BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Power
Supply

Contrast
control

A 16X2 LCD
Step down T/F
Dry/Wet Bridge Rectifier Filter Circuit
Sensor T Regulator
Power supply to all sections
M

E
Crystal
G
Oscillator Driver Relay Submersible
A
circuit Motor
3
RESET EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
2
AC Input
8
WiFi – IoT
module

ESP8266
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific

focused job. Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player, printer, fax
machine, mobile phone etc. are examples of embedded systems. Each of these appliances will
have a processor and special hardware to meet the specific requirement of the application
along with the embedded software that is executed by the processor for meeting that specific
requirement. The embedded software is also called “firm ware”. The desktop/laptop
computer is a general purpose computer. You can use it for a variety of applications such as
playing games, word processing, accounting, software development and so on. In contrast,
the software in the embedded systems is always fixed listed below:

Embedded systems do a very specific task, they cannot be programmed to do different things.
. Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory. Generally, they do
not have secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy disk. Embedded
systems have to work against some deadlines. A specific job has to be completed within a
specific time. In some embedded systems, called real-time systems, the deadlines are
stringent. Missing a deadline may cause a catastrophe-loss of life or damage to property.
Embedded systems are constrained for power. As many embedded systems operate through a
battery, the power consumption has to be very low.

Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions such as very
high temperatures and humidity.

Application Areas

Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The
embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in very
market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation, biomedical
engineering, wireless communication, data communication, telecommunications,
transportation, military and so on.

Consumer appliances:
At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera, digital diary,
DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and air-conditioner,
VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car has about 20
embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-conditioning,
navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are
powerful embedded systems using which we can carry out many general-purpose tasks such
as playing games and word processing.

Office automation: The office automation products using em embedded systems are copying
machine, fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation: Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control.
These include pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity
generation and transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry
out specific tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current
etc., and then take appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices
or to send information to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial
environment, where human presence has to be avoided, robots are used, which are
programmed to do specific jobs. The robots are now becoming very powerful and carry out
many interesting and complicated tasks such as hardware assembly.

Medical electronics: Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded

system. These equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure
measuring devices, X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation,
colonoscopy, endoscopy etc. Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more
accurate diagnosis of diseases.

Computer networking: Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated

Services Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame
relay switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication
protocols. For example, a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be
running different protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from
incoming pores, analyze the packets and send them towards the destination after doing
necessary protocol conversion. Most networking equipments, other than the end systems
(desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are embedded systems

Telecommunications: In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be

categorized as subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as
key telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The
network equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers
Dissemblers (PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the
latest embedded systems that provide very low-cost voice communication over the Internet.

Wireless technologies: Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many
interesting applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of
the last decade of the 20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides
voice communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the
palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile
communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching centers are
also powerful embedded systems.

Insemination: Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific
and engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure
parameters such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all
embedded systems. Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic analyzer,
protocol analyzer, radio communication test set etc. are embedded systems built around
powerful processors. Thank to miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment are now
becoming portable facilitating easy testing and measurement in the field by field-personnel.

Security: Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to
protect our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store. Developing
embedded systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays.
Security devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are
embedded systems. Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the processors that are
manufactured end up in~ embedded systems. Embedded systems find applications in every
industrial segment- consumer electronics, transportation, avionics, biomedical engineering,
manufacturing, process control and industrial automation, data communication,
telecommunication, defense, security etc. Used to encrypt the data/voice being transmitted on
communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems using fingerprint and face
recognition are now being extensively used for user authentication in banking applications as
well as for access control in high security buildings.

Finance: Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for
transactions using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any
Time Money) machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller
and memory; and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an
electronic wallet. Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a cashless society.
Well, the list goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you go, you can see, or
at least feel, the work of an embedded system!

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing
Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded.
The software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’. The embedded
system architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in Fig.
The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above the

operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop
computer. However, there are significant differences. For small appliances such as remote
control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can
write only the software specific to that application. For applications involving complex
processing, it is advisable to have an operating system. In such a case, you need to integrate
the application software with the operating system and then transfer the entire software on to
the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will
continue to run for a long time you don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded
system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;

· Central Processing Unit (CPU)

· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)

· Input Devices

· Output devices

· Communication interfaces

· Application-specific circuitry
Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a
low-cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other
components such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc.
So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external
components required will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more
powerful, but you need to use many external components with them. D5P is used mainly for
applications in which signal processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:

The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas
ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the
ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is
executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited capability.
There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded system is no
easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to give a
specific command.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some
embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status
of the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may have
to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one
or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus
(USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an
embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to
carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either
through the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a
way that the power consumption is minimized.

