BATTERY POWERED

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

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 CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO:

ABSTRACT 3
1. INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 HISTORY 4
1.2 VEHICLES BY TYPE 4-6
1.3 TECHNOLOGY 7
2. TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
2.1 BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE (BEV) 8-9
2.2 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV) 9
2.3 PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (PHEV) 10
3. PERFORMANCE OF BEV
3.1 WORKING 11
3.2 FEATURES 11-12
3.3 ECONOMY 12
3.4 EVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 12-13
4. LIFECYCLE COSTS
4.1 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 14
4.2 FUEL COSTS 14
4.3 FIXED COSTS 14
5. CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES
5.1 CONCLUSION 15
5.2 REFERENCES 16

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 ABSTRACT

Battery powered Electric Vehicles are starting to play a significant role in today's
automotive industry. There are many types of batteries found in the construction of
today's Electric Vehicles, being hard to decide which one fulfils best all the most
important characteristics, from different viewpoints, such as energy storage efficiency,
constructive characteristics, cost price, safety and utilization life.
This study presents the autonomy of an Electric Vehicle that utilizes four different
types of batteries: Lithium Ion (Li-Ion), Molten Salt (Na-NiCl2), Nickel Metal Hydride
(Ni-MH) and Lithium Sulphur (Li-S), all of them having the same electric energy storage
capacity.
The novelty of this scientific work is the implementation of four different types of
batteries for Electric Vehicles on the same model to evaluate the vehicle's autonomy
and the efficiency of these battery types on a driving cycle, in real time, digitized by
computer simulation.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

A battery electric vehicle (BEV), pure electric vehicle, only-electric vehicle or all-electric
vehicle is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that exclusively uses chemical energy stored in
rechargeable battery packs, with no secondary source of propulsion (e.g. hydrogen
fuel cell, internal combustion engine, etc.).
BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion
engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have
no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include – but are not
limited to – motorcycles, bicycles, scooters, skateboards, railcars, watercraft, forklifts,
buses, trucks, and cars.

1.1 HISTORY
In 1884, Thomas Parker built a practical production electric car in Wolverhampton
using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries. First introduced
in 1889, battery vehicle milk floats expanded in 1931, and by 1967, gave Britain the
largest electric vehicle fleet in the world.
In 2016, there were 210 million electric bikes worldwide used daily. Cumulative global
sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric car vehicles passed the one million
unit milestone in September 2016. As of October 2020, the world's top selling all-
electric car in history is the Tesla Model 3, with an estimated 645,000 sales, followed
by the Nissan Leaf with over 500,000 sales as of September 2020

1.2 VEHICLES BY TYPE

The concept of battery electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles
for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the
higher oil prices and the advancement of new battery technology (Lithium Ion) that
have higher power and energy density (i.e., greater possible acceleration and more
range with fewer batteries). Compared to older battery types such as lead-acid
batteries. Lithium-ion batteries for example now have an energy density of 0.9–2.63
MJ/L whereas lead-acid batteries had an energy density of 0.36 MJ/L (so 2.5 to 7.3x
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higher). There is still a long way to go if comparing it to petroleum-based fuels and
biofuels, however (gasoline having an energy density of 34.2 MJ/L -38x to 12.92x
higher- and ethanol having an energy of 24 MJ/L -26x to 9.12x higher-).
BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles.

Rail
 Battery electric railcars:

EV-e301 battery electric multiple unit on the Karasuyama line, Japan

Battery electric trains in the form of BEMUs (battery electric multiple units) are
operated commercially in Japan. They are charged via phantographs, either when
driving on electrified railway lines or during stops at specially equipped train stations.
They use battery power for propulsion when driving on railway lines that are not
electrified, and have successfully replaced diesel multiple units on some such lines.
Other countries have also tested or ordered such vehicles.
 Locomotives:
 Electric rail trolley
Electric motorcycles, scooters and rickshaws
Three-wheeled vehicles include electric rickshaws, a powered variant of the cycle
rickshaw. The large-scale adoption of electric two-wheelers can reduce traffic noise
and road congestion but may necessitate adaptations of the existing urban
infrastructure and safety regulations.
Ather Energy from India has launched their BLDC motor powered Ather 450 electric
scooter with Lithium Ion batteries in 2018. Also from India, AVERA a new and
renewable energy company is going to launch two models of electric scooters at the
end of 2018, with Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery technology.

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Electric vehicles for disabled people in Årdalstangen, Norway Ather 450, an Indian electric scooter

Electric boats
Several battery electric ships operate throughout the world, some for business.
Electric ferries are being operated and constructed.
Electric trucks
For most of the 20th century, the majority of the world's battery electric road
vehicles were British milk floats. The 21st century saw the massive development of
BYD electric trucks.

An electric milk float in Liverpool city centre, June 2005

Electric vans
In March 2012, Smith Electric Vehicles announced the release of the Newton Step-
Van, an all-electric, zero-emission vehicle built on the versatile Newton platform that
features a walk-in body produced by Indiana-based Utilimaster.
BYD supplies DHL with electric distribution fleet of commercial BYD T3.

