1 - Chinese Astronomy - Wikipedia

05/07/2021 Chinese astronomy - Wikipedia
Chinese astronomy
Astronomy in China has a long history stretching from the
Shang Dynasty, being refined over a period of more than 3,000
years. The Ancient Chinese people have identified stars from
1300BCE, as Chinese star names later categorized in the twenty-
eight mansions have been found on oracle bones unearthed at
Anyang, dating back to the mid-Shang Dynasty. The core of the
"mansion" (xiù:宿) system also took shape around this period, by
the time of King Wu Ding (1339–1281 BCE).[1]
Detailed records of astronomical observations began during the

Warring States period (fourth century BCE) and flourished from
the Han period onward. Chinese astronomy was equatorial,
centered on close observation of circumpolar stars, and was
The Dunhuang map from the Tang
based on different principles from those in traditional Western Dynasty (North Polar region). This
astronomy, where heliacal risings and settings of zodiac map is thought to date from the
constellations formed the basic ecliptic framework.[2] Needham reign of Emperor Zhongzong of
has described the ancient Chinese as the most persistent and Tang (705–710). Founded in
accurate observers of celestial phenomena anywhere in the world Dunhuang, Gansu. Constellations of
before the Islamic astronomers.[3] the three schools were distinguished
with different colors: white, black
Some elements of Indian astronomy reached China with the and yellow for stars of Wu Xian,
expansion of Buddhism after the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 Gan De and Shi Shen respectively.
CE), but most incorporation of Indian astronomical thought The whole set of star maps contain
occurred during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), when 1,300 stars.
numerous Indian astronomers took up residence in the Chinese
capital Chang'an, and Chinese scholars, such as the Tantric
Buddhist monk and mathematician Yi Xing, mastered the Indian system. Islamic astronomers
collaborated closely with their Chinese colleagues during the Yuan Dynasty, and, after a period of
relative decline during the Ming Dynasty, astronomy was revitalized under the stimulus of Western
cosmology and technology after the Jesuits established their missions. The telescope was introduced
from Europe in the seventeenth century. In 1669, the Peking observatory was completely redesigned
and refitted under the direction of Ferdinand Verbiest. Today, China continues to be active in the
field of astronomy, with many observatories and its own space program.
Contents
Early history
Purpose of astronomical observations in the past
Cosmology
Constellations
Star catalogues and maps
Star catalogues
Star maps
Solar and lunar eclipses
Equipment and innovation
Armillary sphere (渾儀)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_astronomy 1/17
Abridged armilla (簡儀)

Celestial globe (渾象) before Qing Dynasty
Celestial globe (天體儀) in the Qing Dynasty
The water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe tower (水運儀象台)
True north and planetary motion
Foreign influences
Indian astronomy
Islamic astronomy in East Asia
Jesuit activity in China
Astronomy during Ming China
Astronomical Bureaus
Responsibilities of the Bureau
Colleagues
Training
Payment
Instruments Used by the Occupation
Memorial
Imperial Observatory
Armillary Sphere (Ming China)
The Simplified Instrument
Yuan Gnomon
Clepsydra
Outside Perspective
Famous Chinese astronomers
Observatory
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Early history
Purpose of astronomical observations in the past
One of the main functions of astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a
lunisolar calendar, but as the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, leap months had to be
inserted regularly.
The Chinese calendar was considered to be a symbol of a dynasty. As dynasties would rise and fall,
astronomers and astrologers of each period would often prepare a new calendar, making observations
for that purpose.
Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy.

Astronomers took note of "guest stars", usually supernovas or
comets, which appear among the fixed stars. The supernova
which created the Crab Nebula, now known as SN 1054, is an
example of an astronomical event observed by Ancient Chinese
astronomers. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like
comets and supernovae are sometimes used in modern
astronomical studies.
Cosmology
Wide view of the Crab Nebula.[4] The Chinese developed three cosmological models:
The Gai Tian, or hemispherical dome, model conceived the

heavens as a hemisphere lying over a dome-shaped Earth.
The second cosmological model, associated with the Hun Tian school, saw the heavens as a
celestial sphere not unlike the spherical models developed in the Greek and Hellenistic traditions.
The third cosmology, associated with the Xuan Ye school, viewed the heavens as infinite in extent
and the celestial bodies as floating about at rare intervals, and "the speed of the luminaries
depends on their individual natures, which shows they are not attached to anything."[5]
Constellations
The divisions of the sky began with the Northern Dipper and the 28 mansions.
In 1977, a lacquer box was excavated from the tomb of Yi, the marquis of Zeng, in Suixian, Hubei
Province. Names of the 28 lunar mansions were found on the cover of the box, proving that the use of
this classification system was made before 433 BCE.
As lunar mansions have such an ancient origin, the meanings of most of their names have become
obscure. Contributing to later confusion, the name of each lunar mansion consists of only one
Chinese word, the meaning of which could vary at different times in history. The meanings of the
names are still under discussion.
Besides the 28 lunar mansions, most constellations are based on the works of Shi Shen-fu and Gan
De, who were astrologists during the period of Warring States (481 BCE – 221 BCE) in China.
In the late period of the Ming Dynasty, the agricultural scientist and mathematician Xu Guangqi
(1562 – 1633 CE) introduced 23 additional constellations near to the Celestial South Pole, which are
based on star catalogues from the West (see Matteo Ricci).
Star catalogues and maps
Star catalogues
In the fourth century BCE, the two Chinese astronomers responsible for the earliest information
going into the star catalogues were Shi Shen and Gan De of the Warring States period.[6]
Author Translated name Chinese catalogue name Pinyin
Shi Shen Shi Shen astronomy 石申天文 Shi Shen tianwen[6]
Gan De Astronomic star observation 天文星占 Tianwen xingzhan[6]