Microcontroller

Arduino Microcontroller

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It

has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a
computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
Features:

1.0 pin out: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other
new pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the
voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with the board
that use the AVR, which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate with 3.3V.
The second one is a not connected pin, that is reserved for future purposes.

"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino
1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The
Uno is the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino
platform; for a comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.
Summary

Microcontroller ATmega328

Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by boot loader

SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)

Clock Speed 16 MHz

PIN DIAGRAM:
Power

Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or
battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the
board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of
the POWER connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than
7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If
using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The
recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source
(as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through
this pin.

5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or
the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.

GND. Ground pins.

Memory

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of
SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Pin Descriptions

VCC: Digital supply voltage

GND: Ground

Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting
Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting
Oscillator amplifier.

If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7.6 is used as
TOSC2.1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.

Port C (PC5:0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The PC5..0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated.

PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is
unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the
minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running.

Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if
the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6..4 use digital supply voltage,
VCC.

AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter.

These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on
the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The 16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1).

A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For
SPI communication, use the SPI library.
Automatic (Software) Reset

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Uno
is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on a connected computer.
One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the
reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nano farad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken
low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this
capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino
environment. This means that the boot loader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of
DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.

This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a computer running
Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via USB).
For the following half-second or so, the boot loader is running on the Uno. While it is
programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will
intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch
running on the board receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make
sure that the software with which it communicates waits a second after opening the
connection and before sending this data.

The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on either side of
the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be
able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see
this forum thread for details.

USB Over current Protection

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from
shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the
fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port,
the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.

POWER SUPPLY
POWER SUPPLY:

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier.
The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c
voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components
present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a
pure constant dc voltage.

230V AC
D.C
50Hz Output

Step down Bridge

transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

Fig: Power supply

Transformer: Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and
these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the
a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required
voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to
decrease the voltage to a required level.

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one circuit to another by
magnetic coupling with no moving parts. A transformer comprises two or more coupled
windings, or a single tapped winding and, in most cases, a magnetic core to concentrate
magnetic flux. A changing current in one winding creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the
core, which induces a voltage in the other windings.

Basic principles:
A simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary winding and the
secondary winding. Energy is coupled between the windings by the time-varying magnetic
flux that passes through (links) both primary and secondary windings. Whenever the amount
of current in a coil changes (including when the current is switched on or off), a voltage is
induced in the neighboring coil. The effect, called mutual inductance, is an example of
electromagnetic induction.

If a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary winding of turns, a current will

flow in it producing a magneto motive force (MMF). Just as an electromotive force (EMF)
drives current around an electric circuit, so MMF tries to drive magnetic flux through a
magnetic circuit. The primary MMF produces a varying magnetic flux in the core, and,
with an open circuit secondary winding, induces a back electromotive force (EMF) in
opposition to . In accordance with Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced across
the primary winding is proportional to the rate of change of flux:

     and     

where

vP and vS are the voltages across the primary winding and secondary winding,

NP and NS are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and secondary winding,

dΦP / dt and dΦS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with respect to time of the primary and
secondary windings.

Saying that the primary and secondary windings are perfectly coupled is equivalent to saying
that . Substituting and solving for the voltages shows that:
     

where

vp and vs are voltages across primary and secondary,

Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary, respectively.

Hence in an ideal transformer, the ratio of the primary and secondary voltages is equal to the
ratio of the number of turns in their windings, or alternatively, the voltage per turn is the
same for both windings.

Transformer losses arise from:

Winding resistance

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors (I2 R loss).
At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance
and losses.

Eddy currents

Induced eddy currents circulate within the core, causing resistive heating. Silicon is added to
the steel to help in controlling eddy currents. Adding silicon also has the advantage of
stopping aging of the electrical steel that was a problem years ago.

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost to hysteresis within
the magnetic core. The amount of hysteresis is a function of the particular core material.

Magnetostriction

Magnetic flux in the core causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with the
alternating magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This in turn causes losses
due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores.

Mechanical losses

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating

electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations
within nearby metalwork, creating a familiar humming or buzzing noise, and consuming a
small amount of power.

Stray losses
Not all the magnetic field produced by the primary is intercepted by the secondary. A portion
of the leakage flux may induce eddy currents within nearby conductive objects, such as the
transformer's support structure, and be converted to heat.

Rectifier:

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating
D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier
is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half
cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit
has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of
the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes
D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1
and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous
half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave
Filter:

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains
voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage
received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this
project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels,
7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78
represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required
output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-terminal positive
regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK
packages and several fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide
range of applications. These regulators can provide local on-card
regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single
point regulation.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing
LEDs (seven segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs, which
are limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task
of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying
the data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are “specialized” for being used with the microcontrollers, which
means that they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing
different messages on a miniature LCD.

