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Sullivan, Tiana, Slater, Benjamin, Phan, Judy, Tan, Amanda, & Davis,
James
(2019)
M-learning: Exploring mobile technologies for secondary and primary
school science inquiry.
Teaching Science, 65(1), pp. 13-16.

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Sullivan, T., Slater, B., Phan, B.H.J., Tan, R.J.A, & Davis, J.P. (2019). M-learning: Exploring
mobile technologies for secondary and primary school science inquiry. Teaching Science

M-learning: Exploring Mobile Technologies for

Secondary and Primary School Science Inquiry

Introduction
The use of mobile phones in classrooms for many schools remains a controversial issue (Bano,
Zowghi, Kearney, Schuck & Aubusson, 2018). In our experience, it is still common that schools ban
mobile phones from classrooms even where students may seek to use the phone for routine tasks such
as the calculator functionality. In this paper, we argue that such blanket policies by school
administrators are seriously problematic from an educational perspective, given the immense
functionality of mobile technologies that has emerged over the past decade (Lee, 2017; Malykhina,
2013). Access to the educational power of these technologies is typically being denied to our students,
by educators who may not fully appreciate the capabilities (Bano et al., 2018). This is problematic,
not just for students, but also for educators who will eventually experience increasing pressure from
technological change agents external to the education sector (Burden, Aubusson, Brindley & Schuck,
2016). This paper seeks to illustrate a case for positive technological change within school education
by demonstrating the application of just one mobile device functionality in an inquiry context suitable
for teaching school science across secondary and primary years.

Our motivation for this study draws upon the mobile learning (i.e. m-learning) pedagogical
framework developed by Kearney, Schuck, Burden and Aubusson (2012). That framework
foregrounds the way in which m-learning in science teaching may build connections across informal
and formal learning contexts as well as various authentic situations of science inquiry (Burden &
Kearney, 2016). Learning across these different contexts is characterised in the m-learning framework
as being personalised, collaborative and authentic in the ways that students are positioned to engage
with science. These characteristics are made possible through the flexibility, ease of access, and
diverse capabilities of mobile technologies, making them an invaluable tool in teaching science
(Kearney, Burden & Rai, 2015).

Aim of this Study

The present study provides an illustration of how m-learning may be applied in school science
contexts while simultaneously evaluating the accuracy and reliability of mobile phone functionality
relating to the measurement of sound. The aim of this study is to report on the use of mobile phones as
data collection tools in the context of a science inquiry project suitable for primary or secondary
schools. This aim will be achieved by illustrating the inquiry processes we engaged with in evaluating
the accuracy and reliability of different mobile phones compared with a traditional decibel meter from
our science lab. We will then outline how this application may be applied in junior secondary (Year 9)
and primary (Year 5) science contexts. Across these contexts, this paper also illustrates the simulation
of authentic science inquiry to investigate the mobile device as a scientific instrument (cf. Kardous &
Shaw, 2015; Murphy & King, 2016).

Practical Methods
In this study we tested five sound sensor variations. As a reference standard, we used a Digitech QM
1589 Mini Sound Level Meter, which is a typical piece of equipment for a secondary school science
lab. The mobile phone hardware variants included an iPhone and a Samsung, and from our online
searches we selected two software applications: Decibel Meter from Ashlogic.com, and Decibel X
from Skypaw Co. These apps can be downloaded for free on a smartphone, and there are many other
types of free apps that can be used for teaching and learning in school science (e.g., Lee, 2017;
Malykhina 2013).
Sullivan, T., Slater, B., Phan, B.H.J., Tan, R.J.A, & Davis, J.P. (2019). M-learning: Exploring
mobile technologies for secondary and primary school science inquiry. Teaching Science