These books appeared to have lasted until the sixth century, but were lost after that.[6] A number of
books share similar names, often quoted and named after them. These texts should not be confused
with the original catalogues written by them. Notable works that helped preserve the contents
include:
Translated Chinese
Author Pinyin Comments
name name
This is the astronomical chapter of the Records of the Grand
Book of Historian, a massive history compiled during the late 2nd century
Sima Tianguan
Qian
Celestial 天官書 shu
BCE by the Han-era scholar and official Sima Qian. This chapter
Offices provides a star catalogue and discusses the schools of Gan De and
Shi Shen.[7]
Star
Manual of Despite having the name credited to Shi and Gan, it was lost and
Ma Xian the 甘石星 Gan Shi later compiled circa 579 CE as an appendix to the Treatise on
(馬顯) Masters 經 Xingjing Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era, and summarized in the book 郡齋讀
Gan and 書志.[8]
Shi
Book of Jin 晉書 Jin shu In the astronomical chapters of the text[6]

Book of [6]
隋書 Sui shu
Sui
During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (712–756 CE). After
Treatise on analyzing and providing a summary on the work of Gan De and Shi
Astrology Shen, Tang era astronomers mentioned the names of more than
Gautama 開元占 Kaiyuan
of the 800 stars that were found,[6] 121 of them marked with positions.[9]
Siddha
Kaiyuan 經 Zhanjing
The astronomical table of sines by the Indian astronomer and
Era mathematician Aryabhata were also translated into the Kaiyuan
Zhanjing.[10]
The Great
Firmament
Star 通占大 Tongzhan This renamed star manual is incorporated in the Taoist book
Manual 象曆星 taxiangli
Daozang.[6]
Common 經 xingjing
to
Astrology
Wu Xian ( 巫咸 ) has been one of the astronomers in debate. He is often represented as one of the
"Three Schools Astronomical tradition" along with Gan and Shi.[11] The Chinese classic text Star
Manual of Master Wu Xian (巫咸星經) and its authorship is still in dispute, because it mentioned
names of twelve countries that did not exist in the Shang Dynasty, the era of which it was supposed to
have been written. Moreover, it was customary in the past for the Chinese to forge works of notable
scholars, as this could lead to a possible explanation for the inconsistencies found. Wu Xian is
generally mentioned as the astronomer who lived many years before Gan and Shi.
The Han Dynasty astronomer and inventor Zhang Heng (78–139 CE) not only catalogued some 2500
different stars, but also recognized more than 100 different constellations. Zhang Heng also
published his work Ling Xian, a summary of different astronomical theories in China at the time. In
the subsequent period of the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE), Chen Zhuo (陳卓) combined the work
of his predecessors, forming another star catalogue. This time, 283 constellations and 1464 stars were
listed. The astronomer Guo Shoujin of the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368 CE) created a new catalogue,
which was believed to contain thousands of stars. Unfortunately, many of the documents of that
period were destroyed, including that of Shoujin. Imperial Astronomical Instruments (儀象考成) was
published in 1757 and contains 3083 stars exactly.
Star maps
The Chinese drew many maps of stars in the past centuries. It is

debatable as to which counts as the oldest star maps, since
pottery and old artifacts can also be considered star maps. One
of the oldest existent star maps in printed form is from Su
Song's (1020–1101 CE) celestial atlas of 1092 CE, which was
included in the horological treatise on his clocktower. The most
famous one is perhaps the Dunhuang map found in Dunhuang,
Gansu. Uncovered by the British archaeologist Marc Aurel Stein
in 1907, the star map was brought to the British Museum in
London. The map was drawn on paper and represents the
A star map with a cylindrical
complete sky, with more than 1,350 stars. Although ancient projection. Su Song's star maps
Babylonians and Greeks also observed the sky and catalogued represent the oldest existent ones in
stars, no such complete record of the stars may exist or survive. printed form.
Hence, this is the oldest chart of the skies at present.
According to recent studies, the map may date the manuscript to as early as the seventh century CE
(Tang Dynasty). Scholars believe the star map dating from 705 to 710 CE, which is the reign of
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang. There are some texts (Monthly Ordinances, 月令 ) describing the
movement of the sun among the sky each month, which was not based on the observation at that
time.
Solar and lunar eclipses