A model described here is for its low price and great possibilities most frequently used in
practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display messages in
two lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek letters, punctuation
marks, mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to display symbols that user
makes up on its own. Automatic shifting message on display (shift left and right), appearance
of the pointer, backlight etc. are considered as useful characteristics.

Pins Functions

There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background light is
built in). Their function is described in the table below:

Pin Logic
Function Name Description
Number State
Ground 1 Vss - 0V
Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V
Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd
D0 – D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data
Write data (from controller to
0
Control of 5 R/W LCD)
1
operating Read data (from LCD to controller)
0 Access to LCD disabled
1 Normal operating
6 E
From 1 to Data/commands are transferred
0 to LCD
7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB
8 D1 0/1 Bit 1
9 D2 0/1 Bit 2
Data / 10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
commands 11 D4 0/1 Bit 4
12 D5 0/1 Bit 5
13 D6 0/1 Bit 6
14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB
LCD screen:

LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists of
5x7 dot matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether
messages are displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-Vdd is applied
on pin marked as Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose. Some
versions of displays have built in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used during
operating, a resistor for current limitation should be used (like with any LE diode).
LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands
or as data, which depends on logic state on pin RS:

RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in processor

addresses built in “map of characters” and displays corresponding symbols. Displaying
position is determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously defined or the
address of previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands

which LCD recognizes are given in the table below:

R R D D D D D D D D Execution
Command
S W 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Time
Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS
Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS
I/
Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S 40uS
D
Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS
D/ R/
Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 x x 40uS
C L
D
Function set 0 0 0 0 1 N F x x 40uS
L
Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS
Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS
B
Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 DDRAM address -
F
D D D D D D D D
Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 40uS
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
D D D D D D D D
Read from CGRAM or DDRAM 1 1 40uS
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
LCD Connection

Depending on how many lines are used for connection to the microcontroller, there
are 8-bit and 4-bit LCD modes. The appropriate mode is determined at the beginning of the
process in a phase called “initialization”. In the first case, the data are transferred through
outputs D0-D7 as it has been already explained. In case of 4-bit LED mode, for the sake of
saving valuable I/O pins of the microcontroller, there are only 4 higher bits (D4-D7) used for
communication, while other may be left unconnected.

Consequently, each data is sent to LCD in two steps: four higher bits are sent first
(that normally would be sent through lines D4-D7), four lower bits are sent afterwards. With
the help of initialization, LCD will correctly connect and interpret each data received.
Besides, with regards to the fact that data are rarely read from LCD (data mainly are
transferred from microcontroller to LCD) one more I/O pin may be saved by simple
connecting R/W pin to the Ground. Such saving has its price. Even though message
displaying will be normally performed, it will not be possible to read from busy flag since it
is not possible to read from display.

LCD Initialization

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts
for approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is set
by default. This means that:

1. Display is cleared

2. Mode

DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface

N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line

F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots

3. Display/Cursor on/off
 D = 0 Display off

U = 0 Cursor off

B = 0 Cursor blink off

4. Character entry

ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1

S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. Mainly but not always! If
for any reason power supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS, display
will start perform completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit can not meet this condition
or if it is needed to provide completely safe operating, the process of initialization by which a
new reset enabling display to operate normally must be applied.
Wi-Fi Module:

ESP8266 is a complete and self-contained Wi-Fi network solutions that can carry
software applications, or through Another application processor uninstall all Wi-Fi
networking capabilities.ESP8266 when the device is mounted and as the only application of
the application processor, the flash memory can be started directly from an external Move.
Built-in cache memory will help improve system performance and reduce memory
requirements. Another situation is when wireless Internet access assume the task of Wi-Fi
adapter, you can add it to any microcontroller-based design, the connection is simple, just
by SPI / SDIO interface or central processor AHB bridge interface. Processing and storage
capacity on ESP8266 powerful piece, it can be integrated via GPIO ports sensors and other
applications specific equipment to achieve the lowest early in the development and operation
of at least occupy system resources. The ESP8266 highly integrated chip, including antenna
switch balun, power management converter, so with minimal external circuitry, and includes
front-end module, including the entire solution designed to minimize the space occupied by
PCB. The system is equipped with ESP8266 manifested leading features are: energy saving
VoIP quickly switch between the sleep / wake patterns, with low-power operation adaptive
radio bias, front-end signal processing functions, troubleshooting and radio systems coexist
characteristics eliminate cellular / Bluetooth / DDR / LVDS / LCD interference.

