Lesson 2: Cell Structures and Functions 7.

Ribosome – the site where protein is

synthesized.
 The discovery and development of
microscopes helped establish the idea that 8. Pilus – a hair-like appendage that functions in
all living organisms are made up of cells. adhesion.
However, cells are not alike in many
9. Flagellum – facilitates movement of bacteria.
respects. Cells show enormous diversity in
terms of size, shape and internal
organization.
 As a cell grows, its volume increases faster
than does its surface area. Volume
increases by the cube, while surface
increases by the square.

 Fundamental Cell Parts

1. Cell Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
Prokaryotic Cells – lack a nuclear envelope and
membrane-bound organelles. Example: Bacterial Eukaryotic Cells – generally larger and have very
Cells and Archaean Cells. distinct nuclei that are clearly surrounded by
Binary Fission – reproduction of Prokaryotes nuclear membranes

 Parts of Prokaryotic Cells - they also have numerous membrane-

bound organelles.
1. Capsule – sticky outer layer that provides
protection. - plants, animals, protist, fungis

2. Cell Wall – structure that confers rigidity and

shape to the cell
 Cell wall (plants) is made up from cellulose
 Cell wall (prokaryotes) is made up from
peptidoglycan
 Cell wall (fungi) is made up from chitin
3. Plasma Membrane – a structure that serves as
a permeability barrier
- nagpapasok ng nutrients, naglalabas ng
waste
4. Plasmid – a genetic material
 Structure found in Animal Cell
- nagbibigay ng advantage sa bacteria para
1. Cell Membrane – sometimes called the plasma
hindi mamatay ng mabilis.
membrane
5. Nucleoid – a DNA-containing region within the
- separates the cell from its external
cytoplasm
environment
6. Cytoplasm – the region where chromosomes
- outermost covering of animal cells
(DNA), ribosomes and various inclusions are found.
- functions as a selectively permeable
 Cytosol – liquid part of cytoplasm
membrane
 - provides shape and flexibility
- In 1925, Every Gorter and Francois
Grendel hypothesized that the cell membrane is
composed of a lipid bilayer. And found out that the
plasma membrane has a layer facing inward, away
from the aqueous environment that surrounds the
membrane, and is hydrophobic (water-fearing);
the other layer facing outward, toward the outside
environment of the cell is hydrophilic (water-
loving).
- In 1935, Hugh Davson and James
Danielli proposed a sandwich-like model of the
cell membrane which is Davson-Danielli Model,
describes the cell membrane as a phospholipid
bilayer sandwiched by a coat of protein on either
surface.
2. Cytoplasm – ground substance and the biggest
part of the cell where organelles and cellular
inclusions are found.
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – can be found
beside the nucleus
- composed of membrane-enclosed sacs
and tubules.
 2 Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
a.1 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) – more
common type due to the presence of ribosomes
giving it a “rough appearance”.
- plays a role in the production of protein, as
well as in its folding, quality control and dispatch.
 Lumen – folds of RER

- The model proposed by Jonathan Singer

and Garth Nicolson is now the widely-accepted.
The Singer-Nicolson model aka fluid mosaic
model describes the plasma membrane as a
mosaic of proteins that are embedded or attached 
to a fluid bilayer of lipid.
a.2 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) -
more tubular and non-granular structure due to the
absence of ribosomes.