Chinese astronomers recorded 1,600 observations of solar and lunar eclipses from 750 BCE.[12] The
ancient Chinese astronomer Shi Shen (fl. fourth century BCE) was aware of the relation of the moon
in a solar eclipse, as he provided instructions in his writing to predict them by using the relative
positions of the Moon and the Sun.[13] The radiating-influence theory, where the Moon's light was
nothing but a reflection of the Sun's, was supported by the mathematician and music theorist Jing
Fang (78–37 BCE), yet opposed by the Chinese philosopher Wang Chong (27–97 CE), who made
clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new.[14] Jing Fang wrote:
The moon and the planets are Yin; they have shape but no light. This they receive only
when the sun illuminates them. The former masters regarded the sun as round like a
crossbow bullet, and they thought the moon had the nature of a mirror. Some of them
recognized the moon as a ball too. Those parts of the moon which the sun illuminates look
bright, those parts which it does not, remain dark.[15]
The ancient Greeks had known this as well, since Parmenides and Aristotle supported the theory of
the Moon shining because of reflected light.[15] The Chinese astronomer and inventor Zhang Heng
(78–139 CE) wrote of both solar eclipse and lunar eclipse in the publication of Ling Xian ( 靈憲 ),
120 CE:
The sun is like fire and the moon like water. The fire gives out light and the water reflects
it. Thus the moon's brightness is produced from the radiance of the sun, and the moon's
darkness (pho) is due to (the light of) the sun being obstructed (pi). The side which faces
the sun is fully lit, and the side which is away from it is dark. The planets (as well as the
moon) have the nature of water and reflect light. The light pouring forth from the sun
(tang jih chih chhung kuang) does not always reach the moon owing to the obstruction
(pi) of the earth itself—this is called 'an-hsü', a lunar eclipse. When (a similar effect)
happens with a planet (we call it) an occulation (hsing wei); when the moon passes across
(kuo) (the sun's path) then there is a solar eclipse (shih).[16]
The later Song Dynasty scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095 CE) used the models of lunar eclipse and solar
eclipse in order to prove that the celestial bodies were round, not flat. This was an extension of the
reasoning of Jing Fang and other theorists as early as the Han Dynasty. In his Dream Pool Essays of
1088 CE, Shen related a conversation he had with the director of the Astronomical Observatory, who
had asked Shen if the shapes of the Sun and the Moon were round like balls or flat like fans. Shen Kuo
explained his reasoning for the former:
If they were like balls they would surely obstruct each other when they met. I replied that
these celestial bodies were certainly like balls. How do we know this? By the waxing and
waning of the moon. The moon itself gives forth no light, but is like a ball of silver; the
light is the light of the sun (reflected). When the brightness is first seen, the sun (-light
passes almost) alongside, so the side only is illuminated and looks like a crescent. When
the sun gradually gets further away, the light shines slanting, and the moon is full, round
like a bullet. If half of a sphere is covered with (white) powder and looked at from the side,
the covered part will look like a crescent; if looked at from the front, it will appear round.
Thus we know that the celestial bodies are spherical.[17]
When he asked Shen Kuo why eclipses occurred only on an occasional basis while in conjunction and
opposition once a day, Shen Kuo wrote:
I answered that the ecliptic and the moon's path are like two rings, lying one over the
other, but distant by a small amount. (If this obliquity did not exist), the sun would be
eclipsed whenever the two bodies were in conjunction, and the moon would be eclipsed
whenever they were exactly in opposition. But (in fact) though they may occupy the same
degree, the two paths are not (always) near (each other), and so naturally the bodies do
not (intrude) upon one another.[17]
Equipment and innovation
Armillary sphere (渾儀)
The earliest development of the armillary sphere in

China goes back to the 1st century BCE,[18] as they were
equipped with a primitive single-ring armillary
instrument. This would have allowed them to measure
the north polar distance ( 去極度 , the Chinese form of
declination) and measurement that gave the position in
a hsiu (入宿度, the Chinese form of right ascension).[19]
During the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 CE),

additional developments made by the astronomers Luo
Xiahong ( 落下閎 ), Xiangyu Wangren, and Geng
Shouchang (耿壽昌) advanced the use of the armillary in A method of making observation instruments
its early stage of evolution. In 52 BCE, it was the at the times of Qing Dynasty
astronomer Geng Shou-chang who introduced the fixed
equatorial ring to the armillary sphere.[19] In the
subsequent Eastern Han Dynasty (23–220 CE) period, the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the
elliptical ring by 84 CE.[19] With the famous statesman, astronomer, and inventor Zhang Heng (78–
139 CE), the sphere was totally completed in 125 CE, with horizon and meridian rings.[19] It is of great
importance to note that the world's first hydraulic (i.e., water-powered) armillary sphere was created
by Zhang Heng, who operated his by use of an inflow clepsydra clock (see Zhang's article for more
detail).
Abridged armilla (簡儀)
Designed by famous astronomer Guo Shoujing in 1276 AD, it solved most problems found in
armillary spheres at that time.
The primary structure of abridged armilla contains two large rings that are perpendicular to each
other, of which one is parallel with the equatorial plane and is accordingly called "equatorial ring",
and the other is a double ring that is perpendicular to the center of the equatorial ring, revolving
around a metallic shaft, and is called "right ascension double ring".
The double ring holds within itself a sighting tube with crosshairs. When observing, astronomers
would aim at the star with the sighting tube, whereupon the star's position could be deciphered by
observing the dials of the equatorial ring and the right ascension double ring.
A foreign missionary melted the instrument in 1715 CE. The surviving one was built in 1437 CE and
was taken to what is now Germany. It was then stored in a French Embassy in 1900, during the
Eight-Nation Alliance. Under the pressure of international public discontent, Germany returned the
instrument to China. In 1933, it was placed in Purple Mountain Observatory, which prevented it from
being destroyed in the Japanese invasion of China. In the 1980s, it had become seriously eroded and
rusted down and was nearly destroyed. In order to restore the device, the Nanjing government spent
11 months to repair it.
Celestial globe (渾象) before Qing Dynasty
Besides star maps, the Chinese also made celestial globes, which
show stars' positions like a star map and can present the sky at a
specific time. Because of its Chinese name, it is often confused with
the armillary sphere, which is just one word different in Chinese (渾
象 vs. 渾儀).
According to records, the first celestial globe was made by Geng

Shou-chang ( 耿壽昌 ) between 70 BC and 50 BCE. In the Ming
Dynasty, the celestial globe at that time was a huge globe, showing
the 28 mansions, celestial equator and ecliptic. None of them have
survived.
Celestial globe (天體儀) in the Qing Dynasty

