Tall Building Structures Analysis and DesignTALL BUILDING STRUCTURES: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Bryan Stafford Smith McGill University Montreal, Quebec Canada Alex Coull University of Glasgow Glasgow, Scotland United Kingdom ®) A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York * Chichester * Brisbane * Toronto * Singaporebas bees electronically reproduced trom digital stored at Joba Wiley & Sons, Inc. We are hit the ose of this mew techsology will enable us ‘works of endering scholarly value in {n recognition of the imponance of preserving what has been ‘written, i i8a policy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., wshave books of enduring Value published in the United States printed on acid-free paper. and we excn our best effarts fo that end Copyright © 1991 by John Wiley & Sans, Ine, All rights reserved. Published simwultanzoucly in Canada Reproduction or wanslation of uny purt of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission ‘of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for Permission oF fumher information should be addressed 0 the Permissions Department. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloziag in Publication Baia: Stafford Smith. Bryan, ing structures: analysis und desjpn/ Bryan th. Alex Coult, Poem “A Wiley-Imerscience publication ** Inctudes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-471 —3 1237-0 |. Tall buildings: Design and ci ‘mpincering. 1. Coull. Alex, IL THI6I1.859 1991 69020 90-1307 cr ! ction, 2. Structural tle Printed and bound in the United States of America 19876543 To Bey and Frances(mmm PREFACE This book is the indirect outcome of 25 years of research on tall building structures by the two authors. It began with their liaison in the mid-1960s at the University of Southampton, England, and has since continued in their respective Universities, of Surrey, McGill, Strathclyde, and Glasgow. ‘At the commencement of the period, the evolution of radically new’ structural forms gave great stimulus to devising appropriate methods of analysis. In the suc- ceeding quarter-century there have been great advances in the design and construc tion of tall buildings throughout the world, and in the associated development of analytical techniques. In the early days, approximate techniques were being devised for specific, largely two-dimensional, structural forms, and the analysis of complex three-di- mensional systems represented a formidable challenge. Since then, there have been significant advances in both computer hardware and software: the power of com- puters has increased dramatically, and a large number of comprehensive general purpose analysis programs have been developed, based on the stiffness method of analysis. In principle at least, it is now theoretically possible to analyze accurately virally any complex clastic structure, the only constraints being the capacity of the available computer, time, and cost, However, the great power of this analytical facility has to be handled judi- ciously. Real building structures are so complex that even an elaborate computa- ‘tional model will be a considerable simplification, and the results from an analysis will always be approximate, being at best only as good as the quality of the chosen model and method of analysis. It is thus imperative t0 be able to devise an ana- lytical model of the real structure that will represent and predict with appropriate accuracy, and as efficiently and economically as possible, the response of the building to the anticipated forces. Models required for the early stages of design will often be of a different. lower level of sophistication than those for checking the final design. The task of structural modeling is arguably the most difficult one facing the structural analyst, requiring critical judgment and a sound knowledge of the struc- tural behavior of tall building components and assemblies. Also, the resulting data from the analysis must be interpreted and appraised with discernment for use with the real structure, in order to serve as a reasonable basis for making design deci- sions, The rapid advances in the past quarter-century have slowed up, and the era is now one of consolidation and utilization of research findings. However. the ma- viiVill PREFACE jority of the rescarch findings still exist only in the form of papers in research Joumals. which are not generally available or familiar to the design engineer. There is a need to digest and to bring together in a unified and coherent form the main corpus of knowledge that has been accumulated and to disseminate it to the struc- tural engineering profession, This task forms the main abjective of this volume. Tris not possible to deal ina comprehensive manner in a single volume with all aspects of tall building design and construction, and attention has been focused on the building structure, Such important related topics as foundation design. con- struction methods, fire resistance, planning. and economics have had to be omit. ted, The intention has been to concentrate on the structural aspects that are pantic- ularly affected by the quality of tallness; topics that are of equal relevance to low- rise buildings have generally not been considered in any depth. The major part of the book thus concentrates on the fundamental approaches 