Characteristics

802.11 b / g / n
Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP
Built-in TCP / IP protocol stack
Built-in TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching network
Built-in PLL, voltage regulator and power management components
802.11b mode + 19.5dBm output power
Built-in temperature sensor
Support antenna diversity
off leakage current is less than 10uA Built-in low-power 32-bit
CPU: can double as an application processor SDIO 2.0, SPI,
UART
STBC, 1x1 MIMO, 2x1 MIMO A-MPDU, A-MSDU
aggregation and the 0.4 Within wake 2ms, connect
and transfer data packets
standby power consumption of less than 1.0mW (DTIM3)
Schematic Diagram:

Ultra-low power technology

ESP8266 specifically for mobile devices, wearable electronics and networking applications
design and make the machine to achieve the lowest energy consumption, together with
several other patented technology. This energy-efficient construction in three modes: active
mode, sleep mode and deep sleep mode type. When ESP8266 using high-end power
management technology and logic systems to reduce non-essential functions of the power
conversion regulate sleep patterns and work modes, in sleep mode, it consumes less than the
current 12uA, is connected, it consumes less power to 1.0mW (DTIM = 3) or 0.5mW (DTIM
= 10). Sleep mode, only calibrated real-time clock and watchdog in working condition. Real-
time clock can be programmed to wake ESP8266 within a specific period of time. Through
programming, ESP8266 will automatically wake up when detected certain to happen.
ESP8266 automatic wake-up in the shortest time, this feature can be applied to the SOC for
mobile devices, so before you turn Wi- Fi SOC are in a low-power standby mode. To meet
the power requirements of mobile devices and wearable electronics products, ESP8266 at
close range when the PA output power can be reduced through software programming to
reduce overall power consumption in order to adapt to different applications. Maximum
integration ESP8266 integrates the most critical components on the board, including power
management components, TR switch, RF balun, a peak power of + 25dBm of PA, therefore,
ESP8266 only guarantee the lowest BOM cost, and easy to be embedded in any system.
ESP8266 BOM is the only external resistors, capacitors, and crystal.

ESP8266 applications

Smart Power Plug

Home Automation
mesh network
industrial wireless control
Baby Monitor
Network Camera
sensor networks
wearable electronics
wireless location-aware devices
Security ID tag
wireless positioning system signals
Specifications
Power
The following data are based on a 3.3V power supply, ambient temperature 25C
and use the internal regulator measured. [1] All measurements are made in the absence of
the SAW filter, the antenna interface is completed. [2] all transmit data based on 90%
duty cycle, continuous transmission mode in the measured.

Mode Min Typical Max Units

802.11b, CCK 1Mbps, mA

POUT=+19.5dBm 215
802.11b, CCK 11Mbps, mA
POUT=+18.5dBm 197

802.11g, OFDM 54Mbps,

mA
POUT=+16dBm 145
mA
802.11n, MCS7, POUT =+14dBm 135
802.11b, packet size of 1024 bytes, mA
-80dBm 60

802.11b, packet size of 1024 bytes,

mA
-70dBm 60
802.11b, packet size of 1024 bytes, mA
-65dBm 62

Standby 0.9 uA

Deep sleep 10 mA

mA
Saving mode DTIM 1 1.2
mA
Saving mode DTIM 3 0.86

Shutdown 0.5 uA
RF specifications
The following data is at room temperature, the voltage of 3.3V and 1.1V, respectively,
when measured

Description Min Typical Max Units

Input Frequency 2412 2484 MHz

Input resistance 50 Ω
Input reflection -10 dB
At 72.2Mbps, PA output power 14 15 16 dBm
11b mode, PA output power 17.5 18.5 19.5 dBm
Sensitivity
CCK, 1Mbps  -98 dBm

CCK, 11Mbps  -91 dBm

-93 dBm
6Mbps (1/2 BPSK) 

54Mbps (3/4 64-QAM)  -75 dBm

HT20, MCS7 (65Mbps, 72.2Mbps) -71 dBm
 
Adjacent suppression
OFDM, 6Mbps 37 dB
OFDM,54Mbps 21 dB
HT20,MCS0 37 dB
HT20,MCS7
2 20 dB

CPU and memory

CPU Interface
The chip embedded in an ultra-low-power 32-bit micro-CPU, with 16 compact mode. Can
be connected to the CPU via the following interfaces:
connecting storage controllers can also be used to access external code memory RAM /
ROM interface (iBus)
Also attached storage controller data RAM interface (dBus)
Access Register of AHB interface
JTAG debug interface
Storage Controller
Storage controller contains ROM and SRAM. CPU can iBus, dBus and AHB interface to
access the storage controller. Any one of these interfaces can apply for access to ROM or
RAM cells, memory arbiter to determine the running order in the order of arrival. AHB
and AHB module