Celestial globe from Qing
Dynasty
Celestial globes were named 天體儀 ("Miriam celestial bodies") in
the Qing Dynasty. The one in Beijing Ancient Observatory was made
by Belgian missionary Ferdinand Verbiest ( 南懷仁 ) in 1673 CE.
Unlike other Chinese celestial globes, it employs 360 degrees rather than the 365.24 degrees (which
is a standard in ancient China). It is also the first Chinese globe that shows constellations near to the
Celestial South Pole.
The water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe tower (水運儀象台)
The inventor of the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere was Zhang Heng (78–139 CE) of the Han
Dynasty. Zhang was well known for his brilliant applications of mechanical gears, as this was one of
his most impressive inventions (alongside his seismograph to detect the cardinal direction of
earthquakes that struck hundreds of miles away).
Started by Su Song ( 蘇頌 ) and his colleagues in 1086 CE and finished in 1092 CE, his large
astronomical clock tower featured an armillary sphere ( 渾儀 ), a celestial globe ( 渾象 ) and a
mechanical chronograph. It was operated by an escapement mechanism and the earliest known chain
drive. However, 35 years later, the invading Jurchen army dismantled the tower in 1127 CE upon
taking the capital of Kaifeng. The armillary sphere part was brought to Beijing, yet the tower was
never successfully reinstated, not even by Su Song's son.
Fortunately, two versions of Su Song's treatise written on his clock tower have survived the ages, so
that studying his astronomical clock tower is made possible through medieval texts.
True north and planetary motion
The polymath Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095 CE) was not only the first in history to describe
the magnetic-needle compass, but also made a more accurate measurement of the distance between
the pole star and true north that could be used for navigation. Shen achieved this by making nightly
astronomical observations along with his colleague Wei Pu, using Shen's improved design of a wider
sighting tube that could be fixed to observe the pole star indefinitely. Along with the pole star, Shen
Kuo and Wei Pu also established a project of nightly astronomical observation over a period of five
successive years, an intensive work that even would rival the later work of Tycho Brahe in Europe.
Shen Kuo and Wei Pu charted the exact coordinates of the planets on a star map for this project and
created theories of planetary motion, including retrograde motion.
Foreign influences
Indian astronomy
Buddhism first reached China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, and translation of Indian works on
astronomy came to China by the Three Kingdoms era (220–265 CE). However, the most detailed
incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), when a
number of Chinese scholars—such as Yi Xing—were versed in both astronomy. A system of Indian
astronomy was recorded in China as Jiuzhi-li (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the
name of Qutan Xida.[20]
The astronomical table of sines by the Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata was
translated into the Chinese astronomical and mathematical book Treatise on Astrology of the
Kaiyuan Era (Kaiyuan Zhanjing), compiled in 718 CE during the Tang Dynasty.[10] The Kaiyuan
Zhanjing was compiled by Gautama Siddha, an astronomer and astrologer born in Chang'an, and
whose family was originally from India. He was also notable for his translation of the Navagraha
calendar into Chinese.
The Chinese translations of the following works are mentioned in the Sui Shu, or Official History of
the Sui Dynasty (seventh century):
Po-lo-men Thien Wen Ching (Brahminical Astronomical Classic) in 21 books.

Po-lo-men Chieh-Chhieh Hsien-jen Thien Wen Shuo (Astronomical Theories of
Brahman.a Chieh-Chhieh Hsienjen) in 30 books.
Po-lo-men Thien Ching (Brahminical Heavenly Theory) in one book.

Mo-teng-Chia Ching Huang-thu (Map of Heaven and Earth in the Matangi Sutra) in one
book.
Po-lo-men Suan Ching (Brahminical Arithmetical Classic) in three books.

Po-lo-men Suan Fa (Brahminical Arithmetical Rules) in one book.
Po-lo-men Ying Yang Suan Ching (Brahminical Method of Calculating Time)
Although these translations are lost, they were also mentioned in other
sources.[21]
Islamic astronomy in East Asia
Islamic influence on Chinese astronomy was first recorded during

the Song dynasty when a Hui Muslim astronomer named Ma Yize
introduced the concept of 7 days in a week and made other
contributions.[22]
Islamic astronomers were brought to China in order to work on

calendar making and astronomy during the Mongol Empire and the
succeeding Yuan Dynasty.[23][24] The Chinese scholar Yelü Chucai Early European drawing of the
accompanied Genghis Khan to Persia in 1210 and studied their Beijing Ancient Observatory.
calendar for use in the Mongol Empire.[24] Kublai Khan brought
Iranians to Beijing to construct an observatory and an
institution for astronomical studies.[23]
Several Chinese astronomers worked at the Maragheh

observatory, founded by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in 1259 under
the patronage of Hulagu Khan in Persia.[25] One of these
Chinese astronomers was Fu Mengchi, or Fu Mezhai.[26]
In 1267, the Persian astronomer Jamal ad-Din, who

