Applied Sciences: Photonic Integrated Circuits For NGPON2 ONU Transceivers (Invited)

applied
sciences
Review
Photonic Integrated Circuits for NGPON2 ONU
Transceivers (Invited)
Cátia Pinho 1,2,3 , Francisco Rodrigues 1,2,3 , Ana Maia Tavares 1,2,3 , Carla Rodrigues 3 ,
Cláudio Emanuel Rodrigues 4 and António Teixeira 1,2, *
1 Instituto de Telecomunicações (IT), University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; catiap@ua.pt (C.P.);
francisco@picadvanced.com (F.R.); ana@picadvanced.com (A.M.T.)
2 Department of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics (DETI), University of Aveiro,
3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
3 PICadvanced, PCI—Creative Science Park Via do Conhecimento, Edifício Central, 3830-352 Ílhavo, Portugal;
carla.rodrigues@picadvanced.com
4 Altice Labs, R. José Ferreira Pinto Basto, 3810-106 Aveiro, Portugal; claudio-e-rodrigues@alticelabs.com
* Correspondence: teixeira@ua.pt

Received: 31 March 2020; Accepted: 3 June 2020; Published: 10 June 2020
Abstract: The development of photonic integrated circuits (PIC) for access network applications, such
as passive optical networks (PON), constitutes a very attractive ecosystem due to PON’s potential mass
market. The implementation of PIC solutions in this context is expected to facilitate the possibility
of increasing the complexity and functionalities of devices at a potentially lower cost. We present
a review addressing the prominent access network market requirements and the main restrictions
stemming from its specific field of application. Higher focus is given to PON devices for the optical
network unit (ONU) and the implications of designing a device ready for market by discussing its
various perspectives in terms of technology and cost. The discussed PIC solutions/approaches in
this paper are mainly based on indium phosphide (InP) technology, due to its monolithic integration
capabilities. A comprehensive set of guidelines considering the current technology limitations,
benefits, and processes are presented. Additionally, key current approaches and efforts are analyzed
for PON next generations, such as next-generation PON 2 (NGPON2) and high-speed PON (HSP).
Keywords: photonic integrated circuits (PIC); access networks; passive optical network (PON);
next-generation passive optical network 2 (NGPON2); high-speed PON (HSP); super-PON
1. Introduction
Telecommunication network infrastructures can be described by three main network segments,
i.e., core or backbone, metro/regional, and access networks, as depicted Figure 1. Long-distance
communications with high aggregate traffic are attained with core and metro networks, while access
networks entail service provider to end-user fiber-optic telecommunications technology. These
systems are subject to significant growth in capacity requirements with operators looking for feasible
cost-effective solutions. The potentiation of cost-effective solutions can be reached with the improvement
of current network technologies, as they become widely used, e.g., coherent systems in future optical
access networks [1,2].
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024; doi:10.3390/app10114024 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 2 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 2 of 19
Figure1.1. Diagram
Figure Diagram of a telecommunications network
network infrastructure,
infrastructure,based
basedin
in[3].
[3].
Photonic
Photonicintegrated
integrated circuits
circuits (PIC)
(PIC) are considered an evolving evolving technology
technologyofferingofferingaasustainable
sustainable
(efficient and cost-effective) alternative to
(efficient and cost-effective) alternative to data transmissiondata transmission interfaces [4]. The implementation ofof
The implementation
integrated
integratedphotonics
photonics can can thus
thus enable
enable savings
savings and new functionalities, increasing the
functionalities, increasing the transmission
transmission
capacity
capacity[5]. [5]. InIn the
the access
access network
network context, PIC can offer compelling performance improvements
compelling performance improvements
compared
comparedtoto traditional
traditional bulk technology
bulk technology[6], like
[6],bi-directional optical optical
like bi-directional sub assembly (BOSA). Upgrades
sub assembly (BOSA).
inUpgrades
terms of in weight
termsand volume,
of weight andreduced
volume,powerreduced consumption,
power consumption,high mechanical and thermal
high mechanical stability,
and thermal
and assembly
stability, andsimplification for high subsystem
assembly simplification for high integration
subsystem areintegration
expected under PIC solutions
are expected under[6–9].
PIC
solutions [6–9].
By combining the need of providing enhanced passive optical network (PON) technologies
By combining
and taking advantage theofneed of providing
photonic integratedenhanced
solutionspassive optical
benefits, network (PON)description
a comprehensive technologiesofand PIC
taking challenges
design advantage for of photonic
the optical integrated
networksolutions
unit (ONU) benefits,
side of a comprehensive
next-generationdescription
PON is deliveredof PIC
indesign challenges
this study (see for the optical
optical accessnetwork
networkunit (ONU)
branch inside of next-generation
Figure 1). The paperPON is delivered
is organized in this
into four
study (seesections.
additional optical access network PIC
The historical branch in Figure
evolution 1). The paper
addressing current is developments
organized intoand fourexpectations
additional
sections.
are described Theinhistorical
Section 2. PICSectionevolution addressing
3 addresses the PONcurrent
standards developments and expectations
and next-generation PON timeline. are
described
The in Section of
implementation 2. PIC
Section 3 addresses
solutions for PON theisPON standards
introduced and next-generation
in Section 4, discussing PON timeline.
the technology
The implementation
impact on reach (Section of 4.1),
PIC solutions
the adopted forband
PONand is introduced
wavelengthinselection
Section 4, discussing
criteria (Section the4.2),
technology
photonic
packaging (Section 4.3), and control complexity, power dissipation and form factor issues (Section4.2),
impact on reach (Section 4.1), the adopted band and wavelength selection criteria (Section 4.4).
photonic
The study packaging
is concluded (Section
in Section4.3), 5.
and control complexity, power dissipation and form factor issues
(Section 4.4). The study is concluded in Section 5.
2. PIC Evolution
2. PIC Evolution
Photonic integrated solutions are a promising technology for the 21st-century optical systems,
underPhotonic
the current integrated
demandsolutions are a promising technology
for flexibility/reconfigurability for the
in optical 21st-century optical
communication networks systems,
[5,10].
under the current demand for flexibility/reconfigurability in optical
Differentiated examples of PIC solutions include the implementation of photonic integrated optical communication networks [5]
[10]. Differentiated examples of PIC solutions include the implementation
transforms for data compression applications in different integrated platforms, e.g., indium phosphide of photonic integrated
optical
(InP) transforms
[11,12], silicon for data(SiN)
nitride compression
[13], and applications in differenthybrid
new organic-inorganic integrated platforms,
materials e.g., indium
[14]; SiN-integrated
photonic dispersion compensator enabling extended reach pulse-amplitude modulation with[14];
phosphide (InP) [11,12], silicon nitride (SiN) [13], and new organic-inorganic hybrid materials four
SiN-integrated
amplitude photonictransmission
levels (PAM-4) dispersion as compensator enabling
a low-cost interface extended
for data centerreach pulse-amplitude
interconnects (DCI) [15];
modulation with
development four amplitude
of state-of-the-art levels (PAM-4)
sub-hertz fundamental transmission
linewidthas(<1 a low-cost
Hz) photonicinterface for dataBrillouin
integrated center
laser, narrow enough to move demanding scientific applications to the chip-scale [16–18]; and1a Hz)
interconnects (DCI) [15]; development of state-of-the-art sub-hertz fundamental linewidth (< new
photonic integrated
soft-packaging Brillouin
flexible platform laser, narrow for
approach enough to move
photonic demanding
integrated scientificbased
processors, applications to the
on the spatial
chip-scale
light modulation[16–18]; and a new
operation soft-packaging
principle flexible platform
[19,20]. Moreover, new conceptsapproach for photonic
of PIC-to-PIC integrated
interconnects
processors, based on the spatial light modulation operation principle
with integrated fan-in/fan-out multicore fiber applications for optical dense networks have [19,20]. Moreover, new concepts
been
of PIC-to-PIC interconnects with integrated fan-in/fan-out multicore fiber applications for optical
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Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 3 of 19
reported [21]. Photonic integration appears as a dominant technology in high bandwidth optical
communication systems [9], offering increased valuable solutions in several innovative fields, such
as bio-photonics [22], sensing [23], and space technology [24]. Nevertheless, PIC technology is still
more expensive than standard microelectronics, which can restrict its application into some niche
markets [5].
PICs are the equivalent of electronic integrated circuits (EIC) in the optical domain. As an
alternative to transistors and other electronic components, PICs contain optical elements, such as
modulators, detectors, attenuators, multiplexers, optical amplifiers, and lasers embedded in a single
chip using a waveguide (WG) architecture [19]. The photonic integration technology is going through
a similar evolution path as microelectronic integration, however, with a time delay of about 20 to
30 years [25]. Historically, the invention of the transistor in 1948 [26,27] launched microelectronic
integration developments; analogously, the invention of the semiconductor laser in 1969 [28] was the
breakthrough of photonic integration technology. Transistor and laser technologies were primarily
implemented as discrete components. Microelectronics integration technology started with Kilby
in 1959 [29] and maturated with the complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) [30] in the
1970s. A first PIC comprising a laser integrated with a modulator was reported in 1987 [31], marking
the start of PIC exponential development, typically associated with Moore’s law [25]. Moore’s law
forecasted a double in the number of components per integrated circuit about every two years, with a
new technology generation introduced approximately every three years and an expected compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) under the dozens [32]. Optical communications evolution has brought the
advent of improved PIC, presenting an economic and sustainable alternative to data transmission [4].
PIC technology offers compelling performance advances in terms of small weight and volume, low
power consumption, high mechanical and thermal stability, and the ease for assembling a substantial
number of complex systems [9].
Consequently, the current PIC-related contexts are evolving at a good rate with an overall
worldwide concertation set of efforts aiming to reach a sustainable PIC ecosystem model [33,34].
From the 2000s when the first consortia started to consolidate the concepts around photonics
multi-project wafer (MPW), the way for groundbreaking photonic integration developments was
paved. State-of-the-art PIC-based consortia, such as JePPIX [35], TriPleX [36], and ePIX [37], pioneered
the effort in Europe and globally, followed by private and public-private arrangements, like AIM
photonics [38], Compoundtek silicon photonics, and others [39]. They are working to replicate in optics
what happened in the 80s–90s with electronics, e.g., the Marconi GaAs MPW runs and others [40].
The traction gathered by these consortia allowed a fast development of integrated optics simulators
and of the process design software (PDS) market, supported by software suites running process design
kits (PDK) from almost all available fabs.
The development of a generic common language for the photonic design was an important
breakthrough that allowed integrated photonics to be regarded as a promising sort-term technology.
During these developments, many integrated and hybrid solutions emerged [41–43]; nonetheless,
the majority were bulky, expensive, and typically non-replicable, making these approaches unfeasible
to be integrated into further complex systems and subsystems. For instance, devices such as optical
amplifiers [44], lasers [16,45], and modulators [46], are not supplied by the different integrated platforms
due to limitations of semiconductor integration technology. Thus, it restricted the investment of the
different labs and research institutes in the development of their concepts/testing to validate their
contributions/solutions while waiting for the necessary developments of the technology. In the 90s,
few basic building blocks (BB) were made available in a packaged version, e.g., the semiconductor
optical amplifier (SOA) based Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) [47], though with an expensive
associated cost of several tens of thousands of euros.
Different materials are suitable to produce PICs, nonetheless, only a few have been selected
by actors in the ecosystem and, therefore, have gained traction into foundries, software suppliers,
design houses, and fabless companies [48]. Current main photonic integration platform technologies
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 4 of 4 19
of 19 4 of 19
integrated photonic platform to realize PICs is driven by the functional requirements of the devices
to be developed and the underlying available components (active/passive) for the different platforms
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 4 of 19 4 of 19
[33,55,56]. An overview of the key characteristics between the different available integrated platform
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x
technologies is provided in Table 1 [33,56,57]. BB components, such as lasers, optical amplifiers, and
technologies is provided in Table 1 [33,56,57]. BB components, such as lasers, optical amplifiers, and 4 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024
detectors,
detectors, pose pose
design
design
challenges
