SECONDARY GOVT.

HIGHER
SCHOOL
HAPOLI ZIRO
INVESTIGATION PROJECT
2012-2013

CHEMISTRY
PROJECT TITLE:
“COMMON FOOD ADULTERANT”

SUBMITTED BY:

NAME-SWETA RAJPUT
ROLLNO-……………………
CLASS- XII (SCI)
SECTION- A
SCHOOL:GOVT.HR.SEC.SCHOO
L ZIRO
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

BIOLOGY
2012-2013

PROJECT TITLE:
DEOXYRIBO NUCLEIC ACID (DNA

SUBMITTED BY
NAME: SWETA RAJPUT
ROLLNO:
CLASS:XII
SECTION: A
SCHOOL : GOVT.HR SEC
SCHOOL ZIRO (A.P)
.
 PROJECT CERTIFICATE

This to certify that Sweta Rajput of class xii sc. Bearing

Rollno : …………………. Of Govt. Higher Secondary School
Ziro has successfully completed the project
“DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)” by the CBSE Course
in the laboratory of this institution during the session
2012-2013 under my guidance.
Date:……………………

P.P DUBEY
(Senior teacher biology)
Govt.Hr Sec School ziro (A.P.)

INTRODUCTION:
DNA is the genetic material in all organisms. It is a
long polymer of deoxyribonuclieotides. The length
of DNA is usually defined as number of nucleotides
present in it. This also is the characteristic of an
organism. For e.g.: a bacteriophage has 48502
base pair (b.p). Escherichia coli have 46x106 and
haploid human DNA is 3.3x 103 b.p.
PROJECT REPORT:
HISTORY:
Nucleic acid was first isolated in 1868 by a Swiss
physician Freidrich Miescher from the nuclei of
puss cells. He called them nuclein. In 1884, Oskar
Hercuig wrote nuclein is the substance responsible
for the transmission of hereditary characters
.Nuclein was renamed nucleic acid by R.Alham in
1889.He discovered the existence of two types of
nucleic acids Kornberg synthesized DNA invitro in
1961.
LOCATION:
In the prokaryotic cell , DNA is circular and occurs
in the cytoplasm as a component of the
prochromosome and plasmids. In the eukaryotic
cells DNA is linear and largely confined to the
nucleus as a component of the chromosome. It is
called nuclear DNA. A small quantity of DNA also
occurs in the mitochondria and plasmids. This is
called extranuclear or organeller DNA. It is
circular like the prokaryotic DNA. DNA is present
in the chromosomes of some viruses too.
QUANTITY: The DNA content is fairly constant in
all the cells of a given species. Just before cell
division, however, the DNA amount is doubled
.The gametes have the amount of DNA as they
contain half the no. of chromosomes.
POLARITY: The poynucleiotides chains show
polarity .One end of each DNA strand is called 5’
end. The last deoxyribose unit at this end has
carbon at position 5 free.The other end of the
strand is termed 3’-end. The last deoxyribose unit
at this end has the carbon at position 3 free.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
Chemical structure of DNA is the largest
biomolecules also the largest
macromolecules.DNA molecule is a long double
chain of deoxyribonucleiotide or ribonucleiotide
units. The two deoxyribonucleotide chains are
unbranched and are twisted around a common
axis to form a right handed double helix (spiral)
that encloses a cylindrical shape inside etc. Each
deoxyribonucleiotide unit in turn consist of 3
different molecules; phosphate (PO4), 5-carbon
deoxyribose sugar (C5H10O4) and nitrogenous base.
Nitrogen gives the base its basic nature. The
nitrogenous base may be a 3-membered double
ringed purine i.e., adenine (A) ,or guanine (G) or a
six membered ,single-ringed pyrimidine ie
cytosine (C) or thymine (T).

GENETIC CODE: The particular sequences of

bases in each polynucleotide chain is known as
primary sequences of DNA.This primary sequence
forms the genetic code ie, the information required
by the cell to synthesis all its specific proteins it
needs.The primary sequence of DNA shows an
unlimited variation and this is the basis of huge
variety seen in the living world.
Sense and antisense strands: The genetic
information exists in the base sequences of one of
the two chains of DNA molecules. This chain is
often called sense chain. Its complementary chain
is termed antisense or missense chain. The
missence chain is important in the replication of
DNA molecules but doesnot take part directly in
transcription. It is copied from the sense chain.

CISTRON:
A part of sense strand that codes for a polypeptide
is called a cistron. Each cistron consists of many
codon and a codon comprises three consecutive
nitrogeneous bases. A codon specifies a single
amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

