PYC3704/202/1/2021

Tutorial Letter 202/1/2021

PYC3704

Psychological Research: Early Completion

Programme (ECP).
Semester 1

Department of Psychology

• Feedback to Assignment 02

BARCODE
Dear Student

This study letter contains answers and explanations of the correct options for each question in Assignment
02.

The questions in the two assignments and those at the end of each topic in the Study Guide for PYC3704
should be used as part of your preparation for the exam. We suggest that you try to do the questions from
the Guide and the assignments without looking up the answers. In this way you will see which questions
you can answer, and which ones you cannot answer. This will help you to identify the difficult questions,
and force you to rethink the reasons for the answers. Pay special attention to the explanations we provide,
since this will give you an indication of the weak spots in your own understanding of the material in the
Study Guide. Do not attempt to memorise the questions and their answers. Rather try to understand the
explanations for the correct option in each question. If you did not receive pass marks for the assignments,
you will have to work much harder if you want to pass the exam.

Feedback to Assignment 02 for Semester 1

ASSIGNMENT 02 FEEDBACK ECP

• This is a multiple choice assignment. Choose the one alternative that best completes the
statement or answers the question and fill in the appropriate number on the mark reading sheet.
• The assignment is compulsory in the second semester and will count 10% of your exam mark.
However, if you obtain less than 40% for the exam, this assignment will not contribute to your
exam mark.
• No extension of the closing date can be given as the answers will be provided with feedback
shortly after the closing date.
• Remember to put the correct unique number on the answer sheet if you submit the assignment by
post.

ECP students only Closing date: 19TH June 2021 Unique number: 733362

Question 1

In statistical hypothesis testing, the - - - - - is used to determine the - - - - - which is to be compared to the
chosen - - - - - to make an inference regarding the status of the hypotheses.

1. p-value; level of significance; test statistic

2. test statistic; p-value; level of significance
3. p-value; test statistic; level of significance
4. test statistic; level of significance; p-value

➔ Answer: The correct answer is option 2. To test a hypothesis, you first calculate an appropriate test
statistic, and this is then used to determine the p-value (using statistical tables or a computer program).
After that, this p-value is compared with a level of significance (α), chosen by the researcher, which
represents the maximum risk which the researcher is willing to take that the observed effect is due to
chance and not a reflection of an actual relationship between variables in the population.

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Question 2

Two samples may be regarded as dependent when - - - - - -.

1. each measurement in one sample is correlated with a measurement in the other sample
2. there is a systematic relationship between the measurements in one sample and the other
3. they were drawn from the same population
4. they are both totally random

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct and is a definition of dependent samples, where the measurements form
matched pairs. Option 1 is not really valid as a definition of dependence. Correlations are usually
calculated from two measurements (that is, two variables) in the same sample, not from different samples.
If you find a significant relationship, it implies that one type of measurement may be dependent on the
other type of measurement, but it is not really a dependency between two separate samples of data. It is
possible to correlate measurements from two samples if they are paired off in matched pairs of some kind
and finding a significant correlation would then probably imply dependence of some kind. This could imply
that the samples were discovered to be dependent, but it is not how ‘dependent samples’ are defined.

Being drawn from the same population does not imply dependence, so Option 3 is not correct.
Randomness of the samples is not relevant and is in any case likely to imply a lack of dependence, so
Option 4 is also not correct.

Question 3

Suppose H0:  = 100 is tested against H1: μ  100 with α = 0.05. If the t-statistic is found to be -3.20 and
the two-tailed p-value is 0.04, what decision regarding the statistical hypothesis can be taken?

1. Reject H0 and accept H1

2. Do not reject H1
2. Reject H1 and accept H0
4. Do not reject H0

➔ Answer: Option 1 is the correct answer. The p-value is 0.04 and α = 0.05, so p-value < α gives a
significant result. The H0 can be rejected in favour of the H1. Note that the p-value provided is two-tailed
and the test is non-directional, so no adjustment of the p-value is needed. If the p-value which was provided
was one-tailed, it would have been necessary to multiply this one-tailed p-value by 2 to get a two-tailed p-
value before comparing it to the level of significance (see p. 81 in the PYC3704 Guide).