detectors,
challenges for
pose
for
their
their
design
implementation
implementation
challenges in for in
a their
SiN‐based
a SiN‐based
implementation
monolithic
monolithic
in integrated
a integrated 4 of 19
SiN‐based monolithic integrated
platform; this constrain can be overcome with hybrid and/or heterogeneous processes, as presented
in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x [33,55,56]. An overview of the key characteristics between the different available integrated platform
4 of 4 19
of 19
offering access to generic processes
BBs in Si‐based technology.
detectors, pose design challenges and manufacturing
detectors, for
pose their
design through
implementation
challenges for multi-project
in their
a SiN‐based
implementation wafer in
monolithic (MPW)
integrated runs monolithic
a SiN‐based are integrated
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x technologies is provided in Table 1 [33,56,57]. BB components, such as lasers, optical amplifiers, and
4 of 19 4 of 19
silicon (Si) [49,50], indium phosphide (InP) [51–53],
detectors, pose design and silicon
challenges for nitride
their (SiN)
implementation [48,54].
in The
a selection
SiN‐based monolithic integrated
Table
Table
1. Key
1. Key
features
features
from from
three
Table
three
available
1. available
Key features
photonic
photonic
from
integration
integration
three available
platforms,
platforms,
photonic
i.e., i.e.,
indium
integration
indium
phosphide
phosphide
platforms, i.e., indium phosphide
of the integrated in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x
photonic platform in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x
to(InP), silicon (Si), and silicon nitride (SiN) monolithic technologies.
realize PICs is driven by the functional requirements
integrated photonic platform to realize PICs is driven by the functional requirements of the devices 4 of 19 of the 4 of 4 19
of 19
(InP), silicon (Si), and silicon nitride (SiN) monolithic technologies.
BBs in Si‐based technology. BBs in Si‐based technology.
devices to beintegrated photonic platform to realize PICs is driven by the functional requirements of the devices
developed andintegrated photonic platform to realize PICs is driven by the functional requirements of the devices
the underlying available components (active/passive) for the different
Building block (BB)
Building block (BB) InP
Building block (BB)
InP Si Si SiN
InP SiN Si SiN
detectors, platforms
detectors, pose
pose [33,55,56].
design
design challenges
challenges An
Table for overview
1. for
Key
their
their of the
implementation
implementation keyavailable
in characteristics
in
a SiN‐based
a SiN‐based between
three
monolithic the
available
monolithic platforms, different
photonic
integrated
integrated i.e., indium available
features from Table
three 1. Key features
photonic
from integration integration
phosphide integrated
platforms, i.e., indium phosphide
platform technologies is provided Passive components
Passive components
in Table ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓
Passive components ✓✓ such
[33,55,56]. An overview of the key characteristics between the different available integrated platform ✓✓✓
✓✓ ✓✓✓
1 [33,56,57].
platform; this constrain can be overcome with hybrid and/or heterogeneous processes, as presented BB components, as lasers, ✓✓
(InP), silicon (Si), and silicon nitride (SiN) monolithic technologies. optical ✓✓✓
amplifiers,
detectors, pose design detectors,
challenges pose for
design Table
their implementation 1.
challenges for their Key features from
in a implementation three
SiN‐based monolithic available photonic
in a SiN‐based
integrated monolithic integrated i.e., indium phosphide
integration platforms,
in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers ✓✓✓
in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers ✓✓✓
⚪ H ⚪ H ✓✓✓
Lasers
Lasers Lasers ⚪ H ⚪ H
(InP), silicon (Si), and silicon nitride (SiN) monolithic technologies. ⚪ H ⚪ H
and detectors, pose design challenges for their implementation
platform; this constrain can be overcome with hybrid and/or heterogeneous processes, as presented in
Building block (BB) Building block (BB)
InP for for
a SiN-based
Si implementation InP
SiN
monolithic integrated
BBs in Si‐based technology. detectors, pose design detectors,
detectors,
challenges pose
Modulators pose
for
design
Modulators design
their challenges
implementation
challenges
✓✓✓ ✓✓✓
Modulators their
in
✓✓ their
✓✓ a SiN‐based
implementation
✓✓✓
✓ monolithic
✓ in in a Si
a SiN‐based
✓✓ SiN‐based
integrated SiN
monolithic
monolithic
✓ integrated
integrated
platform; this in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers
constrain can be overcome with hybrid and/or heterogeneous processes, as presented in
Passive components Building block (BB)
✓✓
Passive components ✓✓ InP
✓✓✓
✓✓ Si
✓✓ SiN
✓✓✓
BBs in Si‐based technology. BBs in Si‐based technology. Switches Switches ✓✓ ✓✓ Switches ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓
✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓
Table
Table
Table 1. 1.Key
1. Key Similarly,
features
from hybrid/heterogeneous
from three
three
available
available
photonic
photonic processes
integration
integration arei.e.,
platforms, employed
platforms,
✓✓✓ i.e.,
indium
indium for
features phosphide lasers
phosphide ✓✓✓
and optical
in Table 1. Similarly, hybrid/heterogeneous processes are employed for lasers and optical amplifiers amplifiers BBs
Lasers
Optical amplifiers
Optical amplifiers ✓✓✓ Lasers ⚪ H
Passive components
✓✓✓ Optical amplifiers
⚪ H ⚪ H ✓✓
⚪ H
✓✓✓
⚪ H ⚪ H ✓✓
⚪ H
⚪ H ✓✓✓
⚪ H
⚪ H
in Si-based BBs in Si‐based technology.
technology. BBs in Si‐based technology.
Table 1. Key features from
Table three
1. Key
available
features photonic
from three
integration
available platforms,
photonic i.e.,
integration
indium platforms,
phosphide i.e.,
Modulators
Detectors
Detectors ✓✓✓
✓✓✓ Modulators
✓✓✓ Lasers
Detectors ✓✓
✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓✓
⚪ H ✓ indium phosphide
⚪ H ✓✓
⚪ H
✓✓ ✓
⚪ H
⚪ H
Building block (BB)
Building block (BB) InP
Table 1. Key features Switches
InP
Table
from
Table
three
1. Key Si features
1. Key
available
features from ✓✓
Si photonic
SiN
from Switches
Modulators
SiN
three
three ✓✓
integration
available
available
platforms,
photonic ✓✓
✓✓✓
photonic ✓
integration
i.e.,
integration
indium ✓✓
platforms,
phosphide
platforms,
i.e., i.e., ✓
indium
indium
phosphide
phosphide
Table 1. Key features from three Footprint Footprint
available photonic ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓
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integration ✓✓✓
platforms, ✓✓
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i.e., ✓
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Building block (BB) Optical amplifiers
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InP Si ✓✓✓
Optical amplifiers
InP Switches
SiN ⚪ H
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⚪ H ✓✓
⚪ H ⚪ H ✓
and silicon nitride✓✓
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✓ ✓✓✓
✓ Chip cost
✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓
✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓
✓✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓ Detectors ✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓ ✓✓✓ Detectors
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✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓✓ ⚪ H
✓ ✓ Si Si ⚪ H ✓✓ ⚪ H
Lasers
Lasers
Passive components Passive components
CMOS compatibility
CMOS compatibility
Building block (BB) ⚪ H ⚪ H ⚪ H ⚪ H
CMOS compatibility
⚪⚪ ⚪⚪
Building block (BB)
Building block (BB)
InP Si ✓✓ InP InP ⚪⚪
SiN ✓✓ SiN SiN ✓
Building
Modulators Block (BB) ✓✓✓
Modulators
Lasers ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ Footprint
Lasers InP
✓✓
⚪ H ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓
✓ ✓
⚪ H Footprint
Detectors
⚪ ⚪ H ✓✓✓
⚪ 1Si
/✓✓ 1/✓✓ ✓✓
✓✓✓
⚪ H ✓ ⚪ ✓✓✓
✓✓
SiN 1/✓✓ ✓
⚪ H
Passive components
Low‐cost packaging
Low‐cost packaging ✓✓
Passive components
Passive components
⚪ ⚪ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓ ⚪ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓
Passive components ✓✓
Switches
Switches
Modulators ✓✓✓ ✓✓ Chip cost
Modulators ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓
✓ ✓ Chip cost
Footprint
✓ ✓✓ ✓✓
2 2
✓ ✓✓
✓✓ ✓ ✓✓
✓✓✓ 2 ✓✓
✓
Lasers 33 ✓✓✓
Lasers
Lasers ⚪ H 33 ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ⚪ H ⚪ H ⚪ H 333 ⚪ H ⚪ H
Optical amplifiers
Optical amplifiers
Lasers
Performance:
Performance:
Switches ✓✓✓ CMOS compatibility
✓✓✓
✓✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓
very good;
very good; ✓✓
⚪ H ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓
✓✓
⚪ H
Performance:
Switches 333 good; ✓✓✓ CMOS compatibility
⚪⚪
✓
good; ⚪ H ✓
⚪ H Chip cost
modest; ⚪
very good;
modest; ✓✓ H ⚪✓✓ ✓✓
challenging;
challenging;
good; ⚪⚪
✓ ✓
⚪⚪ ✓
✓ ⚪⚪
modest; ⚪ ✓✓
very challenging.
very challenging.
challenging; ✓ very challenging.
✓✓
⚪⚪
Modulators ✓✓✓
Modulators ✓✓
Modulators 1/✓✓
✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ 1 H ✓ ✓
Modulators
Detectors
Detectors
Optical amplifiers ✓✓✓
Optical amplifiers ⚪ H ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ⚪ H ⚪ H ⚪ H
⚪ H ⚪
H: hybrid/heterogeneous processes to overcome the design challenges associated with the monolithic
✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ 333 33 ✓✓ ⚪ H ⚪
✓✓ CMOS compatibility ⚪⚪ ✓✓
3 /✓✓ ✓
1Switches ✓✓ Low‐cost packaging
⚪
Switches
Switches ✓✓ 2 ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓
⚪ ✓✓ ✓✓ 2 ✓ ✓ ✓✓
integrated technology.
integrated technology. End‐fire coupling (low reflection);
1 End‐fire coupling (low reflection);
integrated technology. 1 End‐fire coupling (low reflection);
2 vertical coupling (medium reflection).
2 vertical coupling (medium reflection). 2 vertical coupling (medium reflection).
⚪ 1/✓✓
Switches
Footprint
Footprint
Detectors ✓✓
✓✓✓ ✓✓
Detectors 33
✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓
✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓
⚪ H 33 ⚪ H 3
Optical amplifiers Optical amplifiers ✓✓✓ Low‐cost packaging
Optical amplifiers ⚪ H ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ⚪ H ⚪ ⚪ H ⚪ H 2 ⚪ H ⚪ H ✓✓
Optical amplifiers
Performance: ✓✓✓ ✓ very good;
✓ ✓✓
Performance:
333
✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓
good; ✓ ✓✓
✓✓ modest;
very good; ✓✓
⚪ challenging;
H good; ✓ ⚪⚪ modest; ⚪ challenging;
very challenging.
H ⚪⚪ very challenging.
Chip cost
Chip cost
Footprint ✓✓
Footprint
Detectors ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓✓
Several advantages and/or limitations can be highlighted from the referred technologies. High
Several advantages and/or limitations can be highlighted from the referred technologies. High ✓
✓✓✓
Detectors
Detectors ✓✓ ✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ ⚪ H ✓✓ ✓✓ ⚪ H ⚪ H
Detectors
CMOS compatibility
CMOS compatibility
Chip cost ⚪⚪ ✓
⚪⚪ 333
✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓✓
Performance: ✓ ✓ ✓✓ very good;
✓ ✓✓
gain, speed, and low loss are three of the main attributes of photonic devices’ improved performance. 33
gain, speed, and low loss are three of the main attributes of photonic devices’ improved performance. ✓✓ good; ✓✓ ✓ modest; ⚪ challenging;
gain, speed, and low loss are three of the main attributes of photonic devices’ improved performance.
Chip cost H ⚪⚪ very challenging.
integrated technology. Footprint ✓✓
Footprint
Footprint
integrated technology. ✓✓✓ ✓✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓✓
2 vertical coupling (medium reflection). ✓✓✓ ✓ ✓
As InP is a direct bandgap material, it presents the best available gain performance, however, with
CMOS compatibility As InP is a direct bandgap material, it presents the best available gain performance, however, with
CMOS compatibility
⚪⚪ ⚪ ⚪ 1/✓✓ 1/✓✓
✓✓ ⚪⚪ ✓ ✓✓ ✓
Footprint
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environment [42]. Nevertheless, as components in silicon substrates usually have higher dimensions
maturity with chips comprising up to hundreds of components. Silicon‐based photonic processes are
of optical amplifiers [55]. Regarding systems‐on‐chip (SOC) complexity, InP platform has a good integrated
technology. than in InP and since silicon photonics lack light sources and amplifiers, InP‐based platforms provide
1than in InP and since silicon photonics lack light sources and amplifiers, InP‐based platforms provide
End-fire coupling (low than in InP and since silicon photonics lack light sources and amplifiers, InP‐based platforms provide
reflection); 2 vertical
complementary metal‐oxide‐semiconductor (CMOS)‐compatible, allowing its integration to be run
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coupling 2(medium reflection).2 vertical coupling (medium reflection).
a higher potential for volume scaling and integration [25]. Despite the high processing technology
in a higher potential for volume scaling and integration [25]. Despite the high processing technology
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in a
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reported platforms. As a result, high-performance passivewww.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
components
are enabled by this platform, though electrical pump for gain is unavailable due to the insulating
nature of SiN/SiO glass WGs [55]. However, the demonstration of optical gain using erbium-doped
WG distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) and distributed feedback (DFB) laser arrays integrated within
ultra-low loss SiN [59] shows potential for the platform’s active component integration. Silicon is
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 5 of 19
among the most mature photonic integrated platforms, leveraging from existing technologies like
silicon electronics and micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) industries and enabling foundry
services robustness and product commercialization. InP platforms can be seen as one of the options
that stem out from the alternatives since it integrates monolithically high-quality lasers, receivers,
amplifiers, and passives [33,35,60]. Si and SiN are more prone to be used for passive and filtering
components, with the need to recur to hybrid packaging [61] when incorporating lasing and gain.
Some of the available foundries/players under the InP, Si, and SiN integrated technologies are
described below:
i. InP: Fraunhofer Heinrich-Hertz-Institut–Fraunhofer HHI (Berlin, Germany); Smart Photonics