1.3 TECHNOLOGY

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Motor controllers
The motor controller receives a signal from potentiometers linked to the
accelerator pedal, and it uses this signal to determine how much electric power
is needed. This DC power is supplied by the battery pack, and the controller
regulates the power to the motor, supplying either variable pulse width DC or
variable frequency variable amplitude AC, depending on the motor type. The
controller also handles regenerative braking, whereby electrical power is
gathered as the vehicle slows down and this power recharges the battery. In
addition to power and motor management, the controller performs various
safety checks such as anomaly detection, functional safety tests and failure
diagnostics.

Battery pack
Most electric vehicles today use an electric battery, consisting of electrochemical
cells with external connections in order to provide power to the vehicle.

Battery technology for EVs has developed from early lead-acid batteries used in
the late 19th century to the 2010s, to lithium-ion batteries which are found in
most EVs today. The overall battery is referred to as a battery pack, which is a
group of multiple battery modules and cells. For example, the Tesla Model S
battery pack has up to 7,104 cells, split into 16 modules with 6 groups of 74 cells
in each. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3-4 volts, depending on its chemical
composition.

Motors
Electric cars have traditionally used series wound DC motors, a form of brushed
DC electric motor. Separately excited and permanent magnet are just two of the
types of DC motors available. More recent electric vehicles have made use of a
variety of AC motor types, as these are simpler to build and have no brushes
that can wear out. These are usually induction motors or brushless AC electric
motors which use permanent magnets. There are several variations of the
permanent magnet motor which offer simpler drive schemes and/or lower cost
including the brushless DC electric motor.

Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic
field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the
vehicle's wheels.

CHAPTER 2

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 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

You must have come across different types of electrics in the market. Some are fully
electric while some are electric with IC engines. So what exact categories do they fall
into?

The electric vehicles are differentiated into three basic categories: Battery Electric
Vehicles (BEV), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle(PHEV) and Hybrid Electric
Vehicle(HEV).

2.1 BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES (BEV)

These are the ones which you call a fully electric vehicle. This electric vehicle type
does not contain any other source of actuation other than motors and batteries.
There is zero-emission in these vehicles. The battery is charged through an external
source of power such as DC fast charger or AC chargers.
On average, the BEVs take around 8 hours to get fully charged using an AC charger.
This time can be reduced to 1 hour using a DC fast charger.
These electric vehicles have a range from 250kms to 500kms depending upon the
battery capacity and the motor. Some of the 4-wheeler BEVs in India are Tata Nexon
EV, Hyundai Kona Electric, Mahindra Ekuv100, MG ZS EV and more. 2-wheeler BEVs

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in India include Ather 450, TVS iQube, Bajaj Chetak Electric and many other startups
are planning to launch by the end of this year.

2.2 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (HEV)

These type of electric vehicles are powered by both, fuel as well as electricity. The
electricity is generated by the vehicle’s own braking system. The heat produced by
the brakes is converted into electrical energy. This process of conversion is called
Regenerative Braking.
The electric motor is used to start off the HEVs. Then the propulsion is taken care of
by the IC engine. This ensures better fuel economy. The operation of the engine as
well as the motor is controlled by the ECU. Some HEVs in India are Toyota Prius
Hybrid, Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Camry Hybrid. Maruti Suzuki recently
introduced its hybrid system in few models too .

2.3 PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (PHEV)

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These are types of hybrid electric vehicles which can recharge the batteries through
regenerative braking or through the external source of power. The HEVs travel about
3-4kms before the engine is switched on, PHEVs can go up to 65kms before the
engine provides the required assistance for the propulsion of the vehicle. PHEV
options available in India are Mahindra e-Verito, BMW i8 and the Volvo XC90 T8.

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 CHAPTER 3
PERFORMANCE OF BEV

3.1 WORKING
Battery electric vehicles, or BEVs, use electricity stored in a battery pack to power an
electric motor and turn the wheels.
When depleted, the batteries are recharged using grid electricity, either from a wall
socket or a dedicated charging unit. Since they don’t run on gasoline or diesel and
are powered entirely by electricity, battery electric cars and trucks are considered
“all-electric” vehicles.
When driven, BEVs don’t produce tailpipe pollution—they don’t even have a tailpipe.
However, the electricity they use may produce heat-trapping gases and other
pollution at the source of its generation or in the extraction of fossil fuels. The
amount of pollution produced depends on how the electricity is made. In the United
States, battery electric cars charged off the dirtiest coal-dominated grid still produce
less pollution than their gasoline-powered counterparts. BEVs powered by
renewable energy sources like wind or solar are virtually emission-free.

3.2 FEATURES
Like other electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, BEVs minimize wasted energy by
turning the car off when stopped (“idle-off”) and by charging the battery when
braking (“regenerative braking”). Electric motors are also inherently more energy-
efficient than gasoline or diesel engines.
Battery electric cars have the added benefit of home recharging. A 240-volt outlet,
similar to those used for clothes dryers, can charge a vehicle overnight. Fully-
charged, most battery electric cars have a driving range of between 70 to 100 miles,
well within the day-to-day range requirements of most Americans, though some
BEVs can go up to 265 miles on a single charge. An increasing number of public and
workplace charging stations provide added charging capacity.
More subjectively, many drivers appreciate the driving experience provided by all-
electric cars. Electric motors generate near-instant torque, or turning-force, while
the torque of internal combustion engines increases in tandem with the engine’s

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revolutions (RPM). This means that BEVs have extremely fast acceleration and a
“light” or “zippy” feel compared to conventional cars and trucks.