10 the analysis of the behavior of different forms of tall building structures, inchiding frame, shear wall, tubular, core, and outrigger-braced systems. Both accurate com. puter-based and approximate methods of analyses are included, The latter, al- hough being of value in their own right for the analysis of simplified regular structures, serve also to hightight the most important actions and modes of behav- of components and assemblies. and thus offer guidance to the engineer in de- "ising appropriate models for analytical purposes. Introductory chapters discuss the forces to which the structure is subjected, the csign criteria that are of the greatest relevance and imponance to tall buildings, nd the various structural forms that have developed over the years since the early kyscrapers were first introduced at the tum of the century. A major chapter is evoted to the modeling of real structures for both preliminary and final analyses: ‘onsiderable attention is devoted to the assessment of the stability of the structure, nd the significance of creep and shrinkage in tall concrete buildings is discussed. inally. a chapter is devoted to the dynamic response of structures subjected to find and earthquake forces, including a discussion of the human response to tall uilding motions. In addition to the set of references appropriate to each chapler, a short bibli- graphy has also been presented. This has been designed to serve several purposes: ? note historically important papers, to recommend major works that themselves bntain large numbers of bibliographic Teferences, and to refer to Papers that offer terial or information additional to that contained in the different chapters. Space #8 prevented the production of a comprehensive bibliography, since the literature n the subject is now vast. Apologies are therefore due to the many authors whose ork has been omitted due to either the demand for brevity or the oversight of the riters. In view of the wide variations in practice in different countries, it was decided t to concentrate on a single set of units in the numerical examples presented to ustrate the theory. Thus both SE and US units will be found. The book is aimed at two different groups, First, as a result of the continuing ity in the design and construction of tall buildings throughout the world, it be of value to practicing structural engincers. Second, by treating the material PREFACE ix in a logical. coherent, and unified form, it is hoped that it can form the basis of an independent academic discipline, serving as useful text for graduate student courses. and as an introduction to the subject for senior undergraduates. In writing the book, the authors are conscious of a debt to many sources, to friends, colleagues, and co-workers in the field, and to the stimulating work of those associated with the Council vn Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, the suc- Cessor to the Intemational Committee for the Planning and Design of Tall Buil ings. with whom they have been associated since its inception. A special privilege of working in # university is the opportunity to interact with fresh young minds Consequently, above all, they acknowledge their indebtedness to the many re- search students. with whom they have worked over the years. who have done so much to assist them in their progress. Many of their names figure in the References and Bibliography. and many are now recognized authorities in this ficld, The au. thors owe them much. Although the subject material has altered considerably over the long period of writing, the authors also wish to acknowledge the helpful discussions with Pro- fessor Joseph Schwaighofer of the University of Toronto in the early stages of planning this work. Finally, the authors wish to express their gratitude to Ann Bless, Regina Gaiott and Marie José Nollet of McGill University. Andrea Green of Queens University, and June Lawn and Tessa Bryden of Glasgow University. who have contributed greatly to the production of this volume. B. STAFFORD SMITH Montreal, Quebec A. CouLt Glasgow, Scotland January 1991Ml CONTENTS 1. Tall Buildings Why Tall Buildings? Factors Affecting Growth, Height, and Structural Form The Tall Building Structure 1.3.1 The Design Process 14 Philosophy, Scope. and Content 1.3) Raisons D'Btre Reference wit 2. Design Criteria 2.1, Design Philosophy Loading 2.2.1 Sequential Loading Strength and Stability Stiffness and Drift Limitations Human Comfort Criteria Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects Fire Foundation Settlement and Soil-Structure Interaction Summary References 2.3 24 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3. Loading 3.1, Gravity Loading 3.1.1 Methods of Live Load Reduction 3.1.2. Impact Gravity Loading 3.1.3 Construction Loads 3.2. Wind Loading 3.2.1 Simple Static Approach 3.2.2 Dynamic Methods 3.3. Earthquake Loading 3.3.1 Fquivalent Lateral Force Procedure 3.3.2 Modal Analysis Procedure Ss bene 10 10 iW i 13 14 14 is 16 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 23 25 26 29xi CONTENTS: 3.4 Combinations of Loading 3.4.1, Working Stress Design 3.4.2 Limit States Design 3.4.3 Plastic Design Summary References 4. Structural Form 4.1 Structural Form 4.1.1 Braced-Frame Structures 4.1.2 Rigid-Frame Structures 4.1.3. Infilled-Frame Structures 4.1.4 Flat-Plate and