Question 4

The following list contains a number of situations where a researcher may consider using a variation of
the t-test:

(a) To compare two group means

(b) To determine whether a relationship exists between two categorical (nominal scale) variables
(c) To compare a group mean with a constant value
(d) To determine whether a relationship exists between two continuous quantitative variables

Two of the statements above are true. Choose the correct set of true statements from the list below:

1. (a) and (c)

2. (a) and (b)
3. (b) and (d)
4. (c) and (d)

➔ Answer: Option 1 is correct. A t-test for a two-groups design can be used to compare two group or

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sample means (statement (a)) and a t-test for a one-group design can be used to compare a sample mean
with some predetermined population mean (statement (c)). You would not use it on nominal level data
(where calculating means would not be possible) as suggested in statement (b). Nor would you use a t-
test to explore the relationship between two variables as suggested in statement (d). In such a case you
would consider testing for a significant correlation.

Question 5

The lower we set the level of significance, the greater the probability of - - - - -.

1. rejecting the null hypothesis

2. a Type I error
3. a significant result
4 a Type II error

➔ Answer: Option 4 is correct. A lower level of significance will reduce the chances of a Type I error,
but it increases the chances of a Type II error.

You reject the null hypothesis based on a sample of data, but the sample contains measurement error. It
is therefore possible to reject a null hypothesis (based on the sample) when you should not because the
sample misrepresents the population. This would be a Type I error. Type II error (β), on the other hand,
refers to the situation where the null hypothesis is not rejected (based on the sample data) when it is false
(in the population) and therefore should in fact be rejected. It implies that the effect was not detected by
the test, even though it is present in the population.

The lower we set the level of significance (α), the less the chance of making an error of Type I, so Option
2 is not correct. This also makes the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis and obtaining a significant
result smaller, so Options 1 and 3 are also false. (See section 3.3.2 on p. 84 in the Guide for PYC3704).

Question 6

A researcher plans to use the t-test to compare two independent samples of data of only 15 individuals
each. Consider the following assumptions that may be relevant here:

(a) the sample standard deviations have to be equal

(b) the data from both samples has to come from populations that are normally distributed

What minimum assumptions from the ones given above needs to be met before she may proceed?

1. at least one of (a) or (b) must be true

2. neither (a) nor (b) is relevant but other assumptions exist that will have to be considered
3. the t-test should never be used with such a small sample at all
4. (a) and (b) must both be true

➔ Answer: Option 4 gives the most appropriate answer. The conditions for a t-test (given at the top of
p. 115 in the PYC3704 Guide) state the two populations should be normally distributed and have the same
variance or standard deviation. These conditions are especially important when the sample is small (less
than 30 or so). For larger samples, they can be relaxed somewhat.

We can determine whether the population standard deviations are significantly different by comparing the
sample standard deviations. If they seem to differ too much, there is actually a statistical test to determine
the significance, but we do not cover that in this module. You can check whether the populations are likely
to be normal by plotting a graph (a histogram) for each sample. Statistical tests to determine whether a
sample comes from a normal distribution also exist (including the use of a variation of the chi-square test
from Topic 6).

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Question 7

What is the main difference between a z-test and a t-test when a single sample test for a mean is
performed?

1. For a t-test, only the sample mean is needed, whereas for a z-test only the population mean is
needed.
2. The population standard deviation is needed for a z-test but is not required for a t-test.
3. The sample standard deviation is needed for t-test, but not for a z-test.
4. A z-test can only be used if the sample size is large.

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. The z-test cannot be used if the population standard deviation is not
available. In such a case the t-test can be used, but then the population standard deviation must be
estimated from the sample standard deviation. The t-distribution in fact represents a small adjustment of
the z-distribution, given that the population standard deviation is unknown, with the population standard
deviation estimated with the standard error (See Section 4.2.1 in the PYC3704 Guide).

Options 1 and 3 are wrong because neither of these refer to conditions which are of relevance to the
difference between z-test and t-test. Option 4 is wrong because there is no reason why the t-test would be
preferred to a z-test for a larger sample size.

Question 8

Whether the p-value for directional or non-directional testing on a hypothesis should be used depends on
- - - - -.

1. the null hypothesis

2. the alternative hypothesis
3. the level of significance
4. both the null and the alternative hypothesis

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. The alternative hypothesis states that certain parameters differ, and
when appropriate, gives an indication of the direction is which they differ. The null hypothesis states that
there is no difference, so there can obviously not be a direction (greater or smaller) in this statement.

