges to each other committing to
live ‘pure’ lives ‘before God’.

3. Read Item B below and answer the question that follows.

Item B

The first wave of immigrants into the UK in the 1950s (e.g. Asians &
African-Caribbeans) probably relied on religion to help ease the stresses
and anxieties associated with moving into a completely different
society and culture. This ‘cultural transition’ theory suggests that the
religion of immigrant groups offered support in the form of a
community already in place in the new society and which helped
newcomers cope with any hostility, especially the racism that they
faced.

Steve Bruce argues that for ethnic minority groups religious belief and
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 3

practice acts as a mechanism of cultural defence argument. He argues

that Asian religions like Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and African-
Caribbean religions such as Pentecostalism and the Baptist Church
support and preserve identity, culture and language in an uncertain
and hostile, perhaps even racist, environment.

Some sociologists have predicted that religious commitment among

ethnic minorities in the UK may go into decline as living standards
improve and as young people reject strict religious controls in favour of
making the most of educational and economic opportunity.

Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, analyse the view that the
religions of ethnic minorities have been more successful at maintaining
membership and participation than those of established churches and
mainstream denominations. (20 marks)

Model answer

Some sociologists such as Wilson and Bruce argue that declining attendance at the
established churches and in mainstream denominations suggests that these
organisations are experiencing secularisation, i.e., a decline in the social significance
of religious practice and belief. However, it can be argued that such secularisation is
Christian-centric and that the religions of ethnic minority groups such as Muslims,
Hindus and Sikhs have been more successful at maintaining membership and
participation. Furthermore, there is some evidence that African-Caribbean and
African religious beliefs and practices, which tend to be Christian, are significantly
higher than the White population.

According to Brierley (2006), in 2005, 17 per cent of church-goers in the UK were

Black despite the fact that Black people only make up 2% of the population. Half of
all Pentecostal church-goers in the UK are estimated to be Black . In comparison, less
than 5% of the population of the UK attend the established churches (Anglican &
Roman Catholic) or mainstream denominations (Methodist).

There is also evidence that Asian people are much more likely to be religious.
Modood found that 82 per cent of HIS age 50+ sample and 67 per cent of the 16 to 34
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 3

year age group of Asian men valued the importance of Islam in their lives. About
one third of young Indians saw their religion as important. The lowest figure was for
young Whites – only 5 per cent saw religion as important compared with 18 per cent
of young African-Caribbeans.

Growing numbers of young Muslim men and women are choosing Islam as the
prime marker of their identity. About 70% of Muslims are aged under 25 years, so
this identification is likely to last a long time and be passed down to the next
generation. Mirza found that young female Muslims choose to reinforce their Islamic
identity by wearing the hijab headscarf and by identifying with the worldwide
Muslim community – the ummah. They have also demanded separate Muslim faith
schools and the introduction of Sharia law in the UK. Around 35% of 16-24 year old
Muslims have expressed a preference for living under Sharia rather than British law.

There are a number of reasons why ethnic minority groups might be more religious
than the White population. First, ethnic minorities tend to be economically and
socially disadvantaged compared with the majority population. Norris and Inglehart
suggest that poverty leads to existential insecurity – those who are poor or
unemployed are more unsure about their future. For example, Muslims in the UK
are more likely to be in poverty compared with other ethnic minority groups
because they are more likely to be unemployed and if employed, they are more
likely to be on low pay. Muslims’ greater participation in and commitment to their
religion may reflect the fact that Islam may compensate for this risk and existential
insecurity by offering comfort, compensation, explanation and purpose.

Weber suggested that religions such as Pentecostalism and Islam may be attractive
to some ethnic minority groups because they provide an explanation and
justification for this existential insecurity. They also compensate for it in the form of
offering salvation in the afterlife.

Second, as in Item B, religion can be a means of easing the transition into a new
culture for recent immigrants. It can provide support and a sense of community for
minority groups in their new environment. For example, for the Asian population,
the building of mosques and temples was important for making it easier for them to
settle in the UK. In 1961, there were just seven mosques, three Sikh temples and one
Hindu temple in England and Wales compared with nearly 55,000 churches. By
2005, there were 1700 mosques in the UK compared with 47,600 churches.
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 3

Third, as in Item B, Bruce (2002) argues that religion offers immigrants support and a
sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment. It is a means of
defending and preserving one’s culture and language as well as a way of coping
with threats such as racism. For example, when White churches in the UK did not
actively welcome African-Caribbean people in the 1960s they responded by either
founding or joining Black-led churches. In this sense, Beckford (2002) suggests that
evangelical Christianity gives Black people a sense of purpose, hope and
independence. Religion therefore offers more than just spiritual fulfilment to
members of ethnic minorities. It has the power to reaffirm ethnic identity.

Ken Pryce’s (1979) study of the African-Caribbean community in Bristol shows that
both cultural defence and transition have been important. He argues that
Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive ‘religion of the oppressed’ that provides poor
migrants with values appropriate to the new world in which they found themselves.
Pentecostalism helped African-Caribbeans to adapt to British society, playing a kind
of ‘Protestant work ethic’ role in helping its members succeed by encouraging hard
work, sexual morality, prudent management of finances, self reliance, thrift and
strong support of the family and community. However, Pryce found that
Rastafarianism had the opposite response because it encouraged young African-
Caribbeans to reject the wider White world as racist and exploitative.

Both cultural defence and transition result in group solidarity in terms of shared
values and identity. Davie (1994) sees the high levels of religious belief and practice
in ethnic minority communities in the UK as functioning to maintain tradition and
community solidarity. For example, Islam and to a lesser extent, Hinduism, Sikhism
and Judaism are expected to shape family relationships, relationships between men
and women, how food is prepared etc. Mosques and Sikh temples are community
centres as well as places of worship, and provide a focus for social life. Modood
found that religion was important in the lives of minority ethnic communities as a
source of socialisation, and as a means of maintaining traditional morality, such as
conceptions of mutual responsibility, honour, trust, and the difference between right
and wrong.

However, the emphasis on religious difference can unfortunately become the basis
for conflicts between cultures. The dominant culture may see the minority culture in
a negative light, and accuse them of a failure to assimilate into British culture and
Beliefs in Society Full Model Exam Paper 3

society which may create resentment from the host community. The result of this
may be racism and Islamophobia.

Although the evidence clearly shows a greater participation in religion amongst

ethnic minority groups, Item B suggests that this may be under threat from two
sources. First, Hervieu-Leger notes the tendency for later generations to be less
religious. Modood’s research indicated a decline in the importance of religion for all
ethnic minority groups, especially among the second generation. Second, it can be
difficult for ethnic minorities to sustain their religious value system as their children
come into contact with British values. For example, Muslim girls’ experiences of
further and higher education might result in resistance to Islam’s insistence that
male and females should be treated differently. For example, Butler found that
Muslim women were committed to Islam but wanted more choice and independence
in their lives. There may be generation gaps developing between parents and
children with regard to issues such as alcohol, dress, women’s education etc.
Religious value systems can therefore be very difficult to sustain in a society where
human rights and equality legislation exist.

As indicated by Item B, there is some evidence that as Muslims experience upward

social mobility and better standards of living, - as they become more middle-class –
that religious commitment may weaken. If we apply Norris and Inglehart’s ideas,
this group has achieved existential security and therefore has less need for religion.

Finally, the future of Asian participation in religion may depend on what Johal calls
a hybrid identity, i.e. ‘Brasian’. He notes that young British middle-class Asians often
blend their British and Asian identity. He argues that Brasians choose elements of
their parents’ culture that are important to them and combine these with elements of
British culture that they value. For example, they might expect to marry who they
wish rather than have an arranged marriage or a partner from the same ethnic
group. However, they might still have a traditional religious wedding. They may not
necessarily follow traditional religious customs with regard to diet, alcohol or dress
but may do so with regard to honouring their parents and meeting their family
duties and obligations.