Transistor Frequency Analysis

Transistor Frequency
Analysis
Transistor Frequency Analysis
● A linear voltage amplifier fed at its input with a sine-wave signal of amplitude V i and
frequency ω
● The signal measured at the amplifier output also is sinusoidal with exactly the same
frequency ω
● Whenever a sine-wave signal is applied to a linear circuit, the resulting output is sinusoidal
with the same frequency as the input
● The output sinusoid will in general have a different amplitude and will be shifted in phase
relative to the input
● The ratio of the amplitude of the output sinusoid (Vo) to the amplitude of the input sinusoid
(Vi) is the magnitude of the amplifier gain (or transmission) at the test frequency ω
● The angle φ is the phase of the amplifier transmission at the test frequency ω
● Frequency of applied signal - pronounced effect on the response of a single-stage or

multistage network
● Mid-frequency spectrum
● Low frequencies - coupling and bypass capacitors can no longer be replaced by the
short-circuit approximation - increase in reactance of these elements
● Frequency-dependent parameters of the small-signal equivalent circuits and stray capacitive
elements associated with the active device and the network limit the high-frequency response
of the system
● Increase in number of stages of a cascaded system will also limit both the high- and
low-frequency responses.
● Analysis limited to a particular frequency - frequency that normally permitted ignoring the
effects of the capacitive elements - Analysis included resistive elements and controlled and
independent sources
● To investigate the frequency effects introduced by larger capacitive elements of the network at
low frequencies and the smaller capacitive elements of the active device at high frequencies
● Logarithmic scale used as a wide range of frequency used
● Decibel scale used for frequency plot
Effect of capacitive
elements in an amplifier
ignored for the
mid-frequency range
when important
quantities such as the
gain and impedance
levels are determined
Larger capacitors of a system -

Smaller capacitors of a system -
important impact on the response
important impact on the response
of a system in the low-frequency
of a system in the high-frequency
range and can be ignored for the
range and can be ignored for the
high-frequency region
low-frequency region
Frequency Analysis
Reactance of a capacitor varies inversely with frequency
Value of the resistor remains constant as the frequency
changes
At low frequencies the capacitive reactance, ( XC ) of the
capacitor will be very large compared to the resistive
value of the resistor, R.
This means that the voltage potential, VC across the
capacitor will be much larger than the voltage drop, VR
developed across the resistor. At high frequencies the
reverse is true with VC being small and VR being large
due to the change in the capacitive reactance value.
RC Low Pass Filter
RC Low Pass Filter
RC Low Pass Filter
RC Low Pass Filter
RC Low Pass Filter
The “break point” is when the frequency is equal to ωο = 1 / RC, at which the
ratio of phasors has a magnitude of - 3 dB and the phase is -45o
RC High Pass Filter
Reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies
the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any
input signals at VIN until the cut-off frequency point ( ƒC )
is reached
Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the
capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like
a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass
directly to the output as shown below in the filters
response curve.
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC Low Pass Filter
RC Low Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
RC High Pass Filter
Transistor Frequency Response
Capacitors contributing
to lower cut-off frequency
Capacitors contributing to
upper cut-off frequency
Loaded BJT amplifier with capacitors that affect the low

frequency response
While analyzing the effect of Cs - assumption

that magnitudes of the reactances of CE and
CC allow use of a short-circuit equivalent in
comparison to the magnitude of the other
series impedances.
Localized ac equivalent for CC with

Vi = 0 V
the effect of CC on the low-frequency
response
Effect of CE on the
low-frequency response
BJT AC Analysis: Voltage Divider Bias Confign.
● The maximum gain -> RE is 0
● At low frequencies -> bypass capacitor CE in “open-circuit” equivalent state -> all of RE
appears in the gain equation -> minimum gain
● Increase in frequency -> decrease in the reactance of the capacitor CE-> reduction in
parallel impedance of RE and CE until the resistor RE is effectively “shorted out” by CE
● Result -> maximum or midband gain Av = -RC>re.
● At lower cutoff frequency the gain will be 3 dB below the midband value determined
with RE “shorted out.”
● Cs, CC, and CE affect only the low-frequency response
● At midband frequency level, the short-circuit equivalents for the capacitors can be
inserted
● Although each will affect the gain Av = Vo>Vi in a similar frequency range, the highest
low-frequency cutoff determined by Cs, CC, or CE will have the greatest impact -> last
encountered before the midband level
● If the frequencies are relatively far apart- > the highest cutoff frequency will determine
the lower cutoff frequency for the entire system
● Interaction between capacitive elements can affect the resulting low-cutoff frequency
● If the cutoff frequencies established by each capacitor are sufficiently separated, the
effect of one on the other can be ignored with a high degree of accuracy
Transistor Frequency Response: Addition of source resistance
Introduction of the resistance Rs reduced the