(Eindhoven, The Netherlands); Global Communication Semiconductors, LLC (Torrance, CA,
USA); and fabless solution providers, e.g., the INTENGENT III/V Photonics Company (Ontario,
Canada), VLC Photonics (Valencia, Spain), Bright Photonics (Eindhoven, The Netherlands),
and PICadvanced (Aveiro, Portugal);
ii. Si: Acacia Communications, Inc. (Maynard, MA, USA); Luxtera Inc. (Carlsbad, CA, USA);
Intel Corporation (Mountain View, CA, USA); Cisco Systems Inc. (San José, CA, USA);
Mellanox Technologies (Sunnyvale, CA, Israel/USA); Finisar Corporation (Sunnyvale, CA,
USA); Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. (Shimokanzo, Iwata City, Japan); International Business
Machines Corporation (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA); GlobalFoundries Inc. (Santa Clara, CA,
USA); NeoPhotonics Corporation (San José, CA, USA); Oclaro Inc. (San José, CA, USA);
CompoundTek (Singapore); and the American Institute for Manufacturing Integrated Photonics
(AIM Photonics, Albany, NY, USA);
iii. SiN: Ligentec (Ecublens, Switzerland); Lionix (Enschede, Netherlands); Institute of
Microelectronics of Barcelona IBM-CNM, “Silicon Nitride Technology,” (Barcelona, Spain).
Furthermore, several reference institutions with state-of-the-art research in integrated photonics