TYPES OF DNA:
1. DNA molecules are of two types: linear and
circular DNA linear DNA has free ends. It is
found in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells. It is
associated with proteins. It is organized into a
no. of chromosomes each containing one long
DNA double helix.Circular DNA has its ends
joined together.It is found in prokaryotic cells
and in the mitochondria and plastids of
eukaryotic cells. It is not associated with
proteins. The prokaryotic DNA exists as a single
chromosome.
2.Tropic and genetic DNA:The cillates have
separated tropic and genetic DNA located in the
 macronucleus and micronucleus respesctively.
The macronucleus controls the vegetative
functions and the micronucleus controls the
sexual reproduction.
3.A-,B-,C-,D- AND Z- DNA (five forms of
DNA):These five forms are largely confined to
the structure given by Watson and Crick, but
show minor variations such as the nucleiotides
per turns , the distance between successive base
pairs and directions of coiling.
The A,B,C,D forms are right-handed double
helixes.The B-DNA occurs under the
physiological conditions in the living cells.
It has specifications given in the foregoing
description of DNA.The A-DNA contains 11
base pairs per turns of the helix and D-DNA
has 9 base pairs per turn of the helix and D-
DNA has only 8 b.p.The Z-DNA is left hand
containing 12 bp of per turn of the helix, each
turn is 45 A long and its sugar phosphate
backbones follows a zigzag path along the
helix. The Z-DNA retains the most important
features of the Watson and Crick model viz:
the double helix with antiparallel strands and
the A-T and C-G base pairing.Z-DNA is
present in the salivary glands polythene
chromosomes of drosophila.It functions in the
regulation of gene transcription.
 Right handed DNA can temporarily assume
left handed from over a short length and this
can affect gene expression.
4.Coding and non –coding DNA: DNA in a cell
may be functional on non-functional.
a)Non coding DNA:Greater part of DNA in
Eukaryotic cells doesnot code for RNA.
This extra or noncoding DNA has many base
sequences repeated several times.The same
repeatetive DNA sequences are not found in
fixed sites in the DNA of different individuals
of the same species.Such molecule DNA
ssequences are not found in the DNA of other
individuals of the same species.Such molecule
DNA segments are often refrred as jumping
genes.The jumping gene can make a copy of
itself but the copy becomes encorporated in
another part of the genome. The original gene
doesn’t jump.
b) Coding DNA : The coding DNA sequences
lies as islands in the sea of nonfunctional DNA
sequences.It is of two types :
i) Protein coding DNA: It contains most of
the genetic information and codes for all the
proteins accept histones.
ii) DNA coding for Rrna,Trna, and
histones: They are repeatitve because these
substances are needed in large amounts
.Human genome has 400 copies of rRNA.
 FUNCTIONS OF DNA:
1. It is the genetic material and the hereditary
characters from parents to the young ones.
2.It enables the cell to maintain grow and divide
by directing the synthesis of structural
proteins.
3.It controls the metabolism in the cell by
directing the information of necessary
proteins.
4.It produces RNAs by transcription for use by
protein synthesis.
5. It creates variety in population by causing
recombinant by crossing over.
6.It contributes to the evolution of the organism
by undergoing gene mutations.
7. It brings about differentiation in cells during
developing only certain genes remain
functional in particular cells this enables the
cells having similar genes to assume different
structure and functions.
8.It contains postnatal development through
adulthood to death by “internal clock.”

REPLICATION: SYNTHESIS OF DNA:

The copying process of dna to produce
additional DNA moleculesis called replication.
The replication in eukartotes occur in the
nucleus during S-phase of the cell cycle when
the chromosomes are in their extended forms
and are readily visible. In prokaryotes
replication takes place in the cytoplasm and is
always a continuous process.
Watson and Crick suggested the two strands of
DNA molecules uncoil and for the synthesis of
new strand alongside it. The DNA double
stranded molecules are identical to the original
DNA molecules. The sequences of bases which
should be present in the new strands can be
easily predicted because these should be
complimentary to the bases present in the old
strand A will pair with T ,T with A ,C with G ,G
with C . Thus the two daughter DNA are
formed from the present DNA molecules. Each
daughter DNA molecule consists of one parent
strand and one new strand.
Since only one parent strand is conservative in
each daughter molecule, this mode of
replication is said to be semi conservative.
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR
SEMICONDUCTOR REPLICATION:

PARENT DNA MOLECULE:

FIRST GENERATION DNA:

SECOND GENERATION DNA:

 Semi conservative DNA replication in
eukaryotic chromosomes was first
demonstrated by Payler in 1957.
Semi conservative mode of DNA replication is
provided by Meselson and Stahl in 1958. They
grew E.coli bacteria in a medium containing
the heavy nitrogen isotopes 45N and 14N for
many generations . this produced a population
of bacteria cells that had uniformly 15N labeled
DNA and this DNA was heavier than the DNA
obtained from the E.coli grown in 14N
containing medium. The bacteria cells with
heavier DNA were transferred to a medium
containing normal 14N isotope. From thr
daughter cells of first generation DNA was
extracted, purified and centrifugation was
done.
It was found that all the DNA molecules were
hybrid 15N-14N ie, were half heavy this is what
expected in case of semi conservative mode of
replication. Daughter cells were allowed to
divide again.

.
This to certify that Sweta Rajput of class xii sc. Bearing
Rollno:…………………. Of Govt. Higher Secondary School
Ziro has successfully completed the project “COMMON
FOOD ADULTERANT” by the CBSE Course in the
laboratory of this institution during the session 2012-
2013 under my guidance.
Date:……………………

J.SINGH
(Senior teacher chemistry)
Govt. Hr .Sec School ziro (A.P.)

This to certify that Sweta Rajput of class xii sc. Bearing

Rollno:…………………. Of Govt. Higher Secondary School
Ziro has successfully completed the project activity by
the CBSE Course in the laboratory of this institution
during the session 2012-2013 under my guidance.
Date:……………………

M.shah
(Senior teacher physics)
Govt. Hr .Sec School ziro (A.P.)

GOVT.HR.SEC.SCHOOL,ZIRO
(A.P.)

SESSION 2012-13
Submitted by:
NAME:SWETA RAJPUT
CLASS:XII
ROLLNO:………………..
SECTION:A
SCHOOL:GOVT .HR. SEC.
SCHOOL ZIRO.A.P.