Flat-Slab Structures Shear Wall Structures ‘Wall-Frame Structures Framed-Tube Structures Outrigger-Braced Structures Suspended Structures 4.1.10 Core Structures 4.1.11 Space Structures 4.1.12 Hybrid Structures 4.2 Floor Systems—Reinforced Concrete 4.2.1 One-Way Slabs on Beams or Walls 4.2.2 One-Way Pan Joists and Beams 4.2.3. One-Way Slab on Beams and Girders 4.2.4 Two-Way Flat Plate 4.2.5 Two-Way Flat Slab 4.2.6 Waffle Flat Slabs 4.2.7 Two-Way Slab and Beam 4.3. Floor Systems—Steel Framing 4.3.1 One-Way Beam System 4.3.2 Two-Way Beam System 4.3.3 Three-Way Beam System 4.3.4 Composite Steel-Conerete Floor Systems Summary 5. Modeling for Analysis 5.1 Approaches to Analysis 5.1.1 Preliminary Analyses 5.1.2 Intermediate and Final Analysis 5.1.3 Hybrid Approach to Preliminary and Final Analyses 20 30 30 3 2 37 37 38 40 4 41 42 49 50 52 33 54 56 7 58 58 59 59 61 61 62 62 63 65, 65 65 67 CONTENTS 5.2 Assumptions Materials Participating Components Floor Slabs Negligible Stiffnesses Negligible Deformations Cracking 5.3. High-Rise Behavior 5.4 Modeling for Approximate Analyses 3.4.1 Approximate Representation of Bents $4.2 Approximate Modeling of Slabs 5.4.3 Modeling for Continuum Analyses 5.5 Modeling for Accurate Analysis 5.5.1 Plane Frames 5.5.2 Plane Shear Walls 5.5.3 Three-Dimensional Frame and Wall Structures 5.54 P-Delta Effects 5.5.5 The Assembled Model 5.6 Reduction Techniques 3.6.1 Symmetry and Antisymmetry 5.6.2 Two-Dimensional Models of Nommwisting Structures 5.6.3 Two-Dimensional Models of Structures That Translate and Twist 5.6.4 Lumping 5.6.5 Wide-Column Deep-Beam Analogies Summary References 6. Braced Frames 6.1 Types of Bracing 6.2. Behavior of Bracing 6.3. Behavior of Braced Bents 6.4 Methods of Analysis 6.4.1 Member Foree Analysis: 64.2 Drift Analysis 6.4.3 Worked Example for Calculating Drift by Approximate Methods 6.5 Use of Large-Scale Bracing Summary References xii 67 68 68 68 68 70 n 3 7 18 9 9 83 87 88 88 91 103 104 105 106 106 109 MW 43 M3 Ls 119 124 128 1297.1. Rigid-Frame Behavior 7.2. Approximate Determination of Member Forces Caused by Gravity Loading 7.2.1 Ginler Forces—Code Recommended Values 7. Two-Cycle Moment Distribution 7.2.3 Column Forces 7.3. Approximate Analysis of Member Forces Caused by Horizontal Loading 7.3.1 Allocation of Loading beoween Bents 7.3.2 Member Force Analysis by Portal Method 7.3.3 Approximate Analysis by C: lever Method 7.3.4 Approximate Analysis of Rigid Frames with Setbacks 7.4 Approximate Analysis for Drift 7.4.1 Components of Drift 7.4.2 Correction of Excessive Drift 7.4.3 Effective Shear Rigidity (GA) 7.5 Flat Plate Structure—Analogous Rigid Frame 7.5.1 Worked Example 7.6 Computer Analysis of Rigid Frames 7.7 Reduction of Rigid Frames for Analysis 7.9.1 Lumped Girder Frame 7.7.2 Single-Bay Substitute Frame Summary References 8. Infilled-Frame Structures 8.1 Behavior of Infilled Frames 8.2 Forces in the Infill and Frame 8.2.1 Stresses in the Infill 8.2.2. Forces in the Frame 8.3. Development of the Design Procedure 8.3.1 Design of the Infill 8.3.2 Design of the Frame 8.3.3 Horizontal Deflection 8.4 Summary of the Design Method 8.4.1 Provisions 8.4.2 Design of the Infill 8.4.3. Design of the Frame .4 Beflections 130 131 133 133 133. 138 138 138 MI 6 150 152 158 159 161 161 161 163 165 166 168 169 72 172 m4 74 175 7 178 178 179 179. 180 180. CONTENTS 8.5 Worked Example—Infilled Frame Summary References 9. Shear Wall Structures 9.1 Behavior of Shear Wall Structures 9.2. Analysis of Proportionate Wall Systems 9.2.1 Proportionate Nontwisting Structures 9.2.2 Proportionate Twisting Structures 9.3. Nonproportionate Structures 9.3.1 Nonproportionate Nontwisting Structures 9.3.2 Nonproportionate Twisting Structures 9.4 Behavior of Nonproportionate: Structures 9.5. Effects of Discontinuities at the Base 9.6 Stress Analysis of Shear Walls 1 Membrane Finite Element Analysis Analogous Frame Analysis Summary References 10, Coupled Shear Wall Structures 10.1 Behavior of Coupled Shear Wall Structures 10.2. Methods of Analysis 10.3. The Continuous Medium Method 10.3.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equations 10.3.2 General Solutions of Governing Equations 10.3.3 Solution for Standard Load Cases 10.3.4 Graphic Design Method 10.3.5 Coupled Shear Walls with Two Symmetrical Bands of Openings 10.3.6 Worked Example of Coupled Shear Wall Structure 10.3.7 Coupled Shear Walls with Different Support Conditions 10.4 Computer Analysis by Frame Analogy 10.4.1. Analysis of Analogous Frame 10.5 Computer Analysis Using Membrane Finite Elements Summary References 11. Wall-Frame Structures 11.1 Behavior of Symmetric Wall-Frames 11.2 Approximate Theory for Wall-Frames 11.2.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation xv 180. 182 183 184 184. 186. 186. 187 190 199 199 202 206. 