AHB module acts as arbiter, through the MAC, and SDIO host CPU control AHB
interface. Since sending Address different, AHB data requests may arrive the following
two slaves in one: APB module, or flash memory controller (usually in the case of off-line
applications) to the received request is a high speed memory controllers often request,
APB module receives register access is often Request. APB module acts as a decoder, but
only you can access the ESP8266 main module programmable registers. Since the
sending address different, APB request may reach the radio receiver, SI / SPI, hosts
SDIO, GPIO, UART, real-time clock (RTC), MAC or digital baseband. Interface

ESP 8266 contains multiple analog and digital interfaces, as follows:

Main SI / SPI control (optional)

Main Serial Interface (SI) can run at two, three, four-wire bus configuration, is used to
control the EEPROM or other I2C / SPI devices. Multiple devices share the two-wire I2C
bus. Multiple SPI devices to share the clock and data signals, and according to the chip select,
each controlled by software alone GPIO pins. SPI can be used to control external devices,
such as serial flash, audio CODEC or other slave devices, installation, effectively giving it
three different pins, making it the standard master SPI device.
SPI_EN0
SPI_EN1
SPI_EN2
SPI slave is used as the primary interface, giving SPI master and slave SPI support. In the
built-in applications, SPI_EN0 is used as an enable signal, the role of external serial flash,
download firmware and / or MIB data to baseband. In host-based applications, the
firmware and you can choose one MIB data downloaded via the host interface both. This
pin is active low when not should be left unconnected. SPI_EN1 often used for user
applications, such as controlling the built-in applications or external audio codec sensor
ADC. This pin is active low when not should be left unconnected. SPI_EN2 often used to
control the EEPROM, storing individual data (individual data), such as MIB information,
MAC address, and calibration data, or for general purposes. This pin is active low when
not should be left unconnected.
General Purpose IO

A total of up to 16 GPIO pins. The firmware can assign them different functions. Each GPIO
can be configured internal pullup / pulldown resistors available software registers sampled
input, triggering edge or level CPU interrupt input, trigger level wake-up interrupt input,
open-drain or complementary push-pull output drivers, software register output source or
sigma-delta PWM DAC. These pins are multiplexed with other functions, such as the main
interface, UART, SI, Bluetooth co-existence and so on. Digital IO pins Digital IO pad is two-
way, three states. It includes a three-state control input and output buffers. In addition, for
low-power operation, IO can be set to hold state. For example, when we reduce the chip's
power consumption, all the output enable signal can be set to maintain a low-power state.
Hold function can be selectively implanted IO in need. When the IO help internal and
external circuit driving, hold function can be used to hold last state. Hold function to pin
introduce some positive feedback. Therefore, the external drive pin must be stronger than the
positive feedback. However, the required driving force size is still small, in the 5uA of.

Variables Symbol Min Max Units

Input Low Voltage Vil -0.3 0.25xV10 V

Vih 0.75xV10 3.6 V

Input High Voltage
IIL - 50 nA
Input leakage current

Output Low Voltage VOL - 0.1xV10 V

VOH 0.8xV10 - V
Output High Voltage
Cpad - 2 pF
Input pin capacitance

VDDIO V10 1.7 3.6 V

Imax - 12 mA
Current
Tamb -20 100 C
Temperature

All digital IO pins must add an overvoltage protection circuit (snap back circuit) between
the pin and ground. Usually bounce (snap back) voltage is about 6V, while maintaining
the voltage is 5.8V. This prevents excessive voltage and generating ESD. Diodes also
avoid reverse voltage output devices. Firmware and software tools development kit The
firmware running on the ROM and SRAM chip, when the device is awake, firmware via
SDIO sector Download the instructions from the host side. Firmware is fully compliant
with 802.11 b / g / n / e / i WLAN MAC protocol and Wi-Fi Direct specification only
supports basic services unit distributed control function (DCF) under (BSS) operation, but
also follow the latest Wi-Fi P2P protocol to support P2P groups operating (P2P group
operation). Low level protocol functions automatically run by ESP8266, such as RTS /
CTS Confirm fragmentation and reassembly polymerization frame package (802.11h /
RFC 1042) automatic beacon monitoring / scanning P2P WiFi direct With P2P discovery
procedures, passive or active scanning once in the host command start, it will be done
automatically. Perform power management, interaction with the host at least, this way, the
task of effectively minimized.