The inquiry was contextualised as a perturbation study (QUT, 2016), which is a contextualised field
study of any phenomenon that interrupts the environment at different moments in time. In our case,
the perturbation was the arrival and departure of buses creating sound pollution. All data was
collected within a three-day period from the same bus stop. Before data collection commenced,
specific waypoints were identified to act as the arriving, stationary and leaving locations for taking
readings from buses. These waypoints were equidistant from each other to enable an average sound
perturbation to be measured. The two mobile applications and the sound meter were set up in the
same orientation in a line directly on the stationary stop point for the buses, and each were controlled
by a team member. Data were collected from a total of 30 different buses at the three waypoints. The
Digitech Mini Sound Meter was used for all 30 buses, whereas the mobile applications with the four
hardware/software combinations were used to measure 15 buses each. Because the sound from buses
was constantly fluctuating, we recorded the highest peak reading on both the sound meter and mobile
applications for each of the corresponding data points.

Analytical Methods
To analyse the data, we used Microsoft Excel to calculate the mean, standard deviation and p-value
for a t-test. This analytical method is suggested by the Queensland Curriculum and Assessment
Authority (QCAA, 2018) in the implementation of the senior science curriculum and is therefore
replicable in Queensland schools. These statistical methods are useful for determining the statistical
significance of any difference between the measurement devices. We agreed on a p-value threshold
for the t-test at p<0.05 as the level of significance for this study. These statistics were adopted because
they provide a robust form of analysis that could be expected from a senior science inquiry under the
new Queensland curriculum (QCAA, 2018). For junior secondary or primary classes, the data could
be analysed using a variety of measures of central tendency (i.e. mean, mode, median) and dispersion
such as range. Graphically, we represented data as a normalised distribution via the transformation of
data (Coolican, 2009). Transformation is a mathematical manipulation of raw data that enabled us to
represent the data sets in a clear visualisation of a normal distribution. In a junior secondary or
primary context, these data may be represented in a variety of graphical forms such as box and
whisker plots, as a simple frequency distribution, or other representations suitable for the year level or
specific research questions.

Results
Table 1 shows a summary of results in terms of the mean, standard deviation and p-values for each
measurement variation. These data show a statistically significant difference between the mobile
devices such as the Decibel Meter app with the Samsung (67.1 ± 6.0 dB, mean ± SD, p=6.1 x 10-8)
and the Decibel X app with the iPhone (84.1 ± 10.5 dB, p=1.2 x 10-6) and the DigitechTM sound meter
(74.7 ± 6.1 dB). These results also indicate a statistically significant difference for measurements
using the Decibel Meter application compared with the Decibel X application, independent of the
mobile device hardware. Raw analysis of the data suggests that the type of hardware does not
contribute to any difference between measurements.
Sullivan, T., Slater, B., Phan, B.H.J., Tan, R.J.A, & Davis, J.P. (2019). M-learning: Exploring
mobile technologies for secondary and primary school science inquiry. Teaching Science

Table 1: Mean, Standard Deviation and p-Values

Digitech Mini Decibel Decibel Meter Decibel X Decibel X
Sound Meter Meter (iPhone 8) (Samsung) (iPhone 8)
(Samsung) (dB)
(dB) (dB) (dB) (dB)

Mean ± SD* 74.7 ± 6.1 67.1 ± 6.0 68.1 ± 6.4 84.3 ± 10.2 84.1 ± 10.5

p-value** - 6.1 x 10-8 3.0 x 10-6 5.3 x 10-7 1.2 x 10-6

*SD = Standard Deviation
**Level of significance for t-test, p<0.05, with the Digitech data as the comparison baseline.

A transformation of the data in Table 1 provides the graphical representation in Figure 1, which shows
the distribution of the Digitech data in the centrally located distribution and the Decibel Meter and
Decibel X distributions on opposite sides. When comparing the mean of the results, as demonstrated
in the graph in Figure 1, there is minimal difference between the two mobile devices (Samsung &
iPhone); however, there is a considerable difference between the two different software applications
and the sound meter. The data has been normalised to represent a normal distribution of the data
around respective means. Mean values can be interpreted by aligning the turning point (i.e. the peak)
of each function to the measurements on the horizontal axis.