206 207 2 212: 23 213 2S 216 216 222 223 231 235 236 243 246 247 252 253 254 255 237 260 26013 a IS iho 12.1 12,2 12.3 Solution for Uniformly Distributed Loading, Forces in the Wall and Frame Solutions for Alternative Loadings Determination of Shear Rigidity (GA) Analysis by the Use of Graphs Worked Example to Ilustrate Approximate Analysis Computer Analysis Comments on the Design of Wall-Frame Structures 11.6.1 Optimum Structure 11.6.2 Curtailed or Interrupted Shear Walls 11.6.3 Increased Concentrated Interaction Summary References Tubular Structures Structural Behavior of Tubular Structures 12.1.1 Framed-Tube Structures 12.1.2 Bundled-Tube Structures 12.1.3 Braced-Tube Structures General Three-Dimensional Structural Analysis Simplified Analytical Models for Symmetrical Tubular ‘Structures 12.3.1 Reduction of Three-Dimensional Framed Tube to an Equivalent Plane Frame 12.3.2 Bundled-Tube Structures 12.3.3 Diagonally Braced Framed-Tube Structures Summary References 13. Core Structures 13.1 13.2 13.3 Concept of Warping Behavior Sectorial Properties of Thin-Walled Cores Subjected to Torsion 13.2.1 Sectorial Coordinate ws’ 13.2.2 Shear Center 13.2.3 Principal Sectorial Coordinate (w) Diagram 13.2.4 Sectorial Moment of Inertia J,, 13.2.5 Shear Torsion Constant J 13.2.6 Calculation of Sectorial Properties: Worked Example ‘Theory for Restrained Warping of Uniform Cores Subjecred to Torsion 13:3.1 Governing Differential Equation 283 283 288 339 296 297 297 303 305 306 307 310 315 315 317 318 320 324 321 323 323 134 BS 13.6 CONTENTS 13.3.2 Solution for Uniformly Distributed Torque 13.3.3 Warping Stresses 13.3.4 Elevator Cores with a Partially Closed Section 13.3.5 Forces in Connecting Beams 13.3.6 Solutions for Alternative Loadings Analysis by the Use of Design Curves Worked Example to Analyze a Core Using Formalas and Design Curves ‘Computer Analyses of Core Structures Membrane Finite Elemeat Model Analysis Analogous Frame Analysis Two-Column Analogy Single Warping-Column Model 13.6.4 Summary References 14, Outrigger-Braced Structures Wt 14.3 ad Method of Analysis 14.1.1 Assumptions for Analysis 14.1.2 Compatibility Analysis of a Two-Outrigger Structure 14.1.3 Analysis of Forces 14.1.4 Analysis of Horizontal Deflections Generalized Solutions of Forces and Deflections 14.2.1 Restraining Moments 14.2.2 Horizontal Deflections Optimum Locations of Outriggers Performance of Outrigger Structures 14.4.1 Optimum Locations of Outriggers 14.4.2 Effects of Outrigger Flexibility 14.4.3 “Bfficiency"’ of Outrigger Structures 14.4.4 Altemative Loading Conditions ‘Summary References 15. Generalized Theory 15.1 15.2 18.3 15.4 Coupled Wall Theory Physical Interpretation of the Deflection Equation Application to Other Types of Bent 15.3.1 Determination of Rigidity Parameters 15.3.2 Calculation of Deflection Application to Mixed-Bent Structures xvii 325 326 329 331 332 332 333 341 341 HS 9 353 354 355, 356 356 358 362 362 363 363 364 366 368 368 370 370 371 a2 373 317 378 a9 38) 381xvill CONTENTS: 15.5 15.6 Accuracy of the Method Numerical Example Summary References 16. Stability of High-Rise Buildings 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 Overall Buckling Analysis of Frames: Approximate Methods 16.1.1 Shear Mode 16.1.2 Flexural Mode 16.1.3 Combined Shear and Flexural Modes Overall Buckling Analysis of Wall-Frames 16.2.1 Analytical Method 16.2.2 Example: Stability of Wall-Frame Structure Second-Order Effects of Gravity Loading 16.3.1 The P-Delta Effect 16.3.2 Amplification Facter P-Delta Analysis 16.3.3. lerative P-Delta Analysis 16.3.4 lterative Gravity Load P-Delta Analysis 16.3.5 Direct P-Delta Analysis Simukaneous First-Order and P-Delia Analysis 16.4.1 Development of the Second-Order Matrix 16.4.2. Negative Shear Area Column 16.4.3 Negative Flexural Stiffness Column Transtational-Torsional Instability Out-of-Plumb Effects Stiffness of Members in. Stability Calculations Effects of Foundation Rotation Summary References 17. Dynamic Analysis Wa 17.2 Dynamic Response to Wind Loading I7.L.1 Sensitivity of Suuctures to Wind Forces Dynamic Structural Response due 0 Wind Forces Along-Wind Response Cross-Wind Response Worked Example Dynamic Response ta Earthquake Motions 17.2.1 Response of Tall Buildings to Ground Accelerations 17.2.2 Response Spectrum Analysis 383 384 386 387 389. 390 391 391 392 392 396 398 398 399 401 403 405 408 410 4 44 414 415 416 47 419 420 421 422 423 429 430 431 43) 435 CONTENTS 17.2.3 Empirical Relationships for Fundamental Natural Frequency 17.2.4 Structural Damping Ratios 17.3. Comfon Criteria; Human Response to Building Motions 17.3.1 Human Perception of Building Motion 17.3.2. Perception Thresholds 17.3.3. Use of Comfort Criteria in Design Summary References Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects 18.1 18.2 18,3 18.4 Effects of Differential Movements Designing for Differential Movement Creep and Shrinkage Effects 18.3.1 Factors Affecting Creep and Shrinkage Movements in Concrete 18.3.2 Determination of Vertical Shortening af Walls and Columns 18.3.3 Influence of Reinforcement on Column Stresses, Creep, and Shrinkage 18.3.4 Worked Example 18.3.5. Influence of Vertical Shortening on Structural Actions in Horizontal Members Temperature Effects Summary References APPENDIX 1. Formutas and Design Curves for Coupled Shear Walls AJ.1 Formulas and Design Curves for Altemative Load Cases Al.t.1 Formulas for Top Concentrated Load and Triangularly Distributed Loading ALL.2 Design Curves AL.2. Formulas for Coupled Shear Walls with Different Flexible Suppor Conditions AL.3- Stiffness of Floor Slabs Connecting Shear Walls AI.3.1 Effective Width of Floor Slab 1.3.2 Empirical Relationships for Effective Slab Width A133 Numerical Examples References xix 449 asi 452 452 453, 457 458 459 461 461 462 464 464 468 a7 472 474 475 478 478 480 480 482 487 489 493 495 4973% CONTENTS. APPENDIX 2. Formulas and Graphs