Features

Laboratory features of the software developer's kit is as follows:

802.11 b / g / n / d / e / i / k / r support
Wi-Fi Direct (P2P) support
P2P discovery, P2P group master mode (Group Owner mode), P2P Power
Management Infrastructure Network (Infrastructure BSS) station (Station) mode /
P2P mode / SoftAP mold hardware accelerator
CCMP (CBC-MAC, counting mode)
TKIP (MIC, RC4) o WAPI (SMS4)
WEP (RC4)
CRC
WPA / WPA2 and WPS support
Other 802.11i security features:
Pre-Certification
TSN
Open interfaces  prepared for a variety of upper EAP authentication methods, such as:
TLS
PEAP
LEAP
SIM
AKA
802.11n support (2.4GHz)

Support MIMO 1x1 and 2x1, STBC, A-MPDU and A-MSDU aggregation, 0.4s guard
interval WMM saving U-APSD use with multi-queue QoS management, in line with 802.11e
standard multimedia data traffic optimization methods Follow the UMA, and certified by
UMA 802.1h / RFC1042 frame encapsulation hash DMA data transfer operation, the CPU
usage to a minimum antenna diversity an choice (by software management hardware) the
clock / power gating and follow the 802.11 standard power management combined,
according to the current connection, enter OK dynamically adjusted to achieve the lowest
energy consumption ratio can be adjusted to set an optimum algorithm for the missing data
and the Tx power transfer rate based on the actual SNR and packet Rate MAC layer
automatic retransmission and automatic response, to avoid packet loss occurs when the host
is running slow seamless roaming support Configurable packet traffic arbitration and
tailored, based on the slave processor design combining a series of Bluetooth chip vendors to
provide flexible and precise time-Bluetooth coexistence support support dual / single antenna
Bluetooth coexistence with syncing WiFi / Bluetooth capability Power Management Chip
can tune into the following states: off (OFF): CHIP_PD pin is in a low power state. RTC
failure. All registers are emptied. deep sleep (DEEP_SLEEP): RTC open, other parts of the
chip are closed. RTC internal recovery memory to save the basic WiFi connection
information. sleep (SLEEP): Only RTC running. Crystal oscillator stops. Any part of the
wake (MAC, host, RTC timer, external interrupt) will make the wake of the chip.
Wake (WAKEUP): In this state, the system from a sleep state to start (PWR) status.
Crystal oscillator and PLL are converted enabled state. * on state (ON): High-speed
clock can run, And sent to each clock control register is enabled Modules. Each module,
including the CPU, including the implementation of relatively low-level clock gating.
When the system works, you can WAITI instructions to turn off the CPU's internal clock.

Clock Management

High Frequency Clock

ESP8266 on high frequency clock is used to drive two Tx and Rx mixer, which is
generated by the internal oscillator and an external oscillator. Crystal frequency between
26MHz to 52MHz float. Although the internal crystal oscillator of the calibration range of
the crystal so that the clock generator to meet the conditions, but in general, the crystal
quality is still obtained a proper phase noise factors to be considered. When the crystal is
used, or because of the frequency offset, rather than the best choice for quality, the
maximum capacity of the data processing system and will reduce the sensitivity of the
wifi. Please refer to the following instructions to measure the frequency offset.

Variables Symbol Min Max Units

Frequency Fxo 52 MHz

Cl 32 pF
Load capacitance

Cm 2 5 pF
Dynamic capacitance

Serial resistance Rs 0 65 Ω

Fxo -15 15 ppm

Frequency tolerance
Frequency vs Temperature (-25C ~ Fxo,Temp -15 15 ppm
75C)
External Reference Requirements
At 26MHz external clock frequency between 52MHz. In order to make a well-functioning
radio receiver, the clock will Must have the following characteristics:

Variables Symbol Min Max Units

Clock amplitude Vxo 0.2 1 Vpp

Fxo,EXT -15 15 ppm

External clock accuracy

Phase Noise @ 1kHz offset, 40MHz clock -120 dBc/Hz

-130 dBc/Hz
Phase Noise @ 10kHz offset, 40MHz clock
Phase Noise @ 100kHz offset, 40MHz -138 dBc/Hz
clock

Radio receivers
ESP8266 radio receiver mainly includes the following modules:
2.4GHz receiver
2.4GHz transmitter
High-speed clock generator and crystal oscillator
Real-time clock
bias and regulators
Power Management
Channel Frequency
According IEEE802.11bgn standard, RF transceiver supports the following channels:

Channel Freq. Channel Freq.

1 2412 8 2447

2 2417 9 2452

3 2422 10 2457

4 2427 11 2462

5 2432 12 2467

6 2437 13 2472
7 2442 14 2484
2.4 GHz receiver
2.4GHz RF signal receiver down into quadrature baseband signal, with two high-resolution,
high-speed ADC and the latter into a digital signal. In order to accommodate different signal
channels, a radio receiver integrated RF filters, automatic gain control (AGC), DC offset
compensation circuit and a baseband filter. 2.4GHz transmitter 2.4 GHz transmitter
orthogonal frequency baseband signals up to 2.4GHz, using high-power CMOS power
amplifier to drive the antenna. Further use of the digital calibration improves the linearity of
the power amplifier to achieve the average power of + 19dBm in 802.11b transmission, the
transmission reaches + 16dBm 802.11n average power, features super. To offset defects in
the radio receiver is also calibrated by other measures such as: carrier leakage