3.3 ECONOMY
EV battery storage is a key element for the global energy transition which is
dependent on more electricity storage right now. As energy availability is the most
important factor for the vitality of an economy the mobile storage infrastructure of
EV batteries can be seen as one of the most meaningful infrastructure projects
facilitating the energy transition to a fully sustainable economy based on renewables.
A meta-study graphically showing the importance of electricity storage depicts the
technology in context.

3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Power generation
Electric vehicles produce no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in operation, but the
electricity used to power them may do so in its generation. The two factors driving
the emissions of battery electric vehicles are the carbon intensity of the electricity
used to recharge the Electric Vehicle (commonly expressed in grams of CO2 per kWh)
and the consumption of the specific vehicle (in kilometers/kWh).
The carbon intensity of electricity varies depending on the source of electricity where
it is consumed. A country with a high share of renewable energy in its electricity mix
will have a low C.I. In the European Union, in 2013, the carbon intensity had a strong
geographic variability but in most of the member states, electric vehicles were
"greener" than conventional ones. On average, electric cars saved 50%–60% of CO2
emissions compared to diesel and gasoline fuelled engines.
Moreover, the de-carbonisation process is constantly reducing the GHG emissions
due to the use of electric vehicles. In the European Union, on average, between 2009
and 2013 there was a reduction in the electricity carbon intensity of 17%. In a life-
cycle assessment perspective, considering the GHG necessary to build the battery
and its end-of-life, the GHG savings are 10-13% lower.

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Vehicle construction
GHGs are also emitted when the electric vehicle is being manufactured. The lithium-
ion batteries used in the vehicle take more materials and energy to produce because
of the extraction process of the lithium and cobalt essential to the battery. This
means the bigger the electric vehicle, the more carbon dioxide emitted.
The mines that are used to produce the lithium and cobalt used in the battery are
also creating problems for the environment, as fish are dying up to 150 miles (240
km) downstream from mining operations due to chemical leaks and the chemicals
also leak into the water sources the people that live near the mines use, creating
health problems for the animals and people that live nearby.

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 CHAPTER 4
LIFECYCLE COSTS
4.1 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
It is expected that M&R costs will be lower for BEVs during their lifetime. M&R can
be half of the costs of a ICE (Delucchi 2000) because an electric vehicle has less
moving parts and the electric motor is expected to last longer than an ICE. In this
research the M&R costs of a BEV are 30% lower than a gasoline car in the same
segment during the whole lifetime. Today’s batteries for EVs are not capable yet to
last during the whole lifetime of the vehicle (Delucchi 2000; Mierlo et al. 2006). The
vehicle batteries are expected to be replaced once during the lifetime of the vehicle.
The battery price is not part of the normal M&R but add up to the total costs for
M&R. The battery has to be replaced after approximately 10 years

4.2 FUEL COSTS

The amount of electricity drawn from the grid is calculated by multiplying the NEDC
fuel economy with the efficiency of charging the battery. The fuel costs of the BEV
are the electricity drawn from the grid multiplied by the electricity price. The vehicles
in this research are being charged at a home charger. Prices for charging the BEV at a
charging station elsewhere are not known yet. Also the first BEVs sold to private
owners will be charged at home chargers as there is no good infrastructure for
electric cars yet. Therefore the cost of charging a BEV at a charging station is not
taken into account.

4.3 FIXED COSTS

The fixed costs consist of the car insurance and other costs. Road taxes for electric
vehicles are abolished and are not part of the fixed costs. At this time it is uncertain
what the insurance costs will be for BEVs. The costs for insurance are estimated to be
as high as an ICE that runs on petrol adjusted to the retail price. Other costs that are
taken into account are for instance car washes and a membership on road services
and are equal to those of the reference ICE vehicles

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 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION ANS REFERENCES

5.1 CONCLUSION

The potential of the BEV in reducing the primary energy consumption and emissions
caused by the road transport is very high. The potential of the BEV is dependent on
the future source of electricity charged into the car. A high percentage of renewable
energy in the European electricity mix will make the BEV a very clean and highly
efficient alternative to the ICE vehicle.

The BEV will most likely remain a niche market the next decade as the high retail
price will hold back consumers. After 2020, when the lithium-ion batteries are
produced on a large scale, the lifecycle costs of a BEV can be lower than a
comparable ICE vehicle. By then the success of the BEV will not only depend on the
retail price but also on the charging infrastructure and the possibility of driving long
distances.

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5.3 REFERENCES

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle#Rail

2. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-do-battery-electric-cars-work

3. http://www.ehcar.net/library/these/these049.pdf

4. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-
899X/252/1/012058/pdf

5. https://gomechanic.in/blog/electric-vehicles-types-explained/

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