for Wall-Frame and Core Structures AZ.L Formulas and Graphs for Deflections and Forces .1 Uniformly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2.1.2 Triangularly Distributed Horizontal Loading 2.1.3. Concentrated Horizontal Load at the Top Bibliography Index 502 502 512 S27APPENDIX 2. Formulas and Graphs for Wall-Frame and Core Structures: A2.1 Formulas and Graphs for Deflections and Forces A2.1.1 Uniformly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2.1.2 Triangularly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2A.3 Concentrated Horizontal Load at the Top Bibliography Index 512 527 CHAPTER 1 Tall Buildings ‘This book is concemed with tall building structures. Tallness, however, is a rel- ative matter, and tall buildings cannot be defined in specific terms related just to height or to the number of floors. The tallness of a building is a matter of a person's or community's circumstance and their consequent perception: therefore, a mea- surable definition of a tall building cannot be universally applied. From the struc- ural engineer's point of view, however, a tall building may be defined as one that, because of its height, is affected by lateral forces due to wind or earthquake actions to an extent that they play an important role in the structural design. The influence Of these actions must therefore be considered from the very beginning of the design process. 1.4 WHY TALL BUILDINGS? Tall towers and buildings have fascinated mankind from the beginning of eivili- zation, their construction being ly for defense and subsequently for ecclesi- ‘stical purposes. The growth in modem tall building construction, however, which began in the 1880s, has been largely for commercial and residential purposes. Tall commercial buildings are primarily a response to the demand by business activities to be as close to each other, and to the city center, as possible, thereby putting intense pressure on the available land space. Also, because they form dis- tinctive landmarks, tall commercial buildings are frequently developed in city een- lers as prestige symbols for corporate organizations. Further, the business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility, has fuelled a need for more, fre- quently high-rise, city center hotel accommodations. The rapid growth of the urban population and the conséquent pressure on lim- ited space have considerably influenced city residential development. The high cost of land, the desire to avoid a continuous urban sprawl, and the need to pre- serve important agricultural production have all contributed to drive residential buildings upward. In some cities, for example, Hong Kong and Rio de Janeiro, local topographical restrictions make tall buildings the only feasible solution for housing needs.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH, HEIGHT, AND STRUCTURAL FORM The feasibility and desirability of high-rise structures have always depended on the available materials, the level of construction technology, and the state of de- velopment of the services necessary for the use of the building, As a result, sig- nificant advances have occurred from time to time with the advent of a new ma- terial, construction facility, or form of service. Multistory buildings were @ feature of ancient Rome: four-story wooden tene- ment buildings. of post and lintel construction, were common. Those built after the great fire of Nero, however. used the new brick and concrete materials in the form of arch and barrel vault structures, Through the following centuries, the nwo basic construction materials were timber and masonry. The former lacked strength for buildings of more than about five stories, and always presented a fire hazard, The latter had high compressive strength and fire resistance, but its weight tended to overload the lower supports. With the rapidly increasing number of masonry high-rise buildings in North America toward the end of the nineteenth century, the limits of this form of construction became apparent in 1891 in the 16-story Mon- adnock Building in Chicago. With the space in its lower floors largely occupied by walls of over 2 m thick, it was the last tall building in the city for which massive load-bearing masonry walls were employed The Socioeconomic problems that followed industrialization in the nineteenth century, coupled with an increasing demand for space in the growing U.S. cities, created a strong impetus to tall building construction. Yet the ensuing growth could nol lave been sustained without two major technical innovations that occurred in the middle of that century: the development of higher strength and structurally more efficient materials, wrought iron and subsequently stee!, and the introduction of the elevator (cf. Fig. 1.1). Although the elevator had been developed some 20 years earlier, its potential in high-rise buildings was apparently not realized umtil its incorporation in the Equitable Life Insurance Building in New York in 1870. For the first time, this made the upper stories as attractive to rent as the lower ‘ones, and, consequently, made the taller building financially viable. The new materials allowed the development of lightweight skeletal structures, permitting buildings of greater height and with larger interior open spaces and windows, although the carly wrought-iron