previously worked at Maragha observatory, presented Kublai
Khan with seven Persian astronomical instruments,
including a terrestrial globe and an armillary sphere,[27] as
well as an astronomical almanac, which was later known in
China as the Wannian Li ("Ten Thousand Year Calendar" or
"Eternal Calendar"). He was known as "Zhama Luding" in
China, where, in 1271,[26] he was appointed by Khan as the
first director of the Islamic observatory in Beijing,[25] known
as the Islamic Astronomical Bureau, which operated
alongside the Chinese Astronomical Bureau for four
centuries. Islamic astronomy gained a good reputation in Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory. It
China for its theory of planetary latitudes, which did not exist was built in 1276.
in Chinese astronomy at the time, and for its accurate
prediction of eclipses.[26]
Some of the astronomical instruments constructed by the famous Chinese astronomer Guo Shoujing
shortly afterwards resemble the style of instrumentation built at Maragheh.[25] In particular, the
"simplified instrument" (jianyi) and the large gnomon at the Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory
show traces of Islamic influence.[28] While formulating the Shoushili calendar in 1281, Shoujing's
work in spherical trigonometry may have also been partially influenced by Islamic mathematics,
which was largely accepted at Kublai's court.[29] These possible influences include a pseudo-
geometrical method for converting between equatorial and ecliptic coordinates, the systematic use of
decimals in the underlying parameters, and the application of cubic interpolation in the calculation of
the irregularity in the planetary motions.[28]
Emperor Taizu (r. 1368–1398) of the Ming Dynasty (1328–1398), in the first year of his reign (1368),
conscripted Han and non-Han astrology specialists from the astronomical institutions in Beijing of
the former Mongolian Yuan to Nanjing to become officials of the newly established national
observatory.
That year, the Ming government summoned for the first time the astronomical officials to come south
from the upper capital of Yuan. There were fourteen of them. In order to enhance accuracy in
methods of observation and computation, Emperor Taizu reinforced the adoption of parallel calendar
systems, the Han and the Hui. In the following years, the Ming Court appointed several Hui
astrologers to hold high positions in the Imperial Observatory. They wrote many books on Islamic
astronomy and also manufactured astronomical equipment based on the Islamic system.
The translation of two important works into Chinese was completed in 1383: Zij (1366) and al-
Madkhal fi Sina'at Ahkam al-Nujum, Introduction to Astrology (1004).
In 1384, a Chinese astrolabe was made for observing stars based on the instructions for making
multi-purposed Islamic equipment. In 1385, the apparatus was installed on a hill in northern
Nanjing.
Around 1384, during the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang ordered the Chinese translation
and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars
Mashayihei, a Muslim astronomer, and Wu Bozong, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to
be known as the Huihui Lifa (Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy), which was published in
China a number of times until the early 18th century,[30] though the Qing Dynasty had officially
abandoned the tradition of Chinese-Islamic astronomy in 1659.[31] The Muslim astronomer Yang
Guangxian was known for his attacks on the Jesuit's astronomical sciences.
Jesuit activity in China
Early-modern European science was introduced into China by Jesuit priest astronomers as part of
their missionary efforts, in the late sixteenth century and early seventeenth century.
The telescope was introduced to China in the early seventeenth century. The telescope was first
mentioned in Chinese writing by Manuel Dias the Younger (Yang Manuo), who wrote his Tian Wen
Lüe in 1615.[32] In 1626, Johann Adam Schall von Bell (Tang Ruowang) published the Chinese
treatise on the telescope known as the Yuan Jing Shuo (The Far-Seeing Optic Glass).[33] The
Chongzhen Emperor (r 1627–1644) of the Ming dynasty acquired the telescope of Johannes
Terrentius (or Johann Schreck; Deng Yu-han) in 1634, ten years before the collapse of the Ming
Dynasty.[32] However, the impact on Chinese astronomy was limited.
The Jesuit China missions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries brought Western astronomy,
then undergoing its own revolution, to China and—via João Rodrigues's gifts to Jeong Duwon—to
Joseon Korea. After the Galileo affair early in the seventeenth century, the Roman Catholic Jesuit
order was required to adhere to geocentrism and ignore the heliocentric teachings of Copernicus and
his followers, even though they were becoming standard in European astronomy.[34] Thus, the
Jesuits initially shared an Earth-centered and largely pre-Copernican astronomy with their Chinese
hosts (i.e., the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian views from Hellenistic times).[34] The Jesuits (such as Giacomo
Rho) later introduced Tycho's geoheliocentric model as the standard cosmological model.[35] The
Chinese often were fundamentally opposed to this as well, since the Chinese had long believed (from
the ancient doctrine of Xuan Ye) that the celestial bodies floated in a void of infinite space.[34] This
contradicted the Aristotelian view of solid concentric crystalline spheres, where there was not a void,
but a mass of air between the heavenly bodies.[34]
Of course, the views of Copernicus, Galileo, and Tycho Brahe would eventually triumph in European
science, and these ideas slowly leaked into China despite Jesuit efforts to curb them in the beginning.
In 1627, the Polish Jesuit Michael Boym (Bu Mige) introduced Johannes Kepler's Copernican
Rudolphine Tables with much enthusiasm to the Ming court at Beijing.[32] In Adam Schall von Bell's
Chinese-written treatise of Western astronomy in 1640, the names of Copernicus (Ge-Bai-Ni), Galileo
(Jia-li-lüe), and Tycho Brahe (Di-gu) were formally introduced to China.[36] There were also Jesuits
in China who were in favor of the Copernican theory, such as Nicholas Smogulecki and Wenceslaus
Kirwitzer.[32] However, Copernican views were not widespread or wholly accepted in China during
this time.
Ferdinand Augustin Hallerstein (Liu Songling) created the first spherical astrolabe as the Head of the
Imperial Astronomical Bureau from 1739 until 1774. The former Beijing Astronomical observatory,
now a museum, still hosts the armillary sphere with rotating rings, which was made under
Hallerstein's leadership and is considered the most prominent astronomical instrument.
While in Edo Japan, the Dutch aided the Japanese with the first modern observatory of Japan in
1725, headed by Nakane Genkei, whose observatory of astronomers wholly accepted the Copernican
view.[37] In contrast, the Copernican view was not accepted in mainstream China until the early
nineteenth century, with the Protestant missionaries such as Joseph Edkins, Alex Wylie, and John
Fryer.[37]
Astronomy during Ming China