Look at the example of testing for a mean in a single sample design in Table 3.1 on p. 75 in the Guide: the
null hypothesis remains the same, and the direction of the test is related exclusively to the form of the
alternative hypothesis. Therefore, neither Option 1 nor Option 3 are correct. Option 3 is incorrect because
the level of significance is chosen by the researcher, and is not dependent on whether it is a directional or
non-directional test.

Question 9

Suppose you find that the value of the t-statistic calculated for your research results is zero. Which
conclusion is appropriate?

1. The probability of a Type I error is zero

2. The alternative hypothesis is likely to be true
3. The null hypothesis is likely to be true
4. A calculation error was made because a t-statistic value can never be zero

➔ Answer: The correct alternative is Option 3.

For example, look at the formula for the t-test for two independent samples:

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 tc =
(x 1 − x2 )
s12 s 22
+
n1 n2

The only time that the value of tc can be zero, is when there is no difference between the means, which
implies that the null hypothesis must be true. A similar argument works for any of the others forms of the
t-test, since using this test always implies that two means are being compared.

This also implies that Option 2 must be false. If the means being compared are the same, the t-statistic
will always be zero, so Option 4 is also not true. Option 1 is false because the probability of a Type I error
will actually be very large: if there is no difference between the means you are sure to make an error if you
reject the null hypothesis in spite of this.

Question 10

What does it mean to say, “the difference between the means of groups A and B is not statistically
significant”?

1. The alternative hypothesis is probably true.

2. The null hypothesis adequately explains the results
3. If the null hypothesis were true, the results which were found in the sample data would be unlikely.
4. The null hypothesis can be rejected.

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. If the difference is found to be not statistically significant, you would
assume any difference which is observed between the group means in samples of data is a consequence
of random effects such as measurement error or a bias in the samples. So although the null hypothesis
may not be literally true (the two means are not exactly the same), the result of a statistical test shows that
the sample means do not differ sufficiently to indicate that H0 should be rejected in favour of an alternative
hypothesis. You conclude that the null hypothesis is probably an adequate reflection of the truth and the
risk of making an error (of Type I) if you reject it is too large to accept. All three the other options imply
that the difference is in fact statistically significant, in contradiction to the question.

Question 11

When using a t-test to compare the means from two samples of data, a researcher finds a significant
difference. She decides to also determine the effect size of the result. For what reason would she do this?

1. To double-check the result

2. The see whether the statistical result is also reasonably meaningful in practical terms
3. To determine the power of the statistical test
4. To determine the probability of making an error if she rejects the null hypothesis

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. A p-value indicates the probability of the t-test statistic obtained under
the null hypothesis, but it does not say anything about the practical significance, or size of the effect, of
the difference between the two samples. The problem is that the p-value is very sensitive to sample size.
For example, a small difference in the means between the two samples could have produced a statistically
significant result and yielded a low p-value if the samples were large (see the PYC3704 Guide, page 86).
A low p-value tells you that the result is greater (more significant) than you would expect by chance, but it
should not be used as a direct measurement of the size of the effect. To find out about the actual practical
significance (the size of the effect) of the difference between the two samples of data, the researcher would
have to calculate an effect size.

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Base your answers to Questions 12 and 13 on the following scenario:

A teacher investigates the effect of extra classes on the performance of pupils in mathematics. A group
of 20 pupils receives the extra classes while a control group of 20 pupils receives singing lessons. For
each of the 40 pupils the teacher calculates the increase or decrease in his or her mathematics
performance by comparing the marks obtained in an examination before the extra classes to the marks
obtained in an examination after the extra classes.

Question 12

Which is the most appropriate research hypothesis for the teacher to test?

1. The mean mathematics score after the extra classes is larger than before the extra classes for the
experimental group.
2. The mean mathematics score after extra classes is higher for the experimental group than for the
control group.
3. The mean mathematics difference score (after minus before) of the experimental group is larger than
that of the control group
4. There is a positive correlation between mathematics scores and whether students received extra
classes.