frame structures still employed load- bearing masonry facade walls. The first high-rise building totally supported by a metal frame was the 11-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago in 1883, fal- lowed in 1889 by the first all-steel frame in the 9-story Rand-McNally Building. Two years later, in the same city, diagonal bracings were introduced in the facade frames of the 20-story Masonic Temple to form vertical trusses, the forerunner of modem shear wall and braced frame construction. It was by then appreciated that at that height wind forces were an imponant design consideration. Improved de- sign methods and construction techniques allowed the maximum height of steel- frame structures to increase steadily, reaching a height of 60 stories with the con- struction of the Woolworth Building in New York in 1913. This golden age of Fe EN SEA Le a ee ee ED See ere eG ee ae 100 & = 6 3 rst wrought sro [Ftrat. tee? # r Dectienr yore sections caine “80 | | I = [Mew tore : | ere | | £ 2 Gast tron ere | chicege | 5 New York Seer & ! % I 20 | Otrs! elevator io. a Electric elevator I 1850 1810 1890 1910 1936 Fig. 11 Growth in height of the first great era of American skyscrapers, American skyscraper construction culminated in 1931 in its crowning glory, the Empire State Building, whose 102-story braced steel frame reached a height of 1250 ft (381 m). Although reinforced concrete construction began around the tum of the century, it does not appear to have been used for multistory buildings until after the end of World War I. The inherent advantages of the composite material, which could be readily formed to simultaneously satisty both aesthetic and load-carrying require- ments, were not then fully appreciated, and the early systems were purely imita- tions of their steel counterparts. Progress in reinforced concrete was slow and termittent, and, at the time the steel-framed Empire State Building was com pleted, the tallest concrete building, the Exchange Building in Seattle, had attained a height of only 23 stories. ‘The economic depression of the 1930s put.an end to the great skyscraper era, and it was not until some years after the end of World War I that the constriction of high-rise buildings recommenced, with radically new structural and architec~ tural solutions. Rather than bringing significant increases in height, however, these modem developments comprised new structural systems, improved material qual- ities and services, and better design and construction techniques. It was not until 1973 that the Empire State Building was eclipsed in height by the twin towers of the 110-story, 1350 ft (412 m) high World Trade Center in New York, using framed-tube construction, which was followed in 1974 by the 1450 ft (442 m) high bundled-tube Sears Tower in Chicago. Different structural systems have gradually evolved for residential and office buildings, reflecting their differing functional requirements. In modem office buildings, the need to satisfy the differing requirements of individual clients foreen eee eel floor space arrangements led to the provision of large column-free open areas to allow flexibility in planning. Improved levels of serviecs have frequently neces- sitated the devotion of entire floors to mechanical plant, but the spaces lost can often be utilized also to. accommodate deep girders or trusses connecting the ex- terior and interior structural systems. The earlier heavy internal partitions and ma- sonry cladding, with their contributions to the reserve of stiffness and strength. have largely given way to light demountable partitions and glass curtain walls. forcing the basic structure alone to provide the required strength and st agai al and lateral loads. ‘tural features of commercial buildings that have influenced struc- tural form are the large entrances and open lobby areas at ground level, the mul- tistory atriums, and the high-level restaurants and viewing galleries that may re- quire more extensive elevator systems and associated sky lobbies. A residential building's basic functional requirement is the provision of self- contained individual dwelling units. separated by substantial partitions that provide adequate fire and acoustic insulation. Because the partitions are repeated from story to story, modem designs have utilized them in a structural capacity. teading to the shear wall, cross wall, of infilled-frame forms of construction. ‘The trends to exposed structure and architectural cutouts, and the provision of setbacks at the upper levels to meet daylight requirements, have also been features ‘of modem architecture. The requirement to provide adequately stiff and strong structures, while accommodating these various features, led to radical develop- ments in structural framing. and inspired the new generation of braced frames, framed-tube and hull-core structures. wall-frame systems. and outrigger-braced structures described in Chapter 4. The latest generation of *“postmodem’” build- ings, with their even more varied and irregular external architectural treatment, has led to hybrid double and sometimes triple combinations of the structural monoforms used for modern buildings. Speed of erection is a vital factor in obtaining a retum on the investment in- volved in such large-scale projects, Most tall buildings are constructed in con- gested city sites, with difficult access; therefore careful planning and organization ‘of the construction sequence become essential. The story-to-story uniformity of most mulkistory buildings encourages construction through repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques. Progress in the ability to build tall has gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of construction, such as slip- and flying-formwork. concrete pumping. and the use of tower. climbing, and large mobile cranes. 