Figure 1: Normalised data distributions by sensor type after transformation

Discussion
The aim of this study is to report on the use of mobile phones as data collection tools in the context of
a school science inquiry. This aim was achieved by illustrating the inquiry processes we engaged with
in evaluating the accuracy and reliability of different mobile technologies and illustrating how the
recorded data can be analysed appropriately across senior secondary, junior secondary and primary
science.
Sullivan, T., Slater, B., Phan, B.H.J., Tan, R.J.A, & Davis, J.P. (2019). M-learning: Exploring
mobile technologies for secondary and primary school science inquiry. Teaching Science

Senior Secondary
This study evaluates the reliability and accuracy of mobile devices in measuring sound, using a
traditional sound meter to provide a baseline comparison. Reliability is determined by the
instruments’ capacity to obtain data with a relatively low degree of spread or dispersion (i.e. the
standard deviation) around the mean. Accuracy is determined by the instruments’ capacity to obtain a
correct or valid data reading, which in this study is provided by the Digitech sound meter.

The quantitative data in this study suggests that reliable (i.e. consistent) data can be obtained from
mobile technologies for the purposes of measuring sound. This reliability is evident in the similarity
of standard deviations for the different technologies: Digitech (SD ±6.1), Decibel Meter (SD ± 6.0 &
± 6.4), and Decibel X (SD ± 10.2 & ± 10.5); with the Decibel X being the least reliable of these three
options. Importantly, the results of the study clearly illustrate that the choice of mobile device
hardware made no difference to the data collected. Variation between the devices was primarily
determined by the software. On the issue of accuracy, if we are to assume the more traditional
Digitech technology to be the standard for accuracy, the statistically significant differences in results
are indicative of poor levels of accuracy for the mobile applications tested in this study. Whilst this
may not be a significant issue for school science contexts, it is an issue that science teachers should be
aware of, and may take advantage of, when teaching the concepts of accuracy and reliability in
science inquiry.

In a senior science context, this science inquiry task provides an excellent means for exploring the
capacity of mobile phones whilst also exploring the concepts of accuracy and reliability in science.
The statistical calculations used in the analysis were performed using Microsoft Excel. This method of
quantitative analysis is appropriate for senior students who may not have strong mathematical skills.
At the same time, it provides an opportunity to focus on the interpretation of science-related statistics
as a form of numeracy in teaching the senior sciences.

Junior Secondary Science.

This study could be easily adapted for junior secondary such as a Year 9 class studying the physical
sciences and energy transfer in alignment with the Australian Curriculum. For example, with a
controlled sound source, such as a drum beat, the mobile devices could be applied as the primary data
recording source where different materials are used to evaluate variations in energy transfer. Students
could also generate different questions for their study, such as: testing different mobile devices or
applications, testing different materials as sound barriers, or testing the effect of distance from the
sound source. In considering the Year 9 mathematics curriculum, students should be able to calculate
measures of central tendency such as the mean, median or mode and simple measures of distribution
such as range, and the identification of outliers. In the data analysis above we illustrated the use of a
normal distribution, but other graphical representations of data could be used by Year 9 students such
as histograms, box and whisker or scatter plots, depending on the research questions and variables
they choose to explore. Like the data above, Microsoft Excel could also be used in a Year 9 science
class to calculate these statistics.

Primary Science.
The focus of our study has been on the testing of mobile phone sound sensors, however, there are
equally accurate and reliable light sensors available on mobile phones that would be well aligned with
the Year 5 Australian Curriculum. The above study could be adapted to explore the reflection or
absorption of light through different materials such as clothing and the impact of shadows that
clothing provides. This would also have implications for biological and health perspectives in terms of
Sullivan, T., Slater, B., Phan, B.H.J., Tan, R.J.A, & Davis, J.P. (2019). M-learning: Exploring
mobile technologies for secondary and primary school science inquiry. Teaching Science

skin protection, where students could explore different clothing materials and the level of sun
protection provided. Applying the devices in this type of context also makes the science of light more
relevant to students in the way it is relevant to everyday things such as clothing items. The resolution
of data provided by mobile phone lux meter applications can be set to various degrees of sensitivity,
providing readings in thousands, hundreds or to one decimal point. These different ways of
representing numbers may be a teaching point from a primary mathematics perspective. Such data
would also provide learning opportunities through the posing of questions, as well as tabulating and
graphing data in various forms.