contributed to the technology developments, namely the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB)
with the available California NanoSystems Institute (CNSI) Nanostructure Cleanroom Facility (NCF);
the Kavli Nanoscience Institute (KNI) laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), the
Fraunhofer Heinrich-Hertz-Institut (HHI); the ePIXfab, INTEC department–Photonics Research Group
at Ghent University; the Nanophotonics Technology Center (NTC) at the Universitat Politècnica de
València (UPV); etc.
Beyond the generic availability of design/fabrication, it is necessary to further develop and invest
in packaging technologies to reach simpler, standardized, and efficient approaches, thus making it
accessible for users and/or companies. Currently, the technology-associated limitations are mainly
related to the lack of general design rules that ease the encapsulation and allow successful testing
of the manufactured photonic chips [6]. This last integration step (packaging) is imperative for
labs and companies that are trying to enter/grow in the integrated photonic technology and market.
A consortium model aiming to establish PIC packaging processes under European commission Horizon
2020 funding is currently being conducted [62] to facilitate the development of this PIC technologic
branch through the development of standard technologies to provide access to affordable, mature, and
scalable packaging solutions [63].
3. Passive Optical Networks

From the 80s onwards, PONs [64] have evolved greatly with the simplification of network
management, pushing network traffic multiplexing closer to the user with the minimization of stranded
capacity [65]. Since then, PON architecture remained one of the most predominant access network
options. PONs have been under mass deployment, with more than 900 million broadband subscribers
reported in 2017 [66]. This infrastructure has subsidized PONs establishment relevance for a long
time [65]. PON basic technology includes: (i) the equipment at the edge of Metro/Access, i.e., the optical
line terminal (OLT); (ii) the user end terminal, i.e., the optical networks unit (ONU); and (iii) the optical
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2020,
2020,10,
10,4024
x 66of
of19
19
i.e., the optical line terminal (OLT); (ii) the user end terminal, i.e., the optical networks unit (ONU);
and (iii) the network
distribution optical distribution
(ODN) thatnetwork
connects(ODN)the OLT that
toconnects
the ONUs the(see
OLT to theaccess
optical ONUsnetwork
(see optical
branchaccess
in
network
Figure 1). branch in Figure 1).
PONemerging
PON emerging technical
technical requirements
requirements are veryareunique,
very unique,
being thebeingsurviving the solutions
surviving solutions
particularly
particularly
sensitive sensitive
to price to pricecosts,
and related and related costs,expense
both capital both capital expense
(CAPEX) and(CAPEX)
operatingand operating
expense (OPEX) expense
[67].
(OPEX) [67]. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, PON poses several PON advantages,
poses severalsuch advantages, such as the simplification
as the simplification of infrastructure of infrastructure
management,
management,
as it is based on as aitfully
is based on a ODN
passive fully passive
[65]. A ODN [65]. Apassive
completely completelyODN passive
made ODN made
of buried of buried
glass with
glass with
cabinets to cabinets to ensure connections
ensure connections and splitting andanticipates
splitting anticipates
long-termlong-term
expectation expectation
of 20 years of or
20 even
years
or even
more. Itsmore. Its architecture
architecture derives from derives
thefrom the technical
technical approachapproach to be deployed
to be deployed at the PON at the
ends.PON ends.
Several
Several technologies
technologies are competingare competing to be implemented
to be implemented in thespace,
in the access accesswith space, thewith
most thecommon
most common based
based
on on a passive
a passive splittersplitter tree topology.
tree topology. The OLT The(interface
OLT (interface
from the from the operator
operator side) one
side) feeds feedstrunk
one trunk
fiber
fibersplits
that that splits into several
into several arms,arms,
each each
arm arm is divided
is divided intointo another
another setarms,
set of of arms,andand so on,
so on, generating
generating a
a tree
tree structure,
structure, which,
which, depending
depending ononthethetechnology,
technology,can canrange
rangefromfromlow low(8(8toto16)
16)totohigh
high(64 (64toto 256)
256)
terminalcounts.
terminal counts.
Optical access
Optical access standardization
standardization has has evolved
evolved rapidly,
rapidly, with with IEEEIEEE 802.3802.3 andand International
International
TelecommunicationUnion
Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication
- Telecommunication Standardization
Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
Sector (ITU-T) Q2 groups Q2playing
groups playing
dominant
dominant roles in the process [68]. The most common technologies
roles in the process [68]. The most common technologies are Gbit-capable PON (GPON) and Ethernet are Gbit-capable PON (GPON)
and Ethernet
PON (EPON) [69], PONtypically
(EPON) [69], typically
supporting upsupporting
to 64 users up to 64
in the users
same OLT in the
trunksame OLT
fiber. Attrunk
the end fiber. At
users
the end
lays an ONUusers(thelaysuser
an ONU (the user
terminal for theterminal
fiber). for
Forthe fiber).
each endFor each end atechnology,
technology, different ONU a different ONU
is typically
is typically
required. required.
Currently, Currently,
it is very common it is very common
to have to have
combined combined
interfaces interfaces
that allow that technologies
multiple allow multiple to
technologies
be handled within to bethe handled within the
same device, the so-called
same device,
“combo”the so-called
solutions“combo”
[70]. Figure solutions [70]. Figure
2 illustrates some of2
illustrates
the some ofcharacteristics
main existing the main existing of thecharacteristics
ITU-T relatedof the ITU-T related technologies.
technologies.
Figure RecentInternational
Figure2.2.Recent InternationalTelecommunication
TelecommunicationUnion-Telecommunication
Union-TelecommunicationStandardization Sector
Standardization (ITU-T)
Sector (ITU-
based optical technologies standards evolution.
T) based optical technologies standards evolution.
Some operators are engaging in the 10 G-capable symmetric PON (XGSPON) and 10 G-capable
Some operators are engaging in the 10 G-capable symmetric PON (XGSPON) and 10 G-capable
EPON (10GEPON). Moreover, a number of more aggressive and disrupting operators are investing in
EPON (10GEPON). Moreover, a number of more aggressive and disrupting operators are investing
deploying NGPON2, merging the traditional concepts of time-multiplexed single-channel per direction
in deploying NGPON2, merging the traditional concepts of time-multiplexed single-channel per
PON combined with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) [71]. This approach allows for further
direction PON combined with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) [71]. This approach allows
developing network flexibility concepts and the smooth evolution of offered data rates [70], i.e., up to
for further developing network flexibility concepts and the smooth evolution of offered data rates
40 or 80 Gbit/s aggregated rates. An example of a PON with coexisting technologies supported by the
[70], i.e., up to 40 or 80 Gbit/s aggregated rates. An example of a PON with coexisting technologies
current ITU-T standard series [71] is depicted in Figure 3.
supported by the current ITU-T standard series [71] is depicted in Figure 3.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 7 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 7 of 19
Figure 3. Diagram describing a PON architecture with three coexisting technologies.