1.3 THE TALL BUILDING STRUCTURE Ideally, in the early stages of planning a building, the entire design team, including the architect, structural engineer, and services engineer, should collaborate to agree on a form of structure to satisfy their respective requirements of function, safety and serviceability, and servicing. A compromise between conflicting demands will ATE FALL OURS STU be almost inevitable. In all but the very tallest structures, however, the structural armangement will be subservient to the architectural requirements of space arrange ment and aesthetics: Often. this will lead toa less-than-ideal structural solution that Will tax the ingenuity, and probably the patience. of the structural engineer, ‘The two primary types of vertical load-resisting elements of tall buildings are columns and walls, the latter acting either independently as shear walls of in as: semblics as shear wall cores. The building function will lead naturally to the prov Vision of walls to divide and enclose space, and of cores to contain and convey services such as elevators. Columns will be provided. in/otherwise unsupported fegions, to transmit gravity loads and, in some types of structure, horizontal loads Also. Columns may also serve architecturally as, for example, facade mullions, ‘The inevitable primary function of the structural elements is to resist the gravity: loading from the weight of the building and its contents. Since the loading on ilifferent floors tends to be similar. the weight of the floor system per unit floor area is approximately constant, regardless of the building height. Because the grav ity load on the columns. increases down the height of a building, the weight of columns per unit area increases approximately linearly with the building height. The highly probable second function of the vertical structural clements is to fesist also the parasitic load caused by wind and possibly earthquakes. whose mag fitudes will be obtained from National Building Codes or wind tunnel studies, The bending moments on the building caused by these lateral forces increase with at least the square of the height, and their effects will become progressively more important as the building height increases. On the basis of the factors above, the felative quantities of material required in the floors, columns, and wind bracing of 4 traditional steel frame and the penalty on these due to increasing height are ap: proximately as illustrated in Fig. 4.1. Because the worst possible effects of lateral forces occur rarely. if ever, in the life of the building, it is imperative to minimize the penalty for height to achieve an optimum design. The constant search for more efficient solutions led to the innovative designs and new structural forms of recent years (cf. Chapter 4), In developing a suitable system for resisting lateral forces, the engineer seeks to de- vise stiff horizontal interconnections between the various vertical components to Jorm composite assemblies such as coupled walls and rigid frames, which, as dem= onstrated in later chapters, create: a total structural assembly having a lateral stiff- ness many times greater than the sum of the lateral stiffnesses of the individual vertical components. 1.3.1. The Design Process Once the functional layout of the structure has been decided, the design process generally follows a well-defined iterative procedure, Preliminary caleulations for member sizes are usually based on gravity loading augmented by an arbitrary in- ¢fement to account for wind forces. The eruss-sectional areas of the vertical mem= bers will be based on the accumulated loadings from their associated tributary areas, with reductions to account for the probability that not all floors will beBUILDINGS: Subjected simultaneously to their maximum live loading, The initial sizes of beams and slabs are normally based on moments and shears obtained from some simple method of gravity load analysis. such as two-cycle moment distibution, or from codified mid- and:end-span values. A check is then made on the maximum horizontal deflection, and the forces in the major structural members, using some rapid approximate analysis technique If the deflection is excessive, or some of the members are inadequate, adjustments are made 10 the member sizes or the structural arrangement. If cemain members altract excessive loads. the engineer may reduce their stiffness to redistribute the toad to less heavily stressed components. The procedure of preliminary analysis checking. and adjustment is repeated until a satisfactory solution is obtained. Invarably. alterations to the initial layout of the building will be required as the client's and architect's ideas of the building evolve. This will call for structural modifications, or perhaps a radical rearrangement, which necessitates a complete review