- plays a role in the manufacture and

metabolism of lipids
- also plays a role in the biosynthesis of
steroid hormones in endocrine cells

- Extremely important because it regulates

the substances that enter and exit the cell and
serves as a solvent for integral membrane proteins
that run across the lipid bilayer.
b. Golgi Apparatus – composed of sets of
cisternae and numerous vesicles filled with fluid
and suspended substances.
- responsible for the processing, packaging
and sorting of secretory materials for use within and
outside the cell.
 Cisternae – folds of Golgi Apparatus
c. Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell
- contains the enzymes that help in the
chemical oxidation of food molecules and produces
energy in the form of ATP.
- A single liver cell may contain as many as
2500 mitochondria while a skin cell will have only a
few hundreds of them.
- Mitochondria have their own DNA, which
means that new mitochondria arise only when
existing ones divide.
 Some of the most prominent parts of
mitochondria:
c.1 Cristae – numerous folds of the inner
membrane.
c.2 Matrix – space inside the inner membrane.
d. Peroxisomes – breaks down the toxins that
enters the cell.
e. Lysosomes – contain a number of enzymes for
intracellular digestion.
- bounded by a single-layered membrane
- contains around 40 kinds of enzymes
 Lysozymes – enzymes that produce by the
lysosomes.
f. Secretory Granules – large dense granules with
membranes.
- these fuse with the cell membrane to
secrete substances such as enzymes, proteins,
and signaling molecules out of the cell.
- same functions with Golgi Apparatus.
g. Lipid Droplets – store fatty acids and sterols.
- they appear as black spherical bodies of
varying sizes when stained with osmium tetroxide.
o Cytoplasmic Inclusions
a. Ribosomes – most numerous of all cytoplasmic
structures.
- attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum or free in the cytoplasm.
b. Centriole – only present in animal cells.
- central role in cell division where it
participates in the formation of the mitotic spindle.

 Structure found in the Plant Cells

c. Microtubules – aka cytoskeleton

- long, slender, protein tubes that play a role
in maintaining cell shape
d. Microfilaments – support the cell to maintain its
structure and shape
 Spindle Fibers – example of microfilament
that aid in the movement of chromosomes
during cell division.
1. Cell Wall – outermost, rigid covering of plant
e. Glycogen Granules – abundant in liver cells, cells.
play an important role in the glucose cycle
- composed of cellulose
3. Nucleus – found in most eukaryotic cells
- help provide strength and rigidity to the cell
- site where nucleic acids are synthesized
and therefore, directs all the activities of the cell.
- site for the storage of hereditary factors
- source of the Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
 Nucleus Membrane – two-layered outer
limit of the nucleus separating it from the
cytoplasm
 Nucleoplasm – dense, protein-rich
substance inside the nucleus. 2. Water Vacuoles – store enzymes and waste
 Nucleolus – structures responsible for products.
ribosome formation
 Nuclear Pores – act as selective channels - Vacuoles could occupy as much as 90
between the cytoplasm and the inside of the percent of the volume or space.
nucleus,
3. Plastids – carry out the photosynthetic function
 Chromatin – found inside the nucleus
in plants.
- made up of DNA and proteins, and forms
chromosomes during cell division.  Chloroplasts – contain the green pigment,
chlorophyll which designed to absorb
sunlight.
  Chromoplasts – store pigments such as
yellow, carotene, xanthophylls and various
red pigments
 Leucoplasts – store food such as starches,
lipids and proteins
- colorless pigments

 Cell Modifications and Adaptations

1. Microvilli – these are extensions on the cell
membranes that help increase the surface area of
the cell, thus, facilitating increased absorption of
nutrients.
- can be found on small intestines.
2. Nerve Cells – facilitate the transmission of
impulses from the brain and the spinal cord to the
different parts of the body
- don’t undergo cell division.
3. Red Blood Cells – distributes oxygen
- this allows for easy movement through
blood vessels, which can be as small as 2 to 3
micrometer in diameter.
4. Tracheal Cells – hair-like structure that have
cilia that beat and drive air impurities or foreign
particles and mucus secretions up the trachea to
the mouth where they can be coughed out.
5. Sperm Cell – specialized cell that have a tail, the
flagellum, which propels it toward the egg cell for
fertilization.
6. Root Hairs – elongated outgrowths from the
outer layer of cells in a root that help absorb water
and minerals
7. Cell-cell Junctions – cells are joined in long-
term associations, forming tissues and organs.