The Ming Dynasty in China lasted from 1368 until 1644 and experienced a decrease in astronomical
expansion. The occupation of astronomer during these times relied less on discovery and more on the
use of astronomy. Astronomers worked in the two Astronomical Bureaus, both of which underwent
many changes throughout the years since their formation. The path into the occupation was
hereditary; because of the rigidity and high level of intelligence needed for this occupation, children
of astronomers were banned from pursuing other professions.
Astronomical Bureaus
When transitioning into the Ming Dynasty, the two largest institutions of astronomy were the
Traditional Chinese Astronomical Bureau (also named T’ai-shih-chien),[38] which had been
established in the third century BC, and the Muslim Astronomical Bureau (also named Hui-hui ssu-
t’ien-chien),[39] which had been previously established by the Mongols. Both sectors worked together,
until the Muslim Bureau was absorbed in 1370 by the Traditional Chinese Bureau.[39] When the
merge occurred, the overall name of the new bureau became Ch’in-t’ien-chien.[39] To accommodate
the influx of new workers, the ranking system within the occupation also transitioned. There became
one Director, supported by two Deputy Directors, followed by a Registrar with four seasonal Chiefs.
Then came eight Chief Astronomers, five Chief Diviners, two Chiefs of the Clepsydras, and three
Observers. Following that was two Calendar Officials, eight Observers of Sunrise, and six Professors
of the Clepsydra.[40]
Responsibilities of the Bureau
Some of the roles astronomers played in Ming China were to make calendars, report abnormalities to
the emperor, and preside over ceremonies.[41] As calendar makers and people who understand the
heavens, the Bureau also decided what days were auspicious and good for different events such as
military parades, marriage, construction, and more.[41] The astronomers also used astronomy to
predict invasions or dangerous moments within the empire.[42] However, records indicate that the
majority of work the Astronomical Bureaus did was simply recording the movements of the stars and
planets.[43]
In regards to the specific jobs each position does, the Chief Officials of the Five Agencies would fix the
calendar and the time of the seasons, along with the Calendar Officials and Astronomers. However,
the Chief Astronomer observes the positions of the sun, moon, and planets to make notes regarding
what might be an abnormality. The Chief Diviner specializes in analyzing the astronomical
abnormalities. The Chief Clepsydra Officer looks after the CLepsydra, along with the Clepsydra
professor, who then tell the Sunrise Announcer when sunrise and sunset would occur.[42]
Colleagues
The Astronomical Bureaus worked closely with The Ministry of Rites. The bureau submitted monthly
ordinances, planetary and celestial locations, and seasonal accounts within the calendar to the
Ministry.[41] The Ministry also helped train children of astronomers for their future jobs and helped
select outsiders in certain cases, but not specifying from where they draw these candidates.[42] The
Bureaus were also in close contact with the Emperor, and he often read the reports sent by the
Bureau to the Ministry.[41]
Training
Because becoming an astronomer was a hereditary profession and those that are employed by the
Bureau are not transferable to other occupations, students were trained very young by the Ministry of
Rites.[42] However, when there was a shortage of workers in the Bureau, the Ministry of Rites would
scout suitable students and train them on a trial basis.[42] Calendrical recordings greatly attracted
Confucian scholars, which widened interest into this subject, and thus into astronomy and divination.
Confucian student's deep need for knowledge and practicality made these tasks appeal to
academics.[44] Astronomy was attractive because it blended the physical world with larger
implications. However, Astronomy was considered part of the "small dao", a title used to attempt to
discourage Confucian Scholars from studying subjects that while interesting at first, could eventually
bog them down.[45]
Payment
Within the Bureau, payment was decided upon by rank. As established in the year 1392, the top rank
of Directors is paid sixteen piculs of rice per month. The Deputy Directors and Chiefs of the Five
Agencies are allotted ten piculs per month, the Astronomers receive seven piculs, while both the
Registrars and Chief Diviners have six and a half piculs. The Chiefs of the Clepsydras receive six
piculs, and the Calendar Officers and Observers both have five and a half piculs. The lowest payment
level goes to the Observers of the Sunrise and the Professors of the Clepsydras at five piculs per
month.[41]
Instruments Used by the Occupation
Memorial
The memorial was used by astronomers as a record keeper of anomalies, as the heavens are
demonstrative of the effect of the ruler's actions. Originally, authors signed each contribution
individually but that was eventually replaced by the official seal of the astronomical bureau.[46]
Imperial Observatory
The imperial observatory was a platform where the observations were made. It was first located just
south of Nanjing, but late moved to Jiming Mountain city. However, in 1402 there was another
platform created in the capital of Beijing.[47]
Armillary Sphere (Ming China)
The armillary sphere has three sets of rings that represent the celestial sphere. The first group
contains fixed meridian, horizon, and equatorial rings. The second group contains ecliptic, solstitial,
and equinoctial rings that turn as a unit. The inner group contains one meridian ring that moves
around the celestial pole. These allow the astronomer to set a celestial object within their sights and
judge distance.[48]
The Simplified Instrument
The simplified instrument serves a very similar purpose to the armillary sphere but has fewer parts.
With only two sets of coordinates, this instrument has a larger range and vision than the armillary
spheres.[48]
Yuan Gnomon
The Yuan Gnomon is a shadow casting instrument used to measure the position of the sun. However,
it does not appear to be very accurate. A crucial aspect of this mechanism was that it was oriented
along the north–south meridian line, which allowed it to show the local noon. While not included in
the 1392 list of official instruments, in 1437 Huangfu Zhonghe included it, likely due less to its
practicality and more to the ingenuity behind it.[49]
Clepsydra
The clepsydra, or water clock, was the most prevalent of time-keeping devices for astronomers. The
clepsydra was also used as the official state time-keeping device. The Astronomical Bureau used a
three chamber intake clepsydra, although there is no record of a water clock at Nanjing. It was not
until the Bureau moved to Beijing that an official water hall was observed.[50]
Outside Perspective
Because of the ideological importance of astronomy regarding politics, and the lack of precision by
the instruments, many people believed the observations were false.[51] Other recorded corruption
such as accepting bribery, stealing, and not being punctual were also experienced.[52] This led to a
strict policy of punishment if the astronomers were found to be corrupt. Punishments included such
actions as dismissal, deprivation of salary, or even beatings.[52]
Famous Chinese astronomers

Gan De (4th century BCE)
Shi Shen (4th century BCE)

Zhang Heng (78 - 139 CE)
Yu Xi (307 - 345 CE)
Shen Kuo (1031 - 1095 CE)

Su Song (1020 - 1101 CE)
Guo Shoujing (1231 - 1316 CE)
Xu Guangqi (1562 - 1633 CE)
Observatory
Beijing Ancient Observatory
Astro Observatory[53]
See also
Book of Silk
Chinese constellations
Chu Silk Manuscript
Flat Earth in China
History of astronomy
Timeline of Chinese astronomy
Traditional Chinese star names
References
Citations
1. Needham, Volume 3, p.242
2. Needham, Volume 3, p.172-3
4. "Wide View of the Crab Nebula" (http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1523a/). www.eso.org.
European Southern Observatory. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150617031100/http://w
ww.eso.org/public/images/potw1523a/) from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 8 June
2015.
5. Needham, Joseph; Ronan, Colin (1993), "Chinese Cosmology", in Hetherington, Norriss S. (ed.),
Cosmology: historical, literary, philosophical, religious, and scientific perspectives (https://archive.
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ttps://archive.org/details/cosmologyhistori0000unse/page/25), ISBN 978-0-8153-0934-5
6. Peng, Yoke Ho (2000). Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China.
Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41445-0
7. Sun, Xiaochun and Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). The Chinese Sky During the Han: Constellating
Stars and Society. Leiden, New York, Köln: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 90-04-10737-1. Page 21-25.
8. Kistemaker, Jacob. Sun, Xiaochun. [1997] (1997). The Chinese Sky During the Han:
Constellating Stars and Society. BRILL publishing. ISBN 90-04-10737-1.
9. Milone, Eugene F. Humiston Kelley, David. Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of
Archaeoastronomy. [2005] (2005). ISBN 0-387-95310-8
10. Joseph Needham, Volume 3, p. 109
11. Whitfield, Susan. [2004] (2004). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. British Library Staff.
Serindia Publications. ISBN 1-932476-12-1.
12. James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC). JHU Press; 14 April 2006. ISBN 978-0-
8018-8360-6. p. 132.
14. Needham, Volume 3, 411–413.
15. Needham, Volume 3, 227.
18. Christopher Cullen, “Joseph Needham on Chinese Astronomy”, Past and Present, No. 87 (May,
1980), pp. 39–53 (45)
20. Ōhashi, Yukio (2008), "Astronomy: Indian Astronomy in China", Encyclopaedia of the History of
Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine
Selin, Springer, pp. 321–4, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2
21. "Gupta, R. C.: Indian Astronomy in China During Ancient Times. Vishveshvaranand Indological
Journal, XIX, 266–276, p. 270 (1981)" (http://www.vvbisis.puchd.ac.in/). Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20160406072011/http://vvbisis.puchd.ac.in/) from the original on 2016-04-06.
22. Meuleman, Johan (30 September 2005). Islam in the Era of Globalization: Muslim Attitudes
Towards Modernity and Identity (https://books.google.com/books?id=ulSRAgAAQBAJ&q=Chines
e+muslim+Mathematician+hui&pg=PA197). Routledge. ISBN 9781135788292. Retrieved 9 May
2018 – via Google Books.
23. Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David
Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. ISBN 0-618-
42770-8
24. Rufus, W. C. (May 1939), "The Influence of Islamic Astronomy in Europe and the Far East",
Popular Astronomy, 47 (5): 233–238 [237], Bibcode:1939PA.....47..233R (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/1939PA.....47..233R)
25. Willy vande Walle & Noël Golvers (2003), The history of the relations between the Low Countries
and China in the Qing era (1644–1911), Leuven University Press, p. 38, ISBN 978-90-5867-315-2
26. van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in
Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.), History of Oriental Astronomy, Springer Science+Business Media,
pp. 19–32 [19], ISBN 978-1-4020-0657-9
27. Zhu, Siben; Walter Fuchs (1946). The "Mongol Atlas" of China. Taipei: Fu Jen Catholic University.
28. van Dalen, Benno (2002), "Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li", in
Ansari, S. M. Razaullah (ed.), History of Oriental Astronomy, Springer Science+Business Media,
pp. 19–32 [20], ISBN 978-1-4020-0657-9
29. Ho, Peng Yoke. (2000). Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China, p.
105. Mineola: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41445-0.
30. Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 57 (1): 25–60 [26], doi:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z (https://
doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-002-0060-z), ISSN 1432-0657 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-0
657), S2CID 120199426 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120199426)
31. Yunli Shi (January 2003), "The Korean Adaptation of the Chinese-Islamic Astronomical Tables",
Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 57 (1): 25–60 [30], doi:10.1007/s00407-002-0060-z (https://
doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-002-0060-z), ISSN 1432-0657 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-0
657), S2CID 120199426 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120199426)
35. Sivin, Nathan. "Science in Ancient China p.22-26. "Archived copy" (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsi
vin/cop.pdf) (PDF). Archived (http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20121015135748/http://ccat.sas.u
penn.edu/~nsivin/cop.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2012-10-15. Retrieved 2012-10-13.
38. Peng-Yoke, Ho. "The Astronomical Bureau in Ming China" pg. 138
41. Peng-Yoke, Ho. "The Astronomical Bureau in Ming China" pg. 142–143
43. Deane, Thatcher E. “Instruments and Observations at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau during
the Ming Dynasty” pg. 128
44. Yung Sik Kim. "Confucian Scholars and Specialized Scientific and Technical Knowledge in
Traditional China, 1000–1700: A Preliminary Overview" pg. 212
45. Yung Sik Kim. "Confucian Scholars and Specialized Scientific and Technical Knowledge in
Traditional China, 1000–1700: A Preliminary Overview" pg. 211
the Ming Dynasty” pg. 133–134
53. [1] (http://www.chnmus.net/Template/home/chnmuse/Exhibition/exhibition_show_astro_dengfeng.
jsp?mid=20060822232370Dengfeng) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004641/htt
p://www.chnmus.net/Template/home/chnmuse/Exhibition/exhibition_show_astro_dengfeng.jsp?mi
d=20060822232370Dengfeng) September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
Sources
Needham, Joseph; Wang Ling (1995) [1959]. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-05801-8.
PENG-YOKE, HO. “THE ASTRONOMICAL BUREAU IN MING CHINA.” Journal of Asian History,
vol. 3, no. 2, 1969, pp. 137–157. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41929969.
Deane, Thatcher E. “Instruments and Observation at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau during the
Ming Dynasty.” Osiris, vol. 9, 1994, pp. 126–140. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/302002.
Yung Sik Kim, “Confucian Scholars and Specialized Scientific and Technical Knowledge in
Traditional China, 1000–1700: A Preliminary Overview,” East Asian Science, Technology, and
Society: an International Journal Volume 4.2 (April): 207–228.
Further reading
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures,
edited by Helaine Selin. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997. S.v. "Astronomy in China" by Ho Peng Yoke.
Sun Xiaochun, "Crossing the Boundaries Between Heaven and Man: Astronomy in Ancient
China" in Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy, edited by H. Selin,
pp. 423–454. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2000.
Chan Ki-hung: Chinese Ancient Star Map, Leisure and Cultural Services Department, 2002,
ISBN 962-7054-09-7
Gems of the ancient Chinese astronomy relics, ISBN 962-7797-03-0
External links
The Mathematics of the Chinese Calendary (https://web.archive.org/web/20060424100637/http://
www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/chinese.shtml) by Helmar Aslaksen
Boundaries Crossing: Western Astronomy in Confucian China, 1600–1800 (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20070311000648/http://www.admin.ias.edu/hssem/pingyi.html) by Pingyi Chu
Homepage of the National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20060715181848/http://www.bao.ac.cn/english/home.asp)
Chinese astronomy at the University of Maine (http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/astronomy/index.h
tml#14)
Virtual exhibition about Joseph-Nicolas Delisle and oriental astronomy (https://bibnum.obspm.fr/e
xhibits/show/delisle_orient_en/delisle_orient_en_astronomer) on the digital library of Paris
Observatory
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Detailed records of astronomical observations began during the