➔ Answer: Option 3 is the only hypothesis that takes account of all the information. The before and after
scores are summarised into a difference score (after score minus before score), and the two groups are
then compared with regard to the change in difference scores. The intervention (extra classes) can be
judged as being successful if the difference scores of the control group (who did not get the extra classes)
do not change much (so the mean of the difference scores should be close to zero), while the experimental
group shows a positive change in the mean of the difference scores due to the effect of the extra classes.
Option 1 looks only at change in the scores of the experimental group, and Option 2 compares the two
groups only after the intervention, while ignoring the comparison that was performed before the extra
classes began. Note that the hypothesis stated in Option 4 would be equivalent to that stated in Option 3
if we knew that the two groups were equal in their mathematics performance before extra classes
commenced. This is of course not something that we know without performing a test.

Correlations would not really be used when scores for two groups before and after an intervention is
compared, which invalidates Option 4.

Question 13

Which is the appropriate test statistic to be calculated when testing this hypothesis (as specified in
Question 12)?

1. The t-statistic for the difference between the means of two dependent samples
2. The t-statistic for the difference between the means of two independent samples.
3. The t-statistic for the mean difference score of a single sample.
4. The r-statistic for the correlation between two variables.

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. There are two samples (experimental and control group) which can be
regarded as independent (there is no particular systematic relationship between them). The dependencies
between before and after measurements within each group are accounted for by using the difference
scores, as explained in the answer to Question 12, above.

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Question 14

A researcher hypothesizes that the drug treatment of hospitalised schizophrenic patients improves their
mental alertness. He studies a random sample of 27 patients to see whether there is a relationship
between the number of days of drug treatment and patients’ scores on the Mental Alertness Test.

Which is an appropriate null hypothesis for this research?

1. H0: ρ = 0
2. H0: r ≠ 0
3. H0: µ = 0
4. H0: r = 0

➔ Answer: The correct alternative is option 1. The symbol ‘ρ’ (the Greek letter ‘rho’) is used to represent
the population parameter being tested when you calculate the Pearson’s correlation coefficient ‘r.’ That is,
you calculate r for the sample, then have to decide whether this is likely to represent a significant linear
correlation between two variables for the whole population (with this population correlation symbolised by
ρ), by looking at the p-value associated with this calculated sample statistic r. This is similar to the way
that ‘µ’ represents the population parameter (statistic) for a mean, and ‘σ’ the population parameter for a
standard deviation. (See p. 137 of the PYC3704 Guide).

Question 15

If the investigator is interested only in a change which is in a specific direction, it is appropriate to use a(n)
- - - - -.

1. one-tailed test
2. two-tailed test
3. test for independent groups
4. test for independent groups

➔ Answer: Option 1 is correct. One-tailed tests are to be used where only one side of the probability
distribution of the test statistic is of relevance. This is implied in cases where differences can be in one or
another direction, such as comparing two means or comparing a positive and a negative correlation. In
these cases, the null hypothesis would always imply that there is no difference at all, but the directional
alternative hypothesis is either in one or the other direction (one value being either greater or less than the
other). If the alternative hypothesis is interested in any difference (in either direction), with the direction not
specified, a two-tailed test would be needed (Option 1). (See Table 3.1 on p. 75 of the PYC3704 Study
Guide). The dependence or independence of the groups (Options 3 and 4) are relevant for selecting an
appropriate test statistic but this is not related to the choice of a one- or two-tailed test.

Question 16

Which of the following can take on a value of -0.5?

1. A probability
2. A correlation coefficient
3. A level of significance
4. A variance

➔ Answer: Option 2 is the correct answer. Correlations could be anywhere in a range from -1 to +1 (see
the PYC3704 Guide, p. 133). In none of the other options can the value be smaller than zero.

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Question 17

If a researcher matches subjects between groups, the appropriate t-test is the t-test for - - - - -.

1. independent groups
3. groups indicated by different values on a nominal scale
4. differences between means
4. dependent groups

➔ Answer: Option 4 is correct. The t-test for dependent samples would be used if there are two groups
of research participants which forms matched pairs of measurements (see pp. 117 – 120 in the PYC3704
Study Guide). Groups are usually indicated by different values on a nominal scale (Option 3) and the use
of a t-test always implies that means are being compared (Option 3). These issues are however not
relevant to the question of whether between-group matching of pairs of subjects is involved, which is why
the alternatives given in Options 2 and 3 do not apply.