General Discussion.
The principal aim of this study was to determine whether mobile devices can be used as scientific
instruments within a school science environment. We found that mobile devices could be used to
effectively collect data for measuring sound, whilst simultaneously being user friendly. This user
friendliness may be interpreted in the context of the m-learning pedagogical framework (Burden &
Kearney, 2016) as evidencing the personalised character of students using their own mobile devices,
and the collaboration afforded by the ubiquity of these personal devices. For example, we had access
to only one Digitech device due to resource limitations, but every member of our team had a mobile
phone that could have been used in this science inquiry process. In schools with limited scientific
equipment, such as primary schools, the many scientific functions on standard mobile devices have
the capacity to improve student access, participation, and collaboration in primary science classes.
The personal and ubiquitous character of mobile devices therefore affords greater capacity for student
involvement and collaboration in school science inquiry contexts. As the school-based studies by
Burden & Kearney (2016) indicate, the data produced, and the methods of science inquiry establish
greater meaningfulness for students when they are using their own personal mobile devices because
these are technologies they are familiar with and carry everywhere. By teaching children about the
capabilities of their own mobile phones we, as science teachers, are bringing science closer to their
everyday lives.

We acknowledge that some educators and parents may not permit students to use their mobile devices
in the classroom, even if it has scientific and educational benefit for students. We argue that this
mindset needs to change because m-learning offers significant opportunities to transform science
teaching by increasing personalisation and collaboration. We also highlight the contextualisation of
our data collection at a local bus stop, which highlights the authenticity of our inquiry and the
capacity to collect data beyond the classroom. That is, students have in their personal mobile devices,
the capacity to conduct science anywhere and at any time, enabling out-of-school inquiry tasks to be
easily completed by students in the form of homework projects. Such flexibility in the conduct of
school science inquiry was far less likely, prior to the development of personal mobile devices.

Conclusions & Limitations

As with all school science there are limitations to our study, such as the breadth of functionalities
tested and our simple approach to quantitative analysis. However, these scientific limitations replicate
typical school science contexts, and for this reason our study offers a provocation for science teachers
to explore m-learning. For the purposes of school science, our findings illustrate significant benefits
of m-learning even with the simple, singular functionality we have adopted. Whilst the mobile
applications do not produce the same results as the traditional Digitech sound meter, the
measurements produced are still statistically reliable, and offer learning opportunities for students in
school science contexts. The results did not differ when using the differing mobile devices: therefore,
so long as the mobile software application remains the same, students could reliably measure sound
Sullivan, T., Slater, B., Phan, B.H.J., Tan, R.J.A, & Davis, J.P. (2019). M-learning: Exploring
mobile technologies for secondary and primary school science inquiry. Teaching Science

with these devices. Although we only tested the domain of sound, our study illustrates the pedagogical
benefits of m-learning and we encourage teachers to explore the many functions available on personal
mobile devices. As we have illustrated, schools with limited resources should consider the highly
sophisticated instruments their students carry with them on an everyday basis, and the opportunities
these devices present for personalised, collaborative and authentic learning.

Implications for Teaching Practice

Mobile technologies offer untapped potential for use in science classrooms for all ages. The
integration of these technologies into school science also increases the capacity for authentic, science-
inquiry approaches that could involve students learning beyond classrooms because they are part of
the everyday lives of many children. As these technologies continue to develop, the potential for m-
learning also grows. For this reason, we suggest that teachers and school administrators who limit
mobile device usage in classrooms need to rapidly change their mindset for the benefit of their
students. We offer this provocation for teachers to explore.

Trademark Acknowledgments
Reference to the following trademarks are acknowledged however the superscript TM has been
removed from the article for ease of reading: Samsung, iPhone, Microsoft Excel, Digitech, Decibel X
and Decibel Meter.

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