Figure 3. Diagram describing a PON architecture with three coexisting technologies.
New trends are emerging and triggering discussions in the fora, mostly focused on either an
New trends
architecture are emerging
innovation, like the and triggering
Super-PON, discussions
which is on theinstandardization
the fora, mostly focused
path in IEEEonand
either an
ITU-T,
architecture innovation, like the Super-PON, which is on the standardization path in
or on the efforts to move to high-speed PON (HSP) towards higher data rate technologies, such asIEEE and ITU-T,
or
25 on the efforts
Gbit/s and 50 to move
Gbit/s to high-speed PON (HSP) towards higher data rate technologies, such as 25
[72].
Gbit/sCurrent
and 50low-cost
Gbit/s [72].
laser and receiver technologies face some challenges to deliver higher data rates
Current low-cost laser and
without increasing packaging receiver costs.
or electronic technologies
Namely,face some challenges
the current to deliver
methods used higher data
for interconnecting
rates
deviceswithout increasing
with drivers packaging
and boards or electronic
are typically basedcosts. Namely,
on wire bonding the current
and methods
flex printed used
circuit for
board
interconnecting devices with drivers and boards are typically based on wire bonding and
(f-PCB). The latter has limited high-frequency performance and tough mechanical design challenges to
flex printed
circuit board (f-PCB). The latter has limited high-frequency performance and tough mechanical
meet the right soldering robustness, with an expected high impact on the electrical performance of
design challenges to meet the right soldering robustness, with an expected high impact on the
assemblies and sub-assemblies.
electrical performance of assemblies and sub-assemblies.
Among PON future technologies, high interest has been given to the research/development
Among PON future technologies, high interest has been given to the research/development of
of long-reach/high-speed transmission, where optical amplifiers, electrical domain digital signal
long-reach/high-speed transmission, where optical amplifiers, electrical domain digital signal
processing (DSP) to enhance the link budget, and/or transceiver technology are predicted to be key
processing (DSP) to enhance the link budget, and/or transceiver technology are predicted to be key
factors [73]. Generically, for N subscribers, a PON requires a single transceiver at the central office,
factors [73]. Generically, for N subscribers, a PON requires a single transceiver at the central office,
which results in a total of N + 1 transceivers overall [67]. For NGPON2, the OLT transceiver should
which results in a total of N + 1 transceivers overall [67]. For NGPON2, the OLT transceiver should
contain four transmitters (Tx) and four receivers (Rx) with an internal wavelength mux/demux optical
contain four transmitters (Tx) and four receivers (Rx) with an internal wavelength mux/demux
module. In the ONU, a 10 Gbps transceiver with both tunable Tx and Rx is required [70]. By employing
optical module. In the ONU, a 10 Gbps transceiver with both tunable Tx and Rx is required [70]. By
wavelength-selective branching devices in ODN, losses can be diminished, nevertheless at the cost of
employing wavelength-selective branching devices in ODN, losses can be diminished, nevertheless
wavelength transparency waiving. Furthermore, by increasing the number of wavelengths, a high
at the cost of wavelength transparency waiving. Furthermore, by increasing the number of
number of transceivers at the OLT is expected, raising power consumption, port density, and cost [73].
wavelengths, a high number of transceivers at the OLT is expected, raising power consumption, port
Similar to what happened with integrated circuits’ contribution to electronics development, PIC
density, and cost [73]. Similar to what happened with integrated circuits’ contribution to electronics
technology is one of the most attractive solutions to tackle the referred issues. Thus, integrated
development, PIC technology is one of the most attractive solutions to tackle the referred issues. Thus,
photonics can have a key role in the deployment of more flexible PON networks, as they can
integrated photonics can have a key role in the deployment of more flexible PON networks, as they
incorporate different optical components with various functions in a potentially cost-effective way
can incorporate different optical components with various functions in a potentially cost-effective
without increasing the assembly process complexity [7,8].
way without increasing the assembly process complexity [7,8].
4. PIC for Next-Generation PON
4. PIC for Next-Generation PON
Photonic integration can provide advantageous solutions to PON by limiting the number of
Photonic integration
optical and electrical can provideand
interconnections advantageous solutions
thus overcoming some toofPON by limiting
the bulk the restrictions,
packaging number of
optical and electrical interconnections and thus overcoming some of the bulk packaging
such as bandwidth, power dissipation, and cost [65,74]. Nevertheless, complexities can arise with restrictions,
such as bandwidth,
the use power dissipation,
of this technology, andinterfacing
namely fiber cost [65,74].difficulties,
Nevertheless, complexities
number can arise
of electrical with the
connections,
use of this technology, namely fiber interfacing difficulties, number of electrical
and possible high-density of components per device, which demands a high power dissipation connections, and
possible high-density of components per device, which demands a high power dissipation

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 8 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 8 of 19
management
management [70].[70]. The development of
The development of PIC
PIC solutions
solutionsfor foraccess
accessnetworks
networkshas hasalready
alreadybeenbeenreported,
reported,
e.g., with an InP monolithic transceiver PIC for NGPON2 applications [75],
e.g., with an InP monolithic transceiver PIC for NGPON2 applications [75], the proposed layout the proposed layout
has
has the potential to be implemented as an OLT and with filter redesigning
the potential to be implemented as an OLT and with filter redesigning as an ONU. A photonic as an ONU. A photonic
integrated
integratedapparatus
apparatusforfortunable
tunablemulti-wavelength
multi-wavelengthtransmission
transmission waswaspatented
patentedin in
2017 [76],
2017 thethe
[76], time and
time
wavelength division multiplexing (TWDM)-PON transmitter system proposed
and wavelength division multiplexing (TWDM)-PON transmitter system proposed is tailored to is tailored to support
current
supportand next-generation
current access technologies.
and next-generation Monolithically
access technologies. integratedintegrated
Monolithically dual electro-absorption
dual electro-
modulated laser (DEML) solutions with application in PON and claims
absorption modulated laser (DEML) solutions with application in PON and claims of small footprint and
of small low-cost
footprint
external-modulator-free Tx can likewise
and low-cost external-modulator-free Tx be
canfound in the
likewise literature
be found [46].
in the More recently,
literature [46]. More a theoretical
recently,
analysis of polarization-independent receiver (PI-Rx) based in a 3 × 3 symmetric
a theoretical analysis of polarization-independent receiver (PI-Rx) based in a 3 × 3 symmetric coupler coupler with
applications for access networks was reported [77]. An example of a BOSA
with applications for access networks was reported [77]. An example of a BOSA transceiver solutiontransceiver solution
implemented
implemented in in ONU
ONU side of a PON with a representation
representation of of aa 10
10 Gbit
Gbitsmall
smallform-factor
form-factorpluggable
pluggable
(XFP)
(XFP)evolution
evolutionfromfrom discrete
discrete optical
optical component
component to PIC technology
technology is is depicted
depicted in in Figure
Figure4.4.
Figure 4. Diagram describing the evolution of photonic integrated circuits (PIC) for PON, specifically
Figure
the 4. Diagram describing
implementation the evolution
of a bi-directional of photonic
optical integrated
sub assembly circuits
(BOSA) (PIC) for PON,
transceiver specifically
solution in PON
the implementation of a bi-directional optical sub assembly (BOSA) transceiver solution
ONU side, i.e., XFP with discrete optical component packaging (current PON products) and with in PON ONUPIC
side, i.e., XFP with discrete optical component
approach technology (next-generation products). packaging (current PON products) and with PIC
approach technology (next-generation products).
Several steps and guidelines for PIC implementation in PON are addressed in this section, along
Several
with the steps and
technology guidelines
impact for (Section
on reach PIC implementation in PON
4.1); the adopted bandareand
addressed in thisselection
wavelength section, criteria
along
with the technology impact on reach (Section 4.1); the adopted band and wavelength
(Section 4.2); the integrated photonics packaging (Section 4.3); and the issues related with the controlselection criteria
(Section
of 4.2); the
complexity, integrated
power photonics
dissipation, and packaging
form factor(Section
(Section4.3);
4.4).and the issues related with the control
of complexity, power dissipation, and form factor (Section 4.4).
4.1. Technology and Impact on Reach
4.1. Technology and Impact on Reach
A major requirement for future PON technologies is the need for coexistence with current deployed
PON A major [65,70].
systems requirement for future
For example, PON technologies
GEPON has already beenis thedeployed
need foroncoexistence
a scale of with current
millions, thus
deployed PON systems [65,70]. For example, GEPON has already been
any new PON technology must be capable of coexisting with this large base [65]. A PON frameworkdeployed on a scale of
millions,
of thus any technologies,
three coexisting new PON technology
i.e., GPON,mustXGSPON,
be capable andof NGPON2,
coexisting with this large
is depicted base [65].
in Figure A
3 from
PON framework of three coexisting technologies, i.e., GPON, XGSPON, and NGPON2,
Section 3. Here, the same ODN conveys several technologies allowing the migration and evolution of is depicted
in Figure
the network 3 from Section
without 3. Here,
forcing the to
clients same ODN
shift conveys This
technology. several technologies
approach leads allowing
to reduced theCAPEX
migration and
and evolution of the network without forcing clients to shift technology. This
supports pay-as-you-go approaches since it allows keeping using the legacy operating technologies approach leads to
reduced CAPEX and supports pay-as-you-go approaches since it allows keeping using the legacy
untouched, opening an evolution path for other technologies to follow [7].
operating technologies untouched, opening an evolution path for other technologies to follow [7].
The longer the required reach, the more difficult it gets to find the laser technology able to support
The longer the required reach, the more difficult it gets to find the laser technology able to
the demanded distance. As an example, for a 10 Gbit/s with a short-reach like 10 km, almost all
support the demanded distance. As an example, for a 10 Gbit/s with a short-reach like 10 km, almost
standard laser technologies can be used. If addressing the 2.5 Gbit/s market, a medium-reach like
all standard laser technologies can be used. If addressing the 2.5 Gbit/s market, a medium-reach like
40 km and further are still not a major limiting factor to the laser choice. However, if requiring a
40 km and further are still not a major limiting factor to the laser choice. However, if requiring a
common GPON ODN which ranges 20 km including splitters and the handling of dispersion penalty,
common GPON ODN which ranges 20 km including splitters and the handling of dispersion penalty,
it poses challenges to most of the 10 Gbit/s solutions. To achieve that target, the laser must be designed
it poses challenges to most of the 10 Gbit/s solutions. To achieve that target, the laser must be designed
to perform a low penalty, typically bellow 1 dB to 2 dB, at the required distance. To meet those specs,
to perform a low penalty, typically bellow 1 dB to 2 dB, at the required distance. To meet those specs,