Question 18

A negative correlation between variables X and Y implies that persons scoring low on X will generally
score - - - - - on Y.

1. low
2. high
3. either high or low
4. in an indeterminate direction

➔ Answer: The correct answer is Option 2. A negative correlation implies that as one variable changes,
the other changes in the opposite direction (which eliminates Option 4). A low value on X will imply a high
value on Y, while a high value on X will be matched by a low value on Y (see p. 133 in the Guide).

Use the following scenario to answer Question 19 and 20:

A researcher suspects that children’s level of anxiety during a test will interfere with their memories. He
gives a list of items to be memorized to a sample of children, and gives them a test to see how many
items they can remember. Directly afterwards he also tests the level of anxiety of each child with an
anxiety scale (where higher score shows a greater level of anxiety).

The researcher draws a scatter plot of the relationship between level of anxiety and number of items
recalled. The result is presented below.

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Question 19

What can the researcher infer about the relationship between level of anxiety and number of items
remembered from the graph presented above? There is - - - - -.

1. a positive relationship: as anxiety falls less items are remembered

2. a negative relationship: as anxiety rises less items are remembered
3. a negative relationship: less items are remembered as anxiety falls
4. no actual relationship: the graph shows a negative trend over time

➔ Answer: Option 2 is the correct answer. The points on the graph can be imagined as being clustered
roughly around straight line running from top left to bottom right. This implies a negative relationship: as
one variable gets larger, the other one becomes smaller (anxiety gets greater and number of items
remembered gets smaller). Note that this is equivalent to saying that as anxiety gets smaller, more items
would be remembered. Whether a relationship is positive and negative relationships depends on whether
the two variable change together in the same direction or whether they change in opposite directions.
Option 3 is therefore incorrect as it would imply a positive relationship since the two variables change in
the same direction (both getting smaller).

Question 20

Suppose the researcher uses the data to calculate the Pearson product-moment correlation (r) coefficient
to determine the size of the relationship between number of items remembered and level of anxiety.

Which of the following would be most probable as description of r? (Which of following descriptions of the
expected value of r seems to be the most appropriate?)

1. r=0
2. r>0
3. r≠0
4. r<0

➔ Answer: Option 4 is the most appropriate choice. A negative relationship is implied in the graph, which
implies a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient of less than 0.

Base your answers to Questions 21 to 28 on the following scenario:

A group of middle managers in a company are required to undergo a training programme aimed at
improving their leadership abilities. A researcher wants to establish the effectiveness of the training
programme. She tests each participant before the training commences on a questionnaire that
measures the leadership ability of each participant as well as on their score on a scale that measures
self-esteem. After the training programme is completed, each participant is again tested for their
leadership ability. The table below shows the results of the measurements.

Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Gender 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
SelfEst 5 4 3 1 3 4 5 3 2 2 3 3 4 2 2 3 3
Lead1 5 4 3 3 4 6 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 1 2 3 6
Lead2 6 6 3 4 6 7 4 5 4 6 7 6 5 3 4 5 5
Key:
The variable Gender is coded with 1 = Male; 2 = Female.
SelfEst is a variable indicating self-esteem and was measured on a 5-point scale (ranging from
1=’low self-esteem’ to 5=’high self-esteem’).
Leadership ability was measured twice on a 7-point scale (with 1=’very low leadership ability’ up to
7=’very high leadership ability’). Lead1 indicates the measurement before the training programme,
while Lead2 represents the measurement thereafter.

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Question 21

The researcher wants to establish whether a significant difference exists between male and female
participants in the level of self-esteem of the participants before the training begins. He decides to do
statistical significance testing to a level of significance of α = 0.05. Which of the following is the most
appropriate way to express the hypotheses to be tested?

1. H0: µM = µF H1: µM ≠ µF
2. H0: µM = µF H1: µM > µF
3. H0: x̄M = x̄F H1: x̄ M ≠ x̄ F
4. H0: ρ = 0 H1: ρ ≠ 0

➔ Answer: Option 1 is correct. Two means are being compared (for the male and female groups), but
since the question does not indicate which mean is expected to be greater than which, the alternative
hypothesis would be a two-sided or non-directional hypothesis. This eliminates Option 2. In a formal
statistical hypotheses, one specifies the population parameters (sample data are used to infer something
about a population), which makes the formulation in Option 3incorrect. One would usually not use a
correlation coefficient to compare two groups, which makes Option 4 unlikely to be true.

Question 22

Assuming that the data is normally distributed and the variances do not differ significantly, which of the
following tests are appropriate to test the hypotheses in the previous question?

1. Pearson’s correlation statistic (r).

2. The tc test for two independent groups.
3. The td test for two dependent groups.
4. The chi-square (χ2) test for two variables.

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. The t-test is required to compare two group means (which eliminates
Options 1 and 4). In this case the two samples come from independent groups because there is no reason
to suppose a systematic relationship between the two groups (male and female). This eliminates Option
3. Note that the two samples are not even the same size, which would be required for a test for dependent
groups, since it should be possible to match each individual measurement in the one group with a particular
individual in the other group (in order to calculate differences scores).

Question 23

The researcher calculates the value of the appropriate test statistic (in Question 22 above). In which of
the four intervals below will the absolute value of the test statistic fall (i.e., ignoring a plus or minus sign)?

1. Between 0 to 1.0
2. Between 1.0 and 2.0
3. Between 2.0 and 3.0
4. Above 3.0

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. To calculate the value of tC, you will first have to calculate the means and
standard deviations for the self-esteem score for each of the two groups (male and female).

You can see from the data in the table that the number of males in the sample is nM = 9 (counting the
number of people with ‘Gender’ coded as ‘1’) and the number of females is nF = 8 (counting the number of
people with ‘Gender’ coded as ‘2’).

If you use the formulas for means and standard deviations for the male and female research participants
respectively (see Appendix C in the Guide), you should find the following:

• For the male group: x̄M = 3.3333 and sM = 1.3229

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 The calculations for mean and standard deviation for the group of 9 males are as follows:

1 5 + 4 + 3 + 1 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 3 + 2 30
𝑥̅𝑀 = ∑𝑥 = = = 3.3333
𝑛 9 9

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 (5 − 3.3333)2 + (4 − 3.3333)2 + ⋯ + (2 − 3.3333)2

𝑠𝑀 = √ =√
𝑛−1 9−1

1.66672 + 0.66672 + ⋯ − 1.33332 2.7779 + 0.4445 + ⋯ 1.7777

=√ =√
8 8

14.0000
=√ = √1.7500 = 1.3229
8

Note that we use the sample standard deviation, not the one for populations (as explained in
Appendix C in the Guide). This is because we presume that this problem refers to a sample of
middle managers in the company who represents the population of all middle managers.

• For the female group: x̄F = 2.7500 and sF = 0.7071

We leave the calculation of these values to you.

To calculate the test statistice we have to substitute these values into the formula for the t-test for
independent samples:

(𝑥̅𝑀 − 𝑥̅𝐹 ) (3.3333 − 2.7500) 0.5833

𝑡𝐶 = = =
2 2
𝑠2 𝑠2 √1.3229 + 0.7071 √1.7501 + 0.5000
√ 𝑀+ 𝐹 9 8 9 8
𝑛𝑀 𝑛𝐹

0.5833 0.5833 0.5833

= = = = 1.1509
√0.1944+0.0625 √0.2569 0.5068

Your result should be similar (there may be a small deviation because of rounding-off errors). The answer
therefore falls within the interval specified by Option 2 above.

Note that whether the sign of the calculated t-statistic is positive or negative will depend on which mean
you subtract from which, so it does not affect the absolute size of the t-statistic. Therefore, since the
hypothesis being tested is non-directional (see the answer to Question 21 above), you can ignore the sign
when you determine significance (this would however matter in directional testing, when you have to
consider whether the change is in the same direction as that which you specified in your alternative
hypothesis).

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Question 24

The researcher finds that the test statistic calculated in Question 23 yields a p-value of
p = 0.2839. What conclusion can be drawn from this? (Use the level of significance as given above in
Question 21).

1. There is a significant difference in self-esteem level before the training programme between males
and females.
2. The self-esteem before the training programme of females is significantly greater than that of males.
3. The self-esteem levels before the training programme do not differ significantly between male and
female participants
4. The self-esteem before the training programme is significantly greater for males than that for
females.

➔ Answer: Option 3 is correct. The p-value is not smaller than the level of significance, so the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected. The p-value of 0.2839 actually implies that there is a better than 28%
probability that the difference between the two means (2.67 and 3.25) is the result of chance, which is far
too large for us to even consider rejecting the null hypothesis.

Question 25

The researcher wants to determine whether the workshop is effective by comparing the measurements on
the measurement of leadership ability before the training programme with the measurements on this scale
after the programme. Which of the following is an appropriate test statistic to calculate?

1. The td test statistic

2. Pearson's correlation statistic (r)
3. The tc test statistic
4. The tx̄ test statistic

➔ Answer: Option 1 is correct. This is a comparison of a mean obtained before an intervention (the
training programme) with the mean from after the intervention. The leadership score of each participant
from before the training programme can therefore be matched with a specific leadership score (for the
same individual) fro after the programme was completed. This implies scores from dependent groups or
samples (see pp. 117-118 in the PYC3704 Study Guide).

Question 26

In which of the following intervals will this test statistic (from Question 25) fall if it is calculated? (Use the
absolute value of the calculated test statistic).

1. Between 0 and 1.0

2. Between 1.0 and 2.0
3. Above 3.0
4. Between 2.0 and 3.0

➔ Answer: Option 3 is correct.

The td-test statistic is calculated as follows:

First, the difference scores (d) must be found by subtracting, for each matched pair, the leadership score
before the programme from the leadership score after it. These scores are indicated in the table below.

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 Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Lead1 5 4 3 3 4 6 5 4 4 4 5 4 5 1 2 3 6
Lead2 6 6 3 4 6 7 4 5 4 6 7 6 5 3 4 5 5
d 1 2 0 1 2 1 -1 1 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 -1

The mean and standard deviations of the difference scores can now be computed by using the values of
the difference scores (d) in the appropriate formulas.

1 (1 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 1 − 1 + ... + 2 − 1) = 18 / 17 = 1.0588
d=
n
 d=
17

sd =
 (d − d ) 2

=
(1 − 1.0588 ) 2 + (2 − 1.0588 ) 2 + ... + (−1 − 1.0588) 2
n −1 17 − 1
(−0.0588 ) 2 + (0.9412 ) 2 + ... + (−2.0588 ) 2 0.0035 + 0.8858 + ... + 4.2387
= =
16 16
18.9412
= = 1.1838 = 1.0880
16

Note that we subtracted the leadership score before the workshop (Lead1) from the leadership score after
the workshop (Lead2) to calculate the differences scores d. This makes sense, because we would expect
a higher score after the workshop than before (i.e. directional testing), given the hypothesis as implied in
Question 25. It would not matter if we did it the other way round, but then we would expect the mean of
the d-scores (d̄) to be negative, and so also the calculated t-value (below). If the mean of Lead2 was
smaller than the mean of Lead1, the probability of Lead2 being greater than Lead1 would be zero and we
would not need to continue with statistical testing. (See p. 77 and also p. 119 in the Guide).

This mean and standard deviations must now be substituted in the formula for the t d-test statistic:

𝑑̅ − 𝐷
̅ 1.0588 − 0 1.0588 1.0588
𝑡𝑑 = 𝑠𝑑 = 1.0880 = = = 4.0121
⁄ 1.0880⁄ 0.2639
√𝑛 √17 4.1231

This falls in the category specified in option 4, as it is greater than 3.0.

Question 27

The researcher is also interested to determine whether a relationship exists between self-esteem and
leadership ability before the training programme. Which of the following is the most appropriate test
statistic to use?

1. The chi square (χ2) test statistic

2. The Pearson’s correlation (r) test statistic
3. The tc test statistic for independent variables
4. The td test statistic for dependent samples

➔ Answer: Option 2 is correct. Here it is not two groups that are being compared by looking at their
group means, so Options 3 and 4 are incorrect. Two variables are compared, but both are measurements
(which can be regarded as interval or ration measurements), so option 1 is also not appropriate.

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 PYC3704/202

Question 28

Which of the following is the result if this test statistic (in Question 27) is calculated? The value of the test
statistic will fall - - - - -.

1. below - 0.4
2. between -0.4 and 0
3. between 0 and 0.4
4. above 0.4

➔ Answer: Option 4 is correct.

The best way to calculate r in would be to create a table such as the following (similar to the example on
p. 135 of the Guide):
Lead1

SelfEst
SelfEst

SelfEst
Lead1

Lead1
Case

X
1 5 5 25 25 25
2 4 4 16 16 16
3 3 3 9 9 9
4 1 3 1 9 3
5 3 4 9 16 12
6 4 6 16 36 24
7 5 5 25 25 25
8 3 4 9 16 12
9 2 4 4 16 8
10 2 4 4 16 8
11 3 5 9 25 15
12 3 4 9 16 12
13 4 5 16 25 20
14 2 1 4 1 2
15 2 2 4 4 4
16 3 3 9 9 9
17 3 6 9 36 18
Total (Σ) 52 68 178 300 222

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We can now substitute the values from the bottom row of the table into the formula for r, as given below:

n xy − ( x)( y ) (17  222 ) − (52  68)

r= =
[n x 2 − ( x) 2 ][ n y 2 − ( y ) 2 ] [(17  178) − 52 2 ]  [(17  300 ) − 68 2 ]

3774 − 3536 238 238

= = =
[3026 − 2704 ]  [5100 − 4624 ] 322  476 153272

238
= = 0.6079
391 .4997

This is greater than 0.4, which is why Option 4 is the right answer.

Use the following scenario to answer Questions 29 and 30:

Sally wonders whether a relationship exists between a person’s length and their leadership
ability. She collect data from a sample of 95 people, classifying them as short or tall, and as
leaders, followers and those she could not classify. From this, she creates the contingency
table below.

Cross-classification Tall Short

Leader 12 32
Follower 22 14
Unclassifiable 9 6

Question 29

If frequency data is evenly distributed throughout the categories, with no proportional difference between
tall and short people as far as leadership abilities go, what would you expect the number of people who
can be classified as Short Leaders to be?

1. 15.8
2. 19.9
3. 24.08
4. 32

➔ Answer: The correct answer is given in Option 3.

To answer the question, you need to calculate row and column totals. Expand the table as follows:

Cross-classification Tall Short Row total

Leader 12 32 44
Follower 22 14 36
Unclassifiable 9 6 15
Column Total 43 52 95

To get the expected frequency (the way data would be distributed purely by chance) you need to multiply
the total for the second column of frequencies (the total number of short people) with the total of the first
row (total number of leaders) and divide by the overall total, as follows:

eij= (trow  tcol) / tall

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 PYC3704/202

e.g.: e12 = (52  44)/95 = 2288/95 = 24.0842

Note that option 4 is incorrect because it gives the observed frequency for short leaders, while the question
asks for the expected frequency if the frequencies were distributed equally with no interaction between
tallness and leadership ability. (See p. 144 of the Guide for details).

Question 30

To determine whether a relationship exists between length and leadership ability Sally has to calculate the
appropriate test statistic.

In which of the following categories will the result fall:

1. Below 0
2. Between 0 and 2
3. Between 2 and 4
4. Above 4

➔ Answer: Option 4 is correct.

To solve the problem, Sally must calculate the value of the chi-square (χ2) statistic. The formula is given
on p. 148 of the Guide:
(O − E ) 2
 =
2
p
E

To use this formula, it is necessary to work out the expected frequencies for each cell in the contingency
table in the same way as in the case of the Tall Leaders (in the previous question).

This would lead to the following contingency table (with expected frequencies added in brackets):

Cross-classification Tall Short Row total

Leader 12 32 44
(19.92) (24.08)
Follower 22 14 36
(16.29) (19.70)
Unclassifiable 9 6 15
(6.79) (8.21)
Column Total 43 52 95

It is useful to create a table like the one below if you have to do this calculation by hand:

O E O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

12 19.92 -7.92 62.7264 3.1489
22 16.29 5.71 32.6041 2.0015
9 6.79 2.21 4.8841 0.7193
32 24.08 7.92 62.7264 2.6049
14 19.70 -5.70 32.4900 1.6492
6 8.21 -2.21 4.8841 0.5949
10.7187

(See section 6.2.3, especially the example in table 6.6 on p. 145 of the PYC3704 Guide).

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The value of the chi-square statistic is the total of the numbers in the right-hand column:

 p2 = 10.7187

Your own calculated value may differ slightly (due to rounding-off errors) but should be similar to this. (If
you use tables or a computer program you will find that this value is significant, which would imply that a
significant relationship exists between length and leadership ability

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