I / Q phase matching, and

baseband nonlinear
This will reduce the time and equipment required for testing.
Clock generator
The clock generator generates the receiver and transmitter 2.4GHz clock signal all of its
components are integrated on the chip, Include:
inductor
varactor
closed-loop filter
Clock generator contains a built-in calibration circuit and self-test circuitry. Clock phase and
quadrature phase noise through the optimal calibration algorithm processing patent on the
chip, in order to ensure that the receiver and transmitter to achieve the best performance. AT
Commands
Format
Baud rate at 57600
x is the commands

Set Inquiry Test Execute

AT+<x>=<…> AT+<x>? AT+<x>=? AT+<x>

AT+CWMODE=<mode> AT+CWMODE? AT+CWMODE=? -

Check current Return which modes
Set the network mode mode supported -
ESP8266 AT Command Set

Function AT Command Response

Working AT OK
Restart AT+RST OK [System Ready, Vendor:www.ai-thinker.com]
Firmware version AT+GMR AT+GMR 0018000902 OK
List Access Points AT+CWLAP AT+CWLAP +CWLAP:(4,"RochefortSurLac",-
38,"70:62:b8:6f:6d:58",1)
+CWLAP:(4,"LiliPad2.4",-83,"f8:7b:8c:1e:7c:6d",1)
OK
Join Access Point AT+CWJAP? Query AT+CWJAP? +CWJAP:"RochefortSurLac" OK
AT+CWJAP="SSID","Password"
Quit Access Point AT+CWQAP=? Query
AT+CWQAP OK
Get IP Address AT+CIFSR AT+CIFSR 192.168.0.105
OK
Set Parameters of AT+ CWSAP? Query
Access Point AT+ CWSAP= <ssid>,<pwd>,<chl>, <ecn> ssid, pwd
chl = channel, ecn = encryption
WiFi Mode AT+CWMODE? Query
AT+CWMODE=1 STA
AT+CWMODE=2 AP
AT+CWMODE=3 BOTH
Set up TCP or UDP AT+CIPSTART=? Query
connection (CIPMUX=0) AT+CIPSTART = id = 0-4, type = TCP/UDP, addr = IP address, port= port
<type>,<addr>,<port>
(CIPMUX=1) AT+CIPSTART=
<id><type>,<addr>, <port>
TCP/UDP AT+ CIPMUX? Query
Connections AT+ CIPMUX=0 Single
AT+ CIPMUX=1 Multiple
Check join devices' IP AT+CWLIF
TCP/IP Connection AT+CIPSTATUS AT+CIPSTATUS? no this fun
Status
Send TCP/IP data (CIPMUX=0) AT+CIPSEND=<length>;
(CIPMUX=1) AT+CIPSEND= <id>,<length>
Close TCP / UDP AT+CIPCLOSE=<id> or AT+CIPCLOSE
connection
Set as server AT+ CIPSERVER= <mode>[,<port>] mode 0 to close server mode; mode 1 to open; port = port
Set the server AT+CIPSTO? Query
timeout AT+CIPSTO=<time> <time>0~28800 in seconds
Baud Rate* AT+CIOBAUD? Query AT+CIOBAUD? +CIOBAUD:9600 OK
Supported: 9600, 19200, 38400, 74880,
115200, 230400, 460800, 921600
Check IP address AT+CIFSR AT+CIFSR 192.168.0.106
OK
Firmware Upgrade AT+CIUPDATE 1. +CIPUPDATE:1 found server
(from Cloud) 2. +CIPUPDATE:2 connect server
3. +CIPUPDATE:3 got edition
4. +CIPUPDATE:4 start update
Received data +IPD (CIPMUX=0): + IPD, <len>:
(CIPMUX=1): + IPD, <id>, <len>: <data>
Soil Moisture Sensor

This sensor can be used to test the moisture of soil, when the soil is having water
shortage, the module output is at high level, else the output is at low level. By
using this sensor one can automatically water the flower plant, or any other
plants requiring automatic watering technique. Module triple output mode,
digital output is simple, analog output more accurate, serial output with exact
readings.

Soil moisture sensors measure the water content in soil. A soil moisture
probe is made up of multiple soil moisture sensors. One common type of soil
moisture sensors in commercial use is a Frequency domain sensor such as a
capacitance sensor. Another sensor, the neutron moisture gauge, utilize the
moderator properties of water for neutrons.

Soil moisture content may be determined via its effect on dielectric

constant by measuring the capacitance between two electrodes implanted in the
soil. Where soil moisture is predominantly in the form of free water (e.g., in sandy
soils), the dielectric constant is directly proportional to the moisture content. The
probe is normally given a frequency excitation to permit measurement of the
dielectric constant. The readout from the probe is not linear with water content
and is influenced by soil type and soil temperature. Therefore, careful calibration
is required and long-term stability of the calibration is questionable.