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 9 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 9 of 19
speciallydesigned
specially designeddirect
directmodulated
modulatedlasers
lasers(DML)
(DML)are arerequired,
required,or
oreven
eventhethemigration
migrationtotoexternal
external
modulated laser (EML) technologies
modulated laser (EML) technologies [7,8]. [7,8].
Furthermore,ininmost
Furthermore, mostrecent
recentstandards,
standards,ODN ODNshouldshouldsupport
support128
128users
usersand
anda a2020km
kmreach.
reach.These
These
requirements have the penalty of a 21-dB attenuation stemming from splitting
requirements have the penalty of a 21-dB attenuation stemming from splitting losses plus 4 dB due losses plus 4 dB due
totofiber
fiberlosses
lossesand
andaround
around33dB dBinsertion
insertionloss
loss(IL)(IL)ofofco-existence
co-existenceelements,
elements,leading
leadingtotoan anODN
ODNtotal
total
loss greater than 28 dB. If we target 10 Gbit/s with avalanche photodiode (APD) receivers allowinga
loss greater than 28 dB. If we target 10 Gbit/s with avalanche photodiode (APD) receivers allowing
a−26
−26dBm dBmtoto−30 −30dBm
dBmreceiver
receiversensitivity,
sensitivity,it itleads
leadstotoa aminimum
minimumlaser
laseroutput
outputpower
powerofof4 4dBm.
dBm.A
Apossible
possiblealternative
alternativetotoovercome
overcomethis this requirement
requirement is is to use an
to use an amplification
amplification stage
stagein inthe
thepath
pathwhich
which
removes the passivity of the ODN, however, it reduces the potential usage
removes the passivity of the ODN, however, it reduces the potential usage of EML-based solutions of EML-based solutions
sinceits
since itstypical
typicalpower
powerdoes
doesnotnotexceed
exceedthethe0 0dBm.
dBm.
4.2.Band
4.2. Bandand
andWavelength
WavelengthSelection
SelectionCriteria
Criteria
Toimprove
To improve reach,
reach, several
several techniques
techniques are available
are available and stem
and many manyfromstem
thefrom
laser the
(e.g.,laser (e.g., low
low dynamic
dynamic
chirp chirp or modulation
or frequency frequency modulation efficiency),
efficiency), laser drivinglaser driving (pre-chirping
(pre-chirping or equalization),
or equalization), and wavelength and
wavelength selection (e.g., O-band instead of C and L bands) [2,70]. O-Band has
selection (e.g., O-band instead of C and L bands) [2,70]. O-Band has been used for supporting upstream been used for
supporting
and upstream
was adopted and was
by some adopted
of the by some
standards of the standards
like GPON and XGSPON.like GPON
O-band,andbesides
XGSPON. O-band,
presenting
besides presenting low or null dispersion, only introduces slightly higher attenuation
low or null dispersion, only introduces slightly higher attenuation than C-band. These facts greatly than C-band.
These the
reduce factspressure
greatly reduce the pressure
on the O-band on the O-band
components components
industry, impactingindustry,
positivelyimpacting
on the cost positively on
and yield.
the current
The cost andspectral
yield. The currentfrom
allocation spectral
O toallocation
L-band is from O toinL-band
depicted Figureis5.depicted in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Spectrum allocation in ITU-T based standards for PON and trends for channel spacing.
Figure 5. Spectrum allocation in ITU-T based standards for PON and trends for channel spacing.
If a certain technology is deployed in greenfield, a viable approach is to implement standards that
If a certain technology is deployed in greenfield, a viable approach is to implement standards
are not back-compatible, i.e., does not support legacy technologies. In this scenario, the use of O-band
that are not back-compatible, i.e., does not support legacy technologies. In this scenario, the use of
is an option for future PON. The drawback of this option is that the operator has to guarantee that the
O-band is an option for future PON. The drawback of this option is that the operator has to guarantee
PON evolution is on top of the new technology deployed. To cope with the maturity of the technology
that the PON evolution is on top of the new technology deployed. To cope with the maturity of the
and promote an easier and simplified entry into the market, initial PON technologies, like GPON,
technology and promote an easier and simplified entry into the market, initial PON technologies, like
were set in large bandwidths for better yield in laser choice with the upstream in the O-band [7,67].
GPON, were set in large bandwidths for better yield in laser choice with the upstream in the O-band
The wavelength range of 20 nm to 30 nm per traffic direction was reserved for this technology, which
[7,67]. The wavelength range of 20 nm to 30 nm per traffic direction was reserved for this technology,
allowed it to easily mature while still being competitive. This strategy proved to be solid since it
which allowed it to easily mature while still being competitive. This strategy proved to be solid since
resulted in the current GPON BOSA to sit in the few dollars range (as of today).
it resulted in the current GPON BOSA to sit in the few dollars range (as of today).
Furthermore, PON technology evolution can be achieved by data rate multiplication and more
Furthermore, PON technology evolution can be achieved by data rate multiplication and more
efficient use of the bands to promote further network evolution scenarios. Following this path, XGSPON
efficient use of the bands to promote further network evolution scenarios. Following this path,

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 10 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 10 of 19
standard
XGSPONwas conceived
standard was with slightly smaller
conceived bandwidths
with slightly for both
smaller upstreamfor
bandwidths andboth
downstream,
upstream which
and
resulted
downstream, in a four-times
which resulted higherinbitrate than GPON
a four-times higher [70,78].
bitrate than GPON [70,78].
ToTofurther
furtherexploit
exploitthe theavailable
availablebandsbands(see(seeFigure
Figure5), 5),dense
densewavelength
wavelengthdivision divisionmultiplexing
multiplexing
(DWDM)
(DWDM) can can be be aaroute
routetotoexplore.
explore. The The possibility
possibility of of including
including tunability
tunability allows
allows network
network activeactive
transformation and
transformation and management.management. Even considering
considering the associated price to pay, it is an important
pay, it is an important
solution
solutionunderunderthethe requirement
requirement of tightly controlled
of tightly lasers.lasers.
controlled Furthermore, with thiswith
Furthermore, capability, a projecteda
this capability,
OPEX
projectedreduction
OPEX isreduction
expected,issince clientssince
expected, can seamlessly
clients canmigrate
seamlessly to any of the to
migrate available
any of wavelengths
the available
while the network
wavelengths whilegrows smoothly
the network and smoothly
grows systematically.
and systematically.
The
The most
most evident
evident barrier
barrier forfor the
the spread
spread of of this technology
technology is the laser and receiver requirements,
which
which should be beattained
attainedunder under a potential
a potential lowlow costcost and simultaneously
and simultaneously have ahavehigh agradehighofgrade of
stability
stability [7,8].5Figure
[7,8]. Figure presents 5 presents
the bands thefor
bands for the different
the different steps ofsteps of the network
the network evolution,evolution,
i.e., fromi.e.,the
from the
legacy
legacy technologies
technologies wide bands
wide bands to thegeneration
to the next next generation
tightertighter bandwidths.
bandwidths.
A Arepresentation
representationofof thethetypical distribution
typical of lasers,
distribution stemming
of lasers, from afrom
stemming singleawafersinglerun, is depicted
wafer run, is
in Figure 6A.
depicted Each of6A.
in Figure theEach
lasersofcollected
the lasers from the wafer
collected from will
thehave its emission
wafer will havewavelength
its emission and thus they
wavelength
can
andbe used
thus theyin acan
morebe specific/tighter
used in a morewavelengthspecific/tighter range. To accomplish
wavelength range. this
Tofeature,
accomplisha tuningthisprocess
feature,isa
required, e.g., temperature,
tuning process is required, current, etc. Each wafer
e.g., temperature, run may
current, etc.present
Each waferdifferent
runstatistics
may presentdue to different
material
deposition
statistics due doping and processing,
to material depositionsee Figure
doping and6B.processing,
Nonetheless, see the
Figurewafer
6B.uniformity
Nonetheless, wavelength
the wafer
map is in general
uniformity scarcely
wavelength mapreported by the foundries,
is in general some works
scarcely reported by thesuggest these some
foundries, claimsworks[79,80].suggest
Tight
control of the doping
these claims [79,80].process may reduce
Tight control of thethisdoping
variation and greatly
process may improve
reduce this the yield and temperature
variation and greatly
improvemechanisms.
control the yield and Thetemperature control mechanisms.
finer the required tuning, the more The complex
finer the the required tuning, the
laser selection more
process.
complex
The the laser
qualification ofselection
a laser toprocess.
operate in The qualification
a certain wavelengthof a laser
rangetoresults
operate in asetting
from certainitswavelength
maximum
range results
allowed wavelengthfrom setting
at initial its temperatures.
maximum allowed The broadwavelength at initial
requirements of temperatures.
the technologyThe broad
in terms
requirements
of of the technology
the client locations may require in industrial
terms of the client locations
temperature ranges may(−40 to 85 ◦industrial
require C), whichtemperature
bring extra
ranges (−40
requisites to tothe85°C), which bring choice
laser wavelength extra requisites
or thermaltocontrol
the laser wavelengthDirectly
mechanisms. choice or thermal control
modulated lasers
mechanisms.
have good optical Directly
output modulated
power and lasersarehave
easygood
to drive optical
andoutput
modulate. power and are the
However, easyinherent
to drivehigh and
modulate. However,
wavelength fluctuation thewhen
inherent high wavelength
modulated fluctuation
or the inherent chirp when modulated
can result or the inherent
in propagation chirp
limitations.
can result
Laser in propagation
design/control effortslimitations.
are being made Laserto design/control
minimize these efforts
effectsareandbeing made to
currently, minimize
there are alreadythese
effectsdevices
some and currently,
in the marketthere areablealready
to copesome withdevices
some ofinthe themost
market able tostandard
stringent cope withrequirements
some of the most [81],
stringent
e.g., standard requirements
the NGPON2. With an external [81],cavity,
e.g., the NGPON2.
EMLs result in With an external
a much cavity,however,
lower chirp, EMLs result havingin a
much lower
typically a morechirp, however,
complex having typically
tunability mechanism a morewhen complex
comparedtunability
to themechanism
simple current whenorcompared
thermal
to the simple
tuning of the DMLcurrent [7].or thermal tuning of the DML [7].
Figure6.6. Representation
Figure Representationofofaageneric
genericstatistical
statisticaldistribution
distribution ofof
lasers over
lasers their
over initial
their wavelength
initial wavelength(λ) (λ)
in
ainseta of three wafer runs. Different wafers may result in different central λs. (A): distribution
set of three wafer runs. Different wafers may result in different central λs. (A): distribution of of initial λ
of wafer #2; (B): example of an initial λs distribution for three different wafers.
initial λ of wafer #2; (B): example of an initial λs distribution for three different wafers.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 11 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 11 of 19
4.3.
4.3.Integrated
IntegratedPhotonics
PhotonicsPackaging
Packaging
Photonic
Photonicpackaging
packagingtechnology
technologyhas hasachieved
achievedaahigher
highersignificance
significanceunder
underoptical
opticalcommunication
communication
systems’
systems’ recent developments [82] by covering the optical and electronic connectionsin/out
recent developments [82] by covering the optical and electronic connections in/outofofthe
the
PIC. Packaging process developments are of great importance for the
PIC. Packaging process developments are of great importance for the next generation of optical next generation of optical
components
components[6]. [6]. Being
Being one one ofof the
the most
most complex
complex segments
segmentsof ofthe
theintegrated
integratedcomponent
componentviability,
viability,it
itcan
canpose
poseseveral
several challenges,
challenges, such such as
as limitations
limitations inin terms of volume, cost, RF performance,power
terms of volume, cost, RF performance, power
dissipation,
dissipation,and anditsitshigh-volume
high-volumemanufacturing
manufacturingcapability
capability[83],[83],which
whichcan canhighly
highlyimpact
impactthethecost
costofof
the
thesolution.
solution.
Currently,
Currently,packaging
packagingisisseen seenasasoneoneofofthe
themost
mostsignificant
significantbottlenecks
bottlenecksininthe thedevelopment
developmentofof
commercially
commerciallyrelevant
relevantPIC PICdevices
devices[60,84].
[60,84]. The
Thepackaging
packaging designdesignflow
flowisisdivided
dividedintointothree
threemain
main
areas:
areas: the optical design, the electrical design, and the thermal management of the module.AAfirst
the optical design, the electrical design, and the thermal management of the module. first
open-access PIC assembly and packaging pilot line of Europe’s leading
open-access PIC assembly and packaging pilot line of Europe’s leading industrial and research industrial and research
organization
organizationteamsteams(i.e.,
(i.e.,PIXAPP)
PIXAPP)are arededicating
dedicatingefforts
effortstotothethedevelopment
developmentofofaaphotonicphotonicpackaging
packaging
platform to gather state-of-the-art technologies and procedures [62]. This
platform to gather state-of-the-art technologies and procedures [62]. This highly interdisciplinary highly interdisciplinary
team
teamprovides
providessingle-point
single-pointaccess accesstotoPIC
PICassembly
assemblyand andpackaging
packagingfor forusers.
users.TheTheproject
projectkey
keyobjectives
objectives
include: (i) custom solutions through standard packaging technologies; (ii)
include: (i) custom solutions through standard packaging technologies; (ii) training and educationtraining and education as aas
future workforce; and (iii) link the PIC ecosystem through the development
a future workforce; and (iii) link the PIC ecosystem through the development of packaging standards of packaging standards
and
androadmaps
roadmaps[17]. [17].Considering
Consideringthe thetypical
typicalwavelength
wavelengthgain gainband
bandofofan anactive
activedevice,
device,ranging
rangingfrom
from
2020 nm to 30 nm for the O- to L-bands, and the technology wavelength map presentedin
nm to 30 nm for the O- to L-bands, and the technology wavelength map presented inFigure
Figure7,7,
several
severalapproaches
approachesmay maybe berequired
requiredtotomergemergeininaasingle
singledevice
devicethetheupstream/downstream
upstream/downstreamsignals. signals.
There are several network standards, like XGSPON, which require
There are several network standards, like XGSPON, which require upstream/downstream upstream/downstream wavelengths
spaced by more
wavelengths than 200
spaced nm. Athan
by more 200 200
nm spacing
nm. A 200 brings
nm higher
spacingchallenges
brings higherand may requireand
challenges hybrid
may
integration,
require hybrid which poses additional
integration, packaging
which poses challenges
additional [7]. challenges [7].
packaging
Figure7.7. Diagram
Figure Diagram describing
describing transmitter
transmitter and
and receiver
receiver technologies
technologies with
withpotential
potentialuse
useininaccess
access
networks.
networks. Typical gain and lasing media profiles are presented, with 20 nm to 60 nm bandwidthsfor
Typical gain and lasing media profiles are presented, with 20 nm to 60 nm bandwidths for
common current materials, PINs with different doping materials, and APDs. (A): transmitter/(pre-)
common current materials, PINs with different doping materials, and APDs. (A): transmitter/(pre-)
amplification side; (B): receiver side.
amplification side; (B): receiver side.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 12 of 19
In the same technological space, NGPON2 requires only 60 nm between the upstream and
downstream, thus a fully monolithic approach may be achievable by changing slightly the doping or
applying regrowth. Figure 7 provides a representation of the gain curve for a generic material doping,
the abstraction of a laser for the transmitter side, and three types of available receiver techniques/devices.
On the transmitter side tunability limitation of a laser is depicted and corroborated by the limited gain
media in which the laser light is generated, see Figure 7A. This constraint results in 20 nm to 30 nm
tunability range, considering laser operation with significant output power. Simple tuning based on
thermal effects usually results in an available tuning range of 3 nm to 4 nm. A combination of a tunable
device with an external cavity supported by a convenient control mechanism results in a wider tuning
range. On the receiver side several techniques are described, such as a positive-intrinsic-negative
photodiode (PIN), APD, and coherent [7,8], see Figure 7B. The PIN is one of the cheapest and simplest
detecting techniques presenting a wide light wavelength detection range. Its profile can be changed
by the type of materials and doping used. PINs can be easily integrated into e.g., InP PIC, which is
already available for bandwidths exceeding >35 GHz and operational wavelength ranges covering
the common fiber telecommunication bands [33,60,85]. APDs are tougher to integrate, however, from
the system point of view, they result in improved sensitivity due to their intrinsic avalanche gain.
The referred receiving technologies are wide wavelength band, however, with a coherent detection
scheme tunable reception can be achieved. Depending on the arrangement, a different number of
associated PINs (from dual-polarization differential with 8 PINs to quasi-coherent single photodetector)
simultaneous gain and filtering (stemming from the local oscillator beating with the signal) can be
implemented [7,77,86].
To achieve the optical interface between the PIC and the fiber, there are several challenges to be
surpassed, such as the mode adaptation between the WG in the PIC and the cylinder-shaped fiber
core [87]. Spot size convert (SSC) modules in the PIC, lensed fibers connected through V-grooves,
holders, and other techniques are used to achieve consistent solutions. The PIC packaging interfacing
of the electrical connections between the PIC and the PCB is usually carried out by wire-bonding [34].
As bandwidth grows, the trend is to replace the bonding wires by flip-chip solutions to reach higher
thermal and electrical performance. Furthermore, packaging should be a gateway to solve power
dissipation, which is expected to increase significantly with density [7]. Packaging solutions based on
holders with high thermal conductivity and inherent thermal monitoring is an attractive solution to
overcome this constraint.
4.4. Control Complexity, Power Dissipation and Form Factor