Rs reduced the cutoff frequency defined by Cs and raised the cutoff frequency defined by Cs
cutoff frequency defined by CE Raised the cutoff frequency defined by CE
Cutoff frequency defined by CC remained
Cutoff frequency defined by CC remained the same the same
Gain can be severely affected by the loss in
Gain can be severely affected by the loss in signal voltage signal voltage across the source resistance.
across the source resistance.
Severe reduction in overall gain, corresponding reduction in the lower cutoff frequency.
Internal series resistance has strong impact on the midband gain, improvement in overall
bandwidth
Field-Effect Transistor Low-Frequency Response
Lower cutoff frequency determined primarily by RG and

CG
Large value of RG permits a relatively low level of CG while

maintaining a low cutoff frequency level for fLG
Transistor High-Frequency Response
Transistor High-Frequency Response: Miller Effect
Capacitance
High Frequency Region - capacitive elements
of importance are the interelectrode
capacitances internal to the active device
and the wiring capacitance between leads of
the network.
The large capacitors of the network that

controlled the low-frequency response are all
replaced by their short-circuit equivalent due
to their very low reactance levels.
Inverting amplifiers - the input and output

capacitance is increased by a capacitance
level sensitive to the interelectrode
capacitance and the gain
Capacitance
Capacitance
Capacitance
Capacitance
Capacitance
BJT High-Frequency Response
At increasing frequencies, the reactance XC will decrease in

magnitude, resulting in a shorting effect across the output and a
decrease in gain.
AC Equivalent Model (High Frequency)

At very high frequencies, the effect of Ci is to reduce the total

impedance
The result is a reduced level of voltage across Ci, a reduction in Ib,

and a gain for the system
● At very high frequencies - capacitive reactance of Co will decrease and

consequently reduce the total impedance of the output parallel branches
● Net result - Vo will also decline toward zero as the reactance XC becomes
smaller.
● If parasitic capacitors were the only elements to determine the high-cutoff
frequency, the lowest frequency would be the determining factor
● Decrease in hfe (or b) with frequency also to be considered as to whether its
break frequency is lower than fHi or fHo
Rb includes
base contact - due to actual connection to the base
base bulk -includes the resistance from the external terminal to the active region of the transistors
base spreading resistance - actual resistance within the active base region
rp, ro, and ru are the resistances between the indicated terminals when the device is in the active
region
Capacitances Cbc and Cbe -device is in the active region - the former is a transition capacitance,
whereas the latter is a diffusion capacitance.
If resistance ru (usually quite large) between base and collector is included - feedback loop between output and
input circuits to match the contribution of hre for the hybrid equivalent circuit
Resistance ru is a result of the fact that the base current is somewhat sensitive to the collector-to-base voltage - as
base-to-emitter voltage is linearly related to the base current through Ohm’s law, output voltage is equal to the
difference between the base-to-emitter voltage and collector-to-base voltage - base current is sensitive to the
changes in output voltage as revealed by the hybrid parameter hre
Function of the bias configuration

Function of the network design
Gain Bandwidth Product
FET High-Frequency Response

Transistor Frequency Analysis

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Transistor Frequency Analysis

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Transistor Frequency

● Frequency of applied signal - pronounced effect on the response of a single-stage or

Larger capacitors of a system -

Loaded BJT ampliﬁer with capacitors that affect the low

While analyzing the effect of Cs - assumption

Localized ac equivalent for CC with

Introduction of the resistance Rs reduced the

Lower cutoff frequency determined primarily by RG and

Large value of RG permits a relatively low level of CG while

The large capacitors of the network that

Inverting ampliﬁers - the input and output

At increasing frequencies, the reactance XC will decrease in

AC Equivalent Model (High Frequency)

At very high frequencies, the effect of Ci is to reduce the total

The result is a reduced level of voltage across Ci, a reduction in Ib,

● At very high frequencies - capacitive reactance of Co will decrease and

Function of the bias conﬁguration

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