Abridged armilla (簡儀)

Purpose of astronomical observations in the past

Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy.

The Gai Tian, or hemispherical dome, model conceived the

Star catalogues and maps

Author Translated name Chinese catalogue name Pinyin

Shi Shen Shi Shen astronomy 石申天文 Shi Shen tianwen[6]

Gan De Astronomic star observation 天文星占 Tianwen xingzhan[6]

Book of Jin 晉書 Jin shu In the astronomical chapters of the text[6]

The Chinese drew many maps of stars in the past centuries. It is

Solar and lunar eclipses

Equipment and innovation

Armillary sphere (渾儀)

The earliest development of the armillary sphere in

During the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 CE),

Abridged armilla (簡儀)

Celestial globe (渾象) before Qing Dynasty

According to records, the first celestial globe was made by Geng

Celestial globe (天體儀) in the Qing Dynasty

The water-powered armillary sphere and celestial globe tower (水運儀象台)

True north and planetary motion

Po-lo-men Thien Wen Ching (Brahminical Astronomical Classic) in 21 books.

Brahman.a Chieh-Chhieh Hsienjen) in 30 books.

Po-lo-men Thien Ching (Brahminical Heavenly Theory) in one book.

Po-lo-men Suan Ching (Brahminical Arithmetical Classic) in three books.

Islamic astronomy in East Asia

Islamic influence on Chinese astronomy was first recorded during

Islamic astronomers were brought to China in order to work on

Several Chinese astronomers worked at the Maragheh

In 1267, the Persian astronomer Jamal ad-Din, who

Jesuit activity in China

Astronomy during Ming China

Responsibilities of the Bureau

Instruments Used by the Occupation

Armillary Sphere (Ming China)

The Simplified Instrument

Famous Chinese astronomers

Shi Shen (4th century BCE)

Yu Xi (307 - 345 CE)

Shen Kuo (1031 - 1095 CE)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_astronomy&oldid=1032090422"

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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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