of the structural design, The various preliminary stages may therefore have to be repeated a aumber of times before a final solution is reached. A rigorous final analysis, using a more refined analytical model, will then be made to provide a final check on deflections and member strengths. This will usu- ally include the second-order effects of gravity loads on the lateral deflections and member forces (P-Deita effects). A dynzmic analysis may also be required if, as a result of wind loading, there is any likelihood of excessive deflections due to ‘oscillations or of comfort criteria being exceeded, or if earthquake loading has to be considered. At some stage in the procedure the deleterious effects of differential Movements duc to creep. shrinkage. or temperature differentials will also. be checked, In the design process, a thorough knowledge of high-rise structural components and their modes of behavior is a prerequisite 10 devising an appropriate load-re- sisting system, Such a system must be efficient, economic, and should minimize the structural penalty for height while maximizing the satisfaction of the basic serviceability requirements, With the increasing availability of general-purpose structural analysis programs. the formation of a concise and properly representa- tive model has become an imponant part of tall building analysis: this also requires 8 fundamental knowledge of structural behavior. Modeling for analysis is dis- cussed in Chapter 5, 1.4 PHILOSOPHY, SCOPE, AND CONTENT The iterative design process described above involves different levels of structural analysis, ranging from relatively crude and approximate techniques for the prelim- inary stages to sophisticated and accurate methods for the final check. The major part of this book is devoted therefore to a discussion and comparison of the dif- ferent practical methods of analysis developed for the range of structural forms ‘encountered in tall buildings. The emphasis throughout is on methods particular to tall building structures. with less. importance placed on methods for general 18 ANSONEDETRE 7 Mnictural analysis. which are treated comprehensively in other texts. It-is thus assumed that the reader is already familiar with the fundamentals of the stiffness matrix method and the finite element method of analysis, ‘The methods of analysis presented are, almost without exception, static, and assume linear elastic behavior of the structure, Although wind and earthquake forves are transient in nature, it is reasonable and practical to represent them in the: majority of design situations by equivalent static force distributions, as described in Chapter 3. Although recognizing that concrete and masonry behave in a nonlin- ear manner, a linear elastic analysis is still the most important tool for deciding: tall building’s structural design. Techniques do exist for the prediction of inelastic behavior, but they are not yet sufficiently well developed to be appropriate for lindertaking a detailed analysis of a highly indeterminate tall building structure. ‘The main emphasis of static linear analysis is applied to both components and assemblies found in tall buildings, ranging from the primary rigid frames. braced find infilled frames, and shear walls. to the more efficient composite systems that include coupled shear walls, wall-frame and framed-tube structures, shear wall cores, and outrigger-braced structures. Methods suitable for both preliminary and final analyses are described and, Where appropriate. detailed worked examples are given to illustrate the steps in= volved. Although computer-based matrix techniques form the mest versatile and rate methods for practical structural analysis, attention is also devoted to the more limited and approximate continuum techniques, These serve well to provide an understanding of structural behavior and their generalized solutions indicate More clearly and rapidly the influence of changes in structural parameters. Such fan understanding can be valuable in selecting a suitable model for computer anal- ysis. The book concludes with a series of Appendices that include useful design formulas and charts. and a selective Bibliography of significant references to the subject matter of the various chapters. It is impracticable to deal comprehensively in a single volume with all aspects of tall building structures. Important associated topics, therefore, including foun- dation systems, the detailed treatment of wind and earthquake forces and the as- sociated dynamic structural analysis, and construction procedures, which form ma- jor subjects in their own right, have had to be omitted. For a general discussion on all aspects of tall buildings, architectural, social, and technical, the reader is referred to the Reports and Proceedings of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. particularly the five-volume series of definitive Monographs [1.1]. 1.5 RAISONS D'ETRE ‘The authors believe that a book devoted to the analysis and design of tall building structures is merited on a number of counts. During the last few decades a large body of knowledge on the subject has accrued from an intensive worldwide re= search effort, The pace of this research has now abated. but the results are widely dispersed and still generally available only in research journals, Many of the anal: