I A 602 METALWORKING

2ndTri21

MS#12
TITLE: RELATED
DRAWING

PREPARED BY:
MARTIN JOHN M. MUNDO
TITLE: RELATED DRAWINGS

Specific Objectives
At the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:

- identify and use various drawing instruments and papers;

- lay-out border lines and a title block on a drawing sheet;
- select suitable sizes of letters and numerals for specified situations;
- identify correct types of lines when making drawings of articles (projects);
- construct accurately arcs, curves, circles and triangles;
https://www.academia.edu/11202319/Tech_Drawing_Metalwork_1_Basic_Course

- construct regular polygons accurately;

https://www.mathemania.com/lesson/constructing-regular-polygons/

- read and use specified scales to draw given components.

https://www.academia.edu/11202319/Tech_Drawing_Metalwork_1_Basic_Course

- use free hand sketching as a method of communication;

https://civilseek.com/free-hand-sketching/

- use the correct method when dimensioning;

https://www.academia.edu/11202319/Tech_Drawing_Metalwork_1_Basic_Course

- make specified pictorial drawings;

https://www.tasstudent.com/pictorial-drawing/

- draw surface developments of given articles;

https://www.uap-bd.edu/ce/Handouts/Shaika/Doc/5.%20Development%20of%20Surfaces.pdf

- make accurate working drawings using appropriate instruments;

http://www.vonahndesign.com/Is-This-For-You/why-accurate-drawings-are-important.htm

- draw sections of any given component accurately;

https://www.academia.edu/11202319/Tech_Drawing_Metalwork_1_Basic_Course

- exercise care when handling and storing drawing equipment and materials.
https://homesteady.com/how-4494001-reuse-empty-tissue-boxes.html
CONSTRUCT REGULAR POLYGONS ACCURATELY;

We know that a regular polygon  is a polygon that  has all sides of equal length and
all interior angles of equal measure. In this lesson we’ll learn how to construct them
using compass and a ruler.
Equilateral triangle
Lets start with constructing the first regular polygon, the equilateral triangle.

Example. Construct a triangle if we know the length of the side a.

First we create a sketch. It doesn’t have to be accurate, but it will give us an idea
from where to start.

Lets draw a ray with endpoint A, which will be

the first vertex of the triangle. We take the ruler and set the compass width to the
length of a given side a. Then, put the compass’ needle in the point A and make an
arc. Make sure that the arc intersects with the previously drawn ray. The point of
intersection of the arc and ray is our second vertex, B. Without changing the width
of the compass, we repeat the previous step. The only difference is that we put the
compass’ needle on the point B and make the arc that intersects with the first one.
We can see that arcs intersect in two points, giving us two last vertices, C and C′. We
now have two triangles, △ABC and △ABC′. Triangles are congruent because of
the SSS theorem, so we say we only have
one solution.

Advanced:  
We used a ray to get points A and B, but if we used
a line, we’d get one more vertex B′ on the
other side of A. By following the steps described above, we would get two more
triangles, four in total. All four of them are congruent, and we see them as one
solution to the problem.

Example. Construct a triangle if we know the radius of the circumscribed circle.

First we make a circle c(O,r) and one diameter AA′―. Then we make a circle c(A′,|OA
′|). Points of intersection of circles c(O,r) and c(A′,|OA′|) are B and C, two remaining
vertices of our triangle.

Square
Example. Construct a  square if we know the side a.
First, we make a sketch to know the disposition of the points and sides.

We will start by creating a line and a point A. Then we take the length of the
side a in the width of the compass and make an arc that intersects with the line we
drew first. The intersection is point B, our second vertex. Now we need to construct
a line that’s perpendicular to the AB, with the B being the point of intersection. We
do this because we want to create the angle ∡ABC=90∘.

Now we have a perpenticular line, and we know the vertex C will be on it. Take the
length of the side a in the width of the compass and make an arc that intersects
with the perpendicular line – the intersection is our vertex C. What’s left is
constructing the vertex D. We do that by creating two arcs of the
circles c(A,a) and c(C,a). Their intersection is the
final vertex, vertex D.

* We only constructed one square here, but we could have constructed four of
them by following the same process we did in construction of equilateral triangle.
Example. How to construct a square if we know the radius of it’s circumcircle?
First we draw a point O and a circle c(O,r). Pick a starting point A anywhere on the
circle. Now let’s draw a diameter from A through O. Let the point of intersection of
a diameter and a circle be the point C. The line AB is one diagonal of the square we
want to construct. How to get the other one? We know that diagonals in square are
perpendicular, so we create a perpendicular line to the diameter AC. Make sure
that the point of intersection is the point O. Now,
the points of intersection of perpendicular and a
circle c(O,r) are points B and C, our two last
vertices.

 
Regular pentagon
First we draw a sketch by hand. It doesn’t have to be perfect since it’s not our final
construction, we’ll just use it for planing.

Example. Construct a regular pentagon if we know the side a.

Make a ray with B being its endpoint and then construct point A so that |AB|=a. We
want to create a bisector of |AB|. Take the compass and make sure the width of
compass is the length of side a (IMPORTANT!). Put the needle on B and make two
arcs of the circle c(B,a). Repeat the step for arcs of c(A,a). The arcs intersect in
points K and L. Join them to get the midpoint between A and B, point M. Again, keep
the compass radius the length of a, put the compass’ needle on M and make an arc
that intersects with bisector line, making the point N. Now, adjust the compass to
the length of AN. Put the needle in A and make an arc that intersects with the ray
we made at the beginning, that will give us a point P.

The distance from M to P is very important distance – it will give us the rest of the
vertices. Make the compass’ radius equal to the distance between M and P. Put the
needle on B and make an arc that intersects with one of the arcs we made to get
midpoint. Make the second arc that intersects with the bisector line. The intersects
will be points E and D respectively. To get the vertex C we will put the needle
in A and repeat the process.
Example. Construct a regular pentagon if we know the radius of the circumscribed
circle.
Construct the circle c(O,r) and two perpendicular diameters, AA′― and PP′― . Now
lets construct the bisector of segment OP―, the intersection will be point M. In the
width of compass take the length between A and M, and put a compass needle
on M to create an arc that intersects with PP′―. The intersection is N.

The distance from A to N is the length of the side a of regular pentagon. Now that
we know the length of a, we need to construct vertices. Let D be our first vertex.

Firstly, we open the compass to the length of a and put the needle of compass on A.
Now make an arc that intersects with the circle c(O,r|) giving us the vertex B.
Without changing the width of compass, we put the needle on B and do the same
process to get vertex A, and so on. This process
will give us the remaining 4 vertices.

Regular hexagon

Example. Construct a regular hexagon if we know side a.

We can break regular hexagon into 6 equilateral triangles with the side a. The
vertex O is the center of inscribed and circumscribed circles, and |AO|=|BO|=|CO|
=|DO|=|EO|=|FO|. First we construct △ABO following the proces we used in
constructing equilateral triangle. Let’s draw c(O,|AO|). Since O is the center of
circumscribed circle, we know that hexagon’s vertices will be on the circle. Now we
just take the length of a into the width of a compass and make 4 arcs on the circle.

Without changing the width of compass we put the needle of compass on the B,
make and arc that intersects with the circle c(O,|AO|) giving us the vertex C. Then
we put the needle on C and do the same process to get vertex D, and so on. This
process will give us the last 4 vertices. It doesn’t matter if we start from A, and do it
clockwise or from B like we did here, the result will
be the same.

Important to remember:  In regular hexagon △ABO is equilateral triangle, which

means that the length of a radius of circumscribed circle and the length of a side
are always equal.

Example. Construct a regular hexagon if we know the radius of circumscribed

circle.
This is even easier. We just draw the circle c(O,r) and pick a starting point on it, let it
be point A. In regular hexagon, we know that the radius of circumscribed circle is
equal to side of polygon, meaning r=|AO|=|AB|.  Now that we have the side of a
regular hexagon, we construct the remaining 5 vertices like we did in the last
example.

 
Regular octagon
Example. How to construct a regular octagon if we know radius of circumscribed
circle?
First we construct a square within the given circle with its diagonals following the
process described above.  Then we construct angle
bisectors of ∡AOB,∡BOC,∡COD and ∡DOA. Bisectors instersect with the
circumscribed circles giving us 4 new points,  E,F,G and H. Those points are the
remaining vertices of an octagon.

Regular decagon
Example. How to construct a regular decagon if we know radius of circumscribed
circle?
First we construct a regular pentagon within the given circle following the process
described in construction of pentagon. Then we connect each vertex to the center
of circumscribed circle to divide pentagon into 5 congruent triangles. The next step
is constructing construct angle bisectors of ∡AOB,∡BOC,∡COD,∡DOE and ∡EOA.

Bisectors intersect with the circumscribed circles giving us 5 new

points,  F,G,H,I and J. Those points are the remaining vertices of an decagon.
Regular dodecagon
Example. How to construct a regular
dodecagon if we know radius of circumscribed
circle?
Just like we did in the last two examples, we can
construct regular dodecagon out of a
regular hexagon. Angle bisectors of central
angles of a hexagon give us remaining vertices of dodecagon.

Free Hand Sketching; Its Methods, Instruments, Principles.

What is Free Hand Sketching?

Free Hand Sketching is used to transfer the idea of an engineer’s abstract world to the real world
in 2D and 3D.

It is used for daily communication in the engineering world as drawing is the international
language of engineering.

Free hand drawing is also used to quickly present an idea in a graphical form to non-technical
peoples.

It improves the communication between all the members of a team and also between the
customer.
Free Hand Sketching is such a drawing which is drawn without measuring instruments.
This drawing is drawn with the help of pencil and eraser only.

Such drawing is drawn before every type of actual drawing because it takes less time.

After doing such drawing, it is pondered over, and necessary alterations are made in it if needed.

Then the actual drawing is prepared.

Free-Hand Sketching Instruments.

Following instruments are needed for the drawing of free hand sketching.

1. Soft Lead Pencil.

2. Eraser.
3. Sharpener.
4. Drawing Sheet.
5. Graph Sheet.
Importance of Free Hand Sketching.
Free hand drawing has much importance in practical works because a draftsman has to check the
drawings of every object from the engineer.

At the checking of complete drawing, much time is wasted on the alterations, if needed.

Since less time is needed for free hand drawing, therefore, initially such drawing should be
depended upon.

Principles of Free Hand Sketching.

Following principles should be followed for free hand sketching:
1. The object should be seen thoroughly and pondered over its objectives and concepts.
2. More detailed aspect is considered for selection of a view.
3. Space is specified on a drawing sheet according to the sizes of views.
4. Firstly, the dim lines are drawn so that extra lines may be erased easily.
5.  Scale and ruler are not used in drawing, although, ratio and proportion of different parts of an
object are considered.
6. Firstly, horizontal lines are drawn then vertical lines are drawn, and arcs and circles are drawn
lastly.
7. After completing the diagram, a clear scale is written in some suitable manner.

Sketching of Lines in Free Hand Drawing.

1. Sketching of Straight Lines.
The line is the most important part of free hand drawing as sketching is done by different lines.

Straight lines can be divided into different lines such as oblique, horizontal, and vertical lines.

Drawing straight lines for the first time is a difficult task. Mostly result in curved and arcs.

This happens due to the forearm when remaining in the fixed position.

So, when drawing the straight lines, moving your forearm is important. Basically, when drawing
horizontal straight lines.

The distance between your hand and pencil tip should be 40 mm minimum, and your hand
should rest on the edge of the paper.

Straight lines are drawn with the thumb and index fingers.

The most important part of sketching straight lines is that your movement should be in a
controlled manner.

You can also draw oblique lines by just changing the position of your arm.

The easiest way to draw long straight lines is by sketching short lines and then connecting it with
one another.

By doing this, there will be little to no chances of errors.

(i). Sketching of Vertical Lines.
A vertical line is drawn from the top to the bottom of the drawing sheet.

It takes a lot of practice to draw vertical lines.

However, you can draw vertical lines

using the edge of a paper as a guide and your hand as a scale. (as shown in below figure).

(ii). Sketching of Horizontal Lines.

When sketching horizontal lines, your hand and forearm should turn at the elbow, and the edge
of your hand should slide horizontally on the paper.
When drawing a horizontal line, you should first try drawing a line in the air to see how the line
goes.

Then apply a little pressure on the pencil tip and draw a horizontal line lightly.

(iii). Sketching of Oblique Lines.

The oblique lines are drawn from the one corner of the page to the other diagonally.

Usually, the right-handed people draw sloping or oblique lines from the bottom left to the top
right of the paper.

However, the
sketching can be made much easier by just rotating the paper into a position where you are going

2. Sketching of Rectangles.
A rectangle is a common shape in technical drawings. To draw rectangles via free hand
sketching different techniques are used.

They can be drawn in several ways, but the easiest way to draw a rectangle is by drawing vertical
or horizontal lines and rotating the paper at 90 degrees angle.
3. Sketching of Curved Lines.
Curved lines in the drawing can be arcs, circles, etc.

To draw a circle, first of all, you should draw a center line and mark it with radii.

Shape the radii points into a box, inside in which you can draw a circle.

First of all,
sketch the top-left part of the circle (rotate the pencil in an anti-clockwise direction) then draw
Pictorial Drawing

A Pictorial drawing provides a 3D image to help understand the shape of an object or to assist in
interpreting a drawing. There are 3 main ways to draw a pictorial drawing,

1. Isometric, 2. Oblique, 3. Perspective.

(Other methods of Pictorial drawings include dimetric drawing, trimetric drawing)

1. Isometric drawing

Definition – An Isometric drawing is a pictorial representation of an object in which all three

dimensions are drawn at full scale. The term isometric means “equal measurement”.

Isometric steps
Isometric drawing is the most commonly used method of
pictorial drawing. Isometric drawings are built on three lines, called isometric axes. One is drawn
vertically and the other two with the 30° set square either side of it. An Isometric drawing is a
way of presenting designs in three dimensions (3D). They can be completed using the 30/60 set
square or freehand. An Isometric drawing is one of a family of three-dimensional views called
pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object’s vertical lines are drawn vertically, and
the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the horizontal. The
true dimension of the object is used to construct the drawing. These dimension can be taken from
either drawings completed in orthographic or by measuring an object. Isometric drawings or
images have become the industry standard for parts manuals, technical proposals, patent
illustrations and maintenance publications due to their use of true length and the ability for
untrained people to understand. An isometric projection results if the plane is oriented so that it
makes equal angles with the three principal planes of the object. The representation of the object
seen below is an isometric drawing of a cube.
Isometric Cube
In this drawing the three visible faces appear as equilateral parallelograms; that is, while all of
the parallel edges of the cube are projected as parallel lines, the horizontal edges are drawn at an
angle (usually 30°) from the normal horizontal axes, and the vertical edges, which are parallel to
the principal axes, appear in their true proportions.

2. Oblique projection

Oblique projection is probably the simplest method of producing a pictorial drawing because
surfaces are directly in front of the viewer will look very similar to the front view in an
orthogonal drawing. It is a method of drawing objects in 3 dimensions and may be drawn at any
angle although 45⁰ is generally used. It is quite a simple technique compared to isometric or
even perspective drawing. However, to draw accurately in oblique projection traditional drawing
equipment is needed. Oblique projections illustrate the general 3 dimensional shape of the object.
However only faces of the object parallel to the plane of projection are shown at there true size
and shape. In fact, the oblique projection of these faces is the same as an orthographic front view.

Cavalier and Cabinet Projection

Diagram 1.1 (a) Cavalier (b)

Cabinet
There are two specific forms of Oblique drawings. (Diagram 1.1) These
are Cavalier and Cabinet projection. The difference between the two is how the depth of the
object is represented. A cavalier projection is obtained when the angle between oblique
projectors and the plane of projection is 45⁰ and the rear projections are true to size. The
resulting figure appears too thick and distorted. A cabinet projection is used to correct this
deficiency. Cabinet projection is an oblique projection where the length of the lines projecting
backwards are halved. Diagram 1.1 shows a drawing of a cube. Diagram (a) has been drawn in
Cavalier and diagram (b) is in Cabinet.

Perspective drawings

A Perspective drawing is one of the best types of drawings to use to provide a pictorial
representation of an object. They produce an image of an object in three dimensions that is very
similar to what the human eye sees. Perspective drawings can be in one point, two point or three
point perspective. One of the most common uses of perspective drawing is in architecture, where
it is used to provide a client, or the public, an image that gives a good representation of how the
project will look when it is built. One point perspective is often used to represent a room on
paper. As well as architecture, perspective drawing is often used in the furniture industry to show
clients the final appearance of a piece of furniture they might commission. (Further information
on Perspective Drawing)

Axonometric and Planometric drawing

A method of projection in which a three-dimensional object is represented by a drawing having

all axes drawn to exact scale, resulting in the optical distortion of diagonals and curves.
Axonometric (45 degree angle) or planometric (60/30 degree angles) as it is sometimes known is
a method of drawing a plan view with a third dimension. It is used by interior designers,
architects and landscape gardeners. Axonometric works by drawing a plan view at a 45 degree
angle with the depth added vertically. All lengths are drawn as their true lengths unlike when you
use oblique. This gives the impression that you are viewing the objects from above. One
advantage of axonometric is that circles drawn on the top faces of objects can be drawn as a
normal Isometric and Axonometric Projections are fairly simple ways to approach 3D drawing.

These can be used for sketches or to draw to a predetermined scale. If a scale is used, every part
of the drawing can be measured with accuracy. Unlike perspective drawing, lines in Isometric or
Axonometric drawings do not converge. In fact they only go in 3 different directions. Vertical
and 30 degrees left and right in Isometric Projections, vertical and 45 degrees left and right in
Axonometric projections. Often, Axonometric projections may appear to be distorted but they
are very useful to show as much as possible of, for example, the inside of a room.

The same scale is used on all three axes.

Why Accurate Drawings Are Important

The drawings and specifications for your New Home will form an integral part of the
construction contract between you and your Builder and will determine the scope of your project.
In order to minimize discrepancies during construction, it is critical to have an accurate and
detailed set of drawings and specifications.

Fact: Inaccurate drawings and ambiguous specifications often lead to misunderstandings between
owners and builders, often resulting in increases to the project cost and unsatisfactory results. If
you thought you were getting “A” but the contractor had “B” in mind, and estimated the project
based upon “his” interpretation of the scope of work and important details, in order to get what
you want, it will require a change order and often cost you more money.

An accurate and detailed set of drawings and specifications guarantees that you will get the home
you are envisioning. It will also allow you to gather accurate pricing information before
construction, allowing you to make any necessary changes to maintain your anticipated budget.

With this in mind, we developed the Drawing Checklist as a way to determine the types of
Drawings and level of detail based on your needs and experience. All of our Drawings are done
to appropriate scale, showing accurate materials and are coordinated to each other – our floor
plans match our elevations, sections and other drawings. 3D imagery allows you to see the
“finished” project, so even the most miniscule details are not overlooked.
 How to Take Care of Drafting Tools
Drafting tools are often delicate and have many intricate and small pieces that need to
be well maintained to continue working properly. Organizing and storing these items
has a great deal to do with keeping them in pristine shape and working correctly. With
a little patience and developing a routine, your tools will be well taken care of and
working for a long time.

Take Care of Drafting Tools

THINGS YOU WILL NEED

 Gentle cleaner
 Cleaning cloth
 Rubber bands
 Drafting tube
 Organizer tray
 File folder
 Card stock
 Plastic pouches
 Art bin storage box

Drafting tools are often delicate and have many intricate and small pieces that need to
be well maintained to continue working properly. Organizing and storing these items
has a great deal to do with keeping them in pristine shape and working correctly. With
a little patience and developing a routine, your tools will be well taken care of and
working for a long time.

1. Lay out all the drafting tools that you use and separate them into piles of like
items. Place all pencils together, markers, erasers, rulers, stencils, paper and
miscellaneous.
2. Using the cleaner, spray the cloth and wipe down supplies that have residue on
them. Pencils, markers, stencils and rulers often retain oils on them from
fingers.

3. Take the erasers and rub out any black marks. Do this by rubbing the eraser
against a clean piece of paper until the black smudge has disappeared. For
kneaded erasers, these can simply be stretched and remodeled into a ball,
similar to bread dough, to
get the black smudge
marks out.

4. Run your hands through your drafting brush to remove any loose debris. Then,
wipe it down with the cleaning cloth to remove any residue from the handle.

5. Roll up
your drafting papers into a
tight roll. Secure them with a
rubber band at each end.
Place the roll into a drafting
tube for storage.
6. Place the pens and markers into the long slots of the organizer tray. Place the
erasers in the smaller cube slots. Fill in with any other drafting materials, such
as lead refills, push pins,
paper clips, small rulers
and mounting
stickers.

7. Take your compass and wipe it off with the cleaning cloth. If it is going to be
stored in the organizer tray, wind the compass down until it is straight (versus at
an angle, making a triangle shape). If it has its own case, then wind it to the
size the case has set for it to be stored, and place it into the box.

8. Make a folder to hold all your stencils. Create holding flaps in an ascending
order so the stencils can be layered and easy to see and access when needed.
To make these flaps, simply use card stock paper and cut it into 3- or 4-inch
sections. Glue each section onto a large main piece of card stock, starting
towards the top for the smallest stencil and working your way down to the
bottom. Glue three of the four edges, leaving the top edge open for the stencil
to slide into.

9. Place this newly made stencil holder into a large plastic or mesh pouch. Put a
dry cleaning cloth in the pouch, placed over the stencils, to help keep them
clean.

10.Place the drafting brush and rulers into the pouch. Then place the organizer
tray into the pouch. If the compass had its own storage box, then place this in
the pouch. All the major tools should now be in this portable carrying pouch with
your paper in the separate portable carrying drafting tube.

TIP!!! If you work in the same place every day, arrange your organizer
trays on shelves or put stackable trays near your work table.