The different PON standards and technologies have their own requirements in terms of complexity
control, especially for tunable devices. When wavelength control is not essential, simpler actuation
systems with lower power are required [88]. Nonetheless, once the wavelength spectrum becomes
more crowded, the options have to be restricted and the requirements for more complex control
increase [7]. A summary of the technology and expected power for its optoelectronic interfaces versus
the complexity and requirements for a certain interface is depicted in Figure 8. A general sweep,
from low data rate with large wavelength range and short-reach to higher data rate with tighter
wavelength range and longer reaches, are also presented in the Figure 8. Additionally, the technologies
with an approximate relative power requirement classification (from low to high power) are also
identified. The x-axis represents the optical requirements, ranging from low data rate and short-reach
to long-reach DWDM and high data rate. The red arrows describe the complexity steps from the
system requirements.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 13 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 13 of 19
Figure 8.8.Diagram
Figure Diagram of requirements
of requirements in terms
in terms of control,
of control, complexity,
complexity, and powerand power for
for different different
technologies.
technologies.
Potential form factor solutions able to cope with the required power dissipation are also presented
in thePotential form
far right of factor
Figure solutions able
8. Technology to cope
evolution poseswith the required
increasing power
challenges dissipation
in the are also
control complexity
presented
and required in power.
the far right
As the ofdemanded
Figure 8. Technology
power grows, evolution
a change poses
in theincreasing
form factor challenges
is needed.inFormthe control
factors
complexity
have two majorandcharacteristics:
required power. As the demanded
minimum volume andpower maximum grows, a change
dissipated in the
power form factor is
[89].
needed. Form factorschart
An approximate haveoftwothe major
average characteristics:
pricing for GPON, minimumXGSPON, volume
and and
NGPON2maximum dissipated
evolution versus
power
time is [89].
presented in Figure 9. GPON faced a strong price drop with its increased manufacturability,
pushed Anby approximate
the worldwide chart of the
broad averageofpricing
adoption for GPON,
the technology XGSPON,
by the andXGSPON
operators. NGPON2is evolution
following
versus time is presented in Figure 9. GPON faced a strong price
the same steps, which for the user can be the motto to have 10 Gbit solutions sooner. Technically,drop with its increased
manufacturability,
XGSPON generically pushed
adopted by the
the physical
worldwide broad
layer adoption of
characteristics ofthe
IEEEtechnology by the operators.
802.3av 10GEPON systems,
XGSPON
e.g., is following
differing the same
in the burst modesteps,
timingwhich for the user
requirements can beMoreover,
[70,78]. the motto to have 10 Gbitthe
jump-start solutions
market,
sooner. Technically, XGSPON generically adopted the physical layer characteristics
initial implementations of XGSPON systems relaxed the timing requirements to fully adopt 10GEPON of IEEE 802.3av
10GEPON[70].
standards systems,
Withe.g.,
this differing
rapid price in the burstmodel,
erosion mode timing
the profitrequirements
margins in [70,78].
the supplyMoreover, to jump-
chain depreciate
start fast.
very the market,
As NGPON2initial implementations of XGSPON
is based on the limited tunabilitysystems relaxedlasers
of DWDM the timing requirements
and receivers, to
it poses
fully adopt 10GEPON standards [70]. With this rapid price erosion model,
some challenges for its adoption by manufacturers, vendors, and operators. This fact has delayed itsthe profit margins in the
supply chainprocess.
deployment depreciate very fast.
NGPON2 As NGPON2
technology is from
differs basedthe ontraditional
the limitedmodel
tunability
sinceofit DWDM
goes outlasersof the
and receivers, it poses some challenges for its adoption by manufacturers, vendors,
O-band, making the laser control and manufacturability more stringent. Thus, it results in a potentially and operators.
This fact
slower hasreduction
cost delayed itsanddeployment process. NGPON2
more sustainability from the technology
supply chain differs
pointfrom the traditional
of view [7]. model
since it goes out of the O-band, making the laser control and manufacturability more stringent. Thus,
it results in a potentially slower cost reduction and more sustainability from the supply chain point
of view [7].

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 14 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 14 of 19
Figure
Figure 9. Representationofofaverage
9. Representation average price
price evolution
evolution of PON
of PON technology
technology for GPON,
for GPON, XGSPON,
XGSPON, and
and NGPON2
NGPON2 bulkbulk
typetype BOSA
BOSA (not(not
PIC PIC based).
based). Pricing
Pricing wasempirically
was empiricallycollected
collectedalong
along the
the years
years from
from
several
several providers
providers and
and averaged
averaged inin the
the graph.
graph.
The indicative pricing evolution of the traditional bulk type BOSA for the three technologies is
The indicative pricing evolution of the traditional bulk type BOSA for the three technologies is
depicted in Figure 9. Early, broad and late adoption notes refer to perception and predictions estimated
depicted in Figure 9. Early, broad and late adoption notes refer to perception and predictions
by the authors given the present standing of the technology. Pricing is indicative and may not represent
estimated by the authors given the present standing of the technology. Pricing is indicative and may
all realities/contexts, and is based on, per vendor and per order, 100 pieces at the early adoption stage,
not represent all realities/contexts, and is based on, per vendor and per order, 100 pieces at the early
100k pieces at broad adoption, and 1M pieces at late adoption stages, see Figure 9.
adoption stage, 100k pieces at broad adoption, and 1M pieces at late adoption stages, see Figure 9.
A reduction in physical volume, number of sub-assemblies, and calibration steps are expected
A reduction in physical volume, number of sub-assemblies, and calibration steps are expected
with the migration to PICs. These steps may greatly reduce the price of the subassemblies based on PICs
with the migration to PICs. These steps may greatly reduce the price of the subassemblies based on
when compared with traditional bulk BOSA [7,8]. As identified above, by having upstream/downstream
PICs when compared with traditional bulk BOSA [7,8]. As identified above, by having
on approximately the same wavelength band, NGPON2 can be a great applicant for monolithic PIC.
upstream/downstream on approximately the same wavelength band, NGPON2 can be a great
In such a case, ONU and OLT can coexist in the same PIC platform without further processing.
applicant for monolithic PIC. In such a case, ONU and OLT can coexist in the same PIC platform
XGSPON, besides being already stressed in price, may require O-band and L-band integration, which
without further processing. XGSPON, besides being already stressed in price, may require O-band
can entail extra processing and packaging steps, thus increasing the limitations of PIC viability in this
and L-band integration, which can entail extra processing and packaging steps, thus increasing the
wavelength range. DWDM is also included in the wavelength plan of NGPON2 and is already an
limitations of PIC viability in this wavelength range. DWDM is also included in the wavelength plan
ITU-T standard being used for implementing several telecommunication systems, which also poses a
of NGPON2 and is already an ITU-T standard being used for implementing several
good opportunity for the use of the PIC technology.
telecommunication systems, which also poses a good opportunity for the use of the PIC technology.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
PICs are a promising technology with great potential in several fields including telecom, sensing,
PICs are a promising technology with great potential in several fields including telecom, sensing,
and bio-photonics. In this work, we have reviewed the PON technology standards and evaluated the
and bio-photonics. In this work, we have reviewed the PON technology standards and evaluated the
challenges and benefits of meeting its requirements with the prospective usage of PIC. Depending
challenges and benefits of meeting its requirements with the prospective usage of PIC. Depending on
on the requirements, the type of materials, and components, a tailored approach has to be carefully
the requirements, the type of materials, and components, a tailored approach has to be carefully
specified. The different materials used in the available solutions for implementing PIC result in different
specified. The different materials used in the available solutions for implementing PIC result in
behaviors, steps, processes, and capabilities. The main constraint of PIC is still the limited gain band
different behaviors, steps, processes, and capabilities. The main constraint of PIC is still the limited
of the active devices which are in its core. This may imply advanced processing and/or packaging
gain band of the active devices which are in its core. This may imply advanced processing and/or
packaging techniques to be able to cope with the existing standards, e.g., regrowth and hybrid
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024 15 of 19
techniques to be able to cope with the existing standards, e.g., regrowth and hybrid packaging.
After carefully choosing the standard to be followed and the packaging approach, its control complexity
also has to be cautiously considered to guarantee that the solution is feasible and adapted. Specifically,
for PON the most stringent requirements are the cost and robustness of the proposed solution. We have
discussed several of the challenges to be considered when equating the introduction of PIC in the
next-generation PONs, like productization, wideband wavelength range (O, C, and L-bands), laser
control, and tunability mechanisms.
PON standards have different flavors that result in quite different requirements, especially
regarding the wavelength ranges to be covered by the two traffic directions, i.e., the upstream and
downstream. For instance, GPON and XGSPON have specifications of >200 nm spacing between
upstream and downstream, while NGPON2 requires around 60 nm for the same parameter. Due
to technological inherent limitations of some technologies, hybrid integration may be required,
e.g., XGSPON and GPON. Smaller bands will ease this process and therefore potentiate monolithic
PIC implementation, simplifying packaging and deployment, e.g., NGPON2.
PICs have typically two major interfaces, electrical and optical, each with different requirements,
techniques, and available materials to be used. Packaging and technical considerations such as size,
power, RF compliance, and sealing are relevant. In a nutshell, the manufacturability is anticipated to
be one of the most critical steps for the technology to be successful, especially in PON.
In our vision, the use of PICs in PON and other subsystems is very close to being an effective
reality with prospective advantages.
Author Contributions: This is a review paper, each author contributed to all chapters. C.P. and A.T. prepared
the manuscript, i.e., writing, review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER), through the Competitiveness
and Internationalization Operational Programme (COMPETE 2020) of the Portugal 2020 framework [Project Virtual
Fiber Box with Nr. 033910 (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-033910)]; plugPON (POCI-01-0247-FEDER-047221); FEDER through
the Regional Operational Programme of Centre (CENTRO 2020) of the Portugal 2020 framework [Project HeatIT with
Nr. 017942 (CENTRO-01-0247-FEDER-017942)]; and IT (UID/EEA/50008/2019).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 4024; doi:10.3390/app10114024 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

i. InP: Fraunhofer Heinrich-Hertz-Institut–Fraunhofer HHI (Berlin, Germany); Smart Photonics

Furthermore, several reference institutions with state-of-the-art research in integrated photonics

3. Passive Optical Networks

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Figure 3. Diagram describing a PON architecture with three coexisting technologies.

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Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

4.4. Control Complexity, Power Dissipation and Form Factor

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x; doi: www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

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