Features

 Sensitivity adjustable.
 Has fixed bolt hole, convenient installation.
 Threshold level can be configured.
 Module triple output mode, digital output is simple, analog output more
accurate, serial output with exact readings.

Applications

 Agriculture
 Landscape irrigation

Specifications
Parameter Value

Operating Voltage +5v dc regulated

Soil moisture Digital value is indicated by out pin

 Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance
telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one direction,
and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the same input have no
effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted power should not be
able to transition the contacts.

Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the relay
will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when the
polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the
contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ
steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands.

Relay
A Relay is defined as a device in which predefined changes occur rapidly in single or multiple
electrical output circuits when the control electrical input circuit fulfills a certain condition.

An electromagnetic relay is defined as a relay that operates or resets due to electromagnetic

effects caused by a current flowing in the coil, which makes up the control input circuit.

The most important relay functions from the user’s point of view are discussed below.

One important function is that the input and output circuits are electrically insulated from each
other, so that the relay can transfer signals and control output signals. This function means that
the relay can be used make circuits with particular features which are not possible with
transistorized sequence circuits or load control circuits. In particular, the relay can provide
safely, noise cutting, bypass- circuit prevention, interlock, and other functions.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core (a
solenoid), an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts.
The armature is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air
gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured
is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to
the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and
the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off,
the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were not widely used
before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as early
germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge. Some automotive relays include a
diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem of
surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a capacitor and
resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the
associated resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this commonplace use.

If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used to split
the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper "shading ring"
crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-of-phase component, [9] which
holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the control voltage.[10]

Contact materials for relays vary by application. Materials with low contact resistance may be
oxidized by the air, or may tend to "stick" instead of cleanly parting when opening. Contact
material may be optimized for low electrical resistance, high strength to withstand repeated
operations, or high capacity to withstand the heat of an arc. Where very low resistance is
required, or low thermally-induced voltages are desired, gold-plated contacts may be used, along
with palladium and other non-oxidizing, semi-precious metals. Silver or silver-plated contacts
are used for signal switching. Mercury-wetted relays make and break circuits using a thin, self-
renewing film of liquid mercury. For higher-power relays switching many amperes, such as
motor circuit contatctors, contacts are made with a mixtures of silver and cadmium oxide,
providing low contact resistance and high resistance to the heat of arcing. Contacts used in
circuits carrying scores or hundreds of amperes may include additional structures for heat
dissipation and management of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. [11] Some relays
have field-replaceable contacts, such as certain machine tool relays; these may be replaced when
worn out, or changed between normally open and normally closed state, to allow for changes in
the controlled circuit.
SOFTWARE TOOLS
SOFTWARE TOOLS

Arduino and Arduino Software and Drivers Installation

This describes the installation of the Arduino IDE Development software and drivers for the
Windows Operating System. The images and description is based on installation under Windows
XP, but the process should be similar for Vista and Windows 7.

First we need to get the latest version of the Arduino software this can be downloaded from the
Arduino website 

STEP 1:

Next, plug in your Arduino board to your computer with a USB cable and wait while Windows
detects the new device. 

Windows will fail to detect the device as it doesn't know where the drivers are stored. You will
get an error similar to the one right. 

Select the Install from a list or specific location (Advanced) option and click Next

 
STEP 2:

Now choose the location that the Arduino drivers are stored in. This will be in a subfolder
called drivers in your arduino directory

STEP3: After selecting Next you may get a message like the one shown right. 
Select Continue Anyway
STEP 4:

Windows should now have found the Arduino drivers. Click Finish to complete the installation

 
STEP 5:

The computer communicates with the Arduino board via a special serial port chip built into the
Arduino board. The Arduino IDE software needs to know the serial port number that Windows
has just allocated to it Open the Windows Control Panel and select the System app.  Click on
the Hardware tab and then on the Device Manager button. Click on the Ports (COM and
LPT) option and note what com port has been allocated to the Arduino Board

 
STEP 6:

Next, run the Arduino IDE application, which will be in c:\program files\arduino-0021 or similar

Click on Tools | Serial Port and select the port number from above

 
STEP 7:

Next click on Tools | Board and select the type of board that you have 
STEP 8:

Now try opening the Simple program from the example directory within the Arduino IDE,
Verify/Compile it and upload it to your board. You should see the TX and RX led’s on the board
flash showing you that it is working. Finally the built in LED connected to Pin 13 will flash.
That’s your first program running. 

   

Create a shortcut to the Arduino IDE and place it on your desktop

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

Schematic diagram of the circuit

SNAPSHOT OF THE KIT: