01

NOTE
C H E M I S T R Y

PERIODIC PROPERTIES
THE HISTORY OF RECOGNISING
THE PATTERNS

What you will learn

• Need for classification of elements • Blocks of modern periodic table

• Periodic classification • Naming of elements
• Developments in periodic classification • IUPAC nomenclature of elements
• Modern periodic table • Position of elements in periodic table

BOARDS
Need for Classification of Elements

Why do we need to classify elements?

We classify elements in order to ease the problem of
studying elements separately. Scientists searched for a
systematic way to organise their knowledge by classifying
elements. By this classification, the elements with similar
properties can be studied simultaneously.
Let us take a real life example to have a better understanding
of the idea of classifying elements.
In the given figure, we can see that similar functioning
objects are arranged in such a way that they can be easily
accessible when required. Similarly, the elements in the
periodic table are arranged or classified based on their
similar properties so as to lead to an easy understanding Fig. 1: Arranged kitchen wares
of the elements.

BOARDS
Periodic Classification

Why the name periodic classification?

• The term periodic is used to indicate the properties that repeat themselves at regular intervals
and the phenomenon is periodicity.
• Grouping the elements into different classes is known as periodic classification.
• This approach involves the arrangement of related elements, the separation of unlike elements,
and the comparison of the properties of elements. It helps us to understand how different
compounds made up of different elements.

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BOARDS MAIN
Developments in Periodic Classification

Dobereiner’s law of triads

The German chemist, Johann Dobereiner (in 1800) first observed the similarities in the elements
on the basis of their properties.
Dobereiner found that:
• A set of three chemically similar elements is known as triad.
• In a triad, the atomic weight of the central element is the average of atomic weights of the
remaining two elements.
Dobereiner called this grouping method as the law of triads. Later on, it was found that this law
was not applicable to all elements. Hence, it was failed.
The given elements were grouped together.

Atomic Atomic Atomic

Element Element Element
weight (amu) weight (amu) weight (amu)

Li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.5

Na 23 Sr 88 Br 80

K 39 Ba 137 I 127

Table 1: Dobereiner’s triads

For example,
Atomic weight of Li + Atomic weight of K
The atomic weight of Na =
2
7 + 39
= = 23 amu
2
Drawbacks of Dobereiner’s triads
Since Dobereiner’s relationship, referred to as the law of triads, seemed to work only for a few
elements, it was dismissed, as it was merely a coincidence.
For example - F, Cl, and Br. Atomic mass of Cl is not an arithmetic mean of atomic masses of F and Br.

BOARDS MAIN
Newland’s Law of Octaves

In 1865, after the failure of Doberiener’s law of triads, the English chemist, John Alexander Newlands
proposed the law of octaves.
According to Newland’s law of octaves,
• Elements can be arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights.
• In this arrangement, every eighth element of a row had properties similar to that of the first
element of the same row, depicting the octaves of music.

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 03

Ca
Cl K

P S Cl
Al Si
F Na Mg N O F
B C
H Li Be
Fig. 2: Newland’s law of octave
The given table of elements shows that it is applicable up to calcium.

Element Li Be B C N O F

Atomic
7 9 11 12 14 16 19
weight (amu)

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Atomic
23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
weight (amu)

Element K Ca

Atomic
39 40
weight (amu)
Table 2: Arrangement of elements by Newland
Drawbacks of Newland octaves
Out of the 56 elements known at that time, arrangement of elements only up to calcium was
possible according to Newland’s law of octaves.

BOARDS MAIN
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

The real development in the periodic table took place after the development of Mendeleev’s
periodic table.
Features of Mendeleev’s periodic table
• He arranged 63 known elements in increasing order of atomic weight.
• The physical and chemical properties of an element are the periodic function of their atomic
weights.
• He arranged elements in periods (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical columns) in the
increasing order of atomic weights.
• The vertical column consists of elements that have similar properties.

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 GROUPS OF ELEMENTS
04

SERIES
0 I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Hydrogen
1 _ H _
1.008
Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine
2 He Li Be B C N O F

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4.0 7.03 9.1 11.0 12.0 14.04 16.00 19.0
Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine
3 Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
19.9 23.5 24.3 27.0 28.4 31.0 32.06 35.45
Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel
4 Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni (Cu)
38 39.1 40.1 44.1 48.1 51.4 52.1 55.0 55.9 59 59
Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine
5 Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
63.6 65.4 70.0 72.3 75 79 79.95
Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium
6 Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo _ Ru Rh Pd (Ag)
81.8 85.4 87.6 89.0 90.6 94.0 96.0 101.7 103.0 106.5
Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine
Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
7 126.9
107.9 112.4 114.0 119.0 120.0 127.6
Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium
8 Xe Cs Ba La Ce _ _ _
128 132.9 137.4 139 140
9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Ytterbium Tantalum Tungsten Osmium Iridium Platinum

10 _ _ _ Yb _ Ta W _ Os Ir Pt (Au)
173 183 184 191 193 194.9
Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth
11 Au Hg Tl Pb Bi _ _
197.2 200.0 204.1 206.9 208
Radium Thorium Uranium
12 _ _ Ra _ Th _ U
224 232 239

HIGHER SALINE OXIDES

R R2O RO R2O3 RO2 R2O5 RO3 R2O7 RO4
HIGHER GASEOUS HYDROGEN COMPOUNDS
RH4 RH3 RH2 RH

Fig. 3: Mendeleev’s periodic table

 05

What is special about Mendeleev’s periodic table?

• Mendeleev’s periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of elements are the
periodic function of their atomic masses.
• Mendeleev arranged them in such a way that the groups of elements with similar properties fell
into vertical columns in his periodic table.
• Some gaps were left for the elements yet to be discovered. Thus, if a certain new element is
discovered, it can be placed in a new group without disturbing any existing group. He placed
the element by naming them with prefix ‘eka’ and the name of similar element.
• For instance, he proposed eka-aluminium which was not discovered then but we now know it
to be gallium. Similarly, we now know that the element he names eka-silicon is germanium as
it resembles silicon, and eka-boron is scandium as it resembles boron.

Drawbacks of Mendeleev’s periodic table

• Hydrogen did not have a fixed position in the table because it resembles alkali metals by forming
positive ion and resembles halogens by forming diatomic molecules. Hydrogen forms hydride
ion a uni-negative ion just like halogens.
• There was no regular trend in the increasing order of atomic mass while moving along the
elements.
• The idea of isotopes was found later that failed to comply with the periodic table.
The discovery of new elements and their subsequent addition to the periodic table keeps revealing
new dimensions in periodicity.

Moseley’s frequency equation

Square root of frequency

Henry Moseley observed regularities in the 3

2
1
v × 10 Hz

characteristic X-ray spectra of the elements

where he found that a plot of v (where ν is the
9

2
frequency of X-rays emitted) against the atomic
number (Z) gave a straight line and not the plot 1
against atomic mass.
So, v = a(Z - b)
10 20 30 40 50 60
Where a and b are X-ray constant. Atomic number (Z)
Fig. 4: Graph of square root of frequency
vs atomic number

Modern periodic law and Modern periodic table

• The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.
• Periodic Law is essentially the consequence of the periodic variation in electronic configurations
that determines the physical and chemical properties of elements and their compounds.

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BOARDS MAIN ADVANCED

Modern Periodic Table

Main features of the modern periodic table

• Elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic numbers (Z).
• The horizontal rows are known as periods and the vertical columns are known as groups.
• Elements having similar outer electronic configurations are arranged in vertical columns,
referred to as groups.
• Each period corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the elements in the
period.
• There are a total of 18 groups and 7 periods.
1 Hydrogen Metalloids 18
1 Alkali metals Non-metals
2 Alkaline earth metals Noble gas 13 14 15 16 17
2 Other metals f-block metals
d-block metals
3
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4

Lanthanides

Actinides
Fig. 5: Modern periodic table
Classifications of elements in the periodic table
• The elements of groups 1, 2, 13, • The elements of groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
14, 15, 16, and 17 are known as 10, 11, and 12 are known as the transition
the main group elements or elements.
normal elements. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 18

2 13 14 15 16 17

• Group 18 is known as noble gases or inert

gases. Their outermost shell is completely
filled. Due to this stable electronic
configuration, they generally do not react
with the other elements.

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BOARDS MAIN
Blocks of Modern Periodic Table

The modern periodic table of elements can be broken down into 4 blocks. They are s-block,
p-block, d-block, and f-block. This classification is based on the types of orbitals that contain the
valence electrons of the element. For example, s-block elements have the differentiating electron
(valence electron) in s-orbital and d-block elements have their differentiating electron in d-orbitals.

s-block
Group 1 (alkali metals) and group 2 (alkaline earth metals) have ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic
configuration, respectively. This block mainly consists of reactive metals and acts as reducing
agents. Francium is radioactive alkali metal and radium is radioactive alkaline earth metal.

Hydrogen Other metals Noble gas

Alkali metals Metalloids f-block metals
Alkaline earth metals Non-metals d-block metals

1 18
1
2 13 14 15 16 17
2

3
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4

Lanthanides

Actinides

Fig. 5.1: s - block elements

p-block
Groups 13 to 18 are included in p-block.
• p-block consists of mostly nonmetals, metalloids, and amphoteric metals. These elements
exist either in solid, liquid, or gaseous states. They participate in chemical reactions by losing,
gaining, or sharing electrons.
• Their outermost electronic configuration is ns2 np1-6.
• Noble gases have ns2 np6 electronic configuration.
• Orbitals in the valence shell of the noble gases are completely filled by electrons.

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1 Hydrogen Metalloids 18
1 Alkali metals Non-metals
2 Alkaline earth metals Noble gas 13 14 15 16 17
2 Other metals f-block metals
d-block metals
3
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4

Lanthanides

Actinides
Fig. 5.2: p-block elements

Group number Group name Property

Group 1 Alkali metals They form strong alkalis with water.

These metals form oxides and hydroxides that are

Alkaline earth
Group 2 strongly alkaline in nature and their metal oxides are
metals
found in earth crust.

Group 13 Icosagens/Triels Boron is the first member of this family.

Group 14 Tetrels Carbon is the first member of this group.

Pnictogens/
Group 15 This group has poisonous nonmetals and metalloids.
Pentels

Group 16 Chalcogens These are ore-forming elements.

Group 17 Halogens The elements of this group form salts.

They are noble gases. Under normal conditions, they

Group 18 Zero group
are inert.

Table 3: Different groups of modern periodic table and their property

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Note

Exceptions
• Helium belongs to the s-block but placed in the p-block in the 18th group. It is because of the
completely filled valence shell.
• Hydrogen shows the property of metal by showing the tendency to donate an electron,
whereas it also shows the property of a non-metal by accepting one electron like halogens in
order to attain a noble gas configuration like that of He. Hydrogen resembles more halogen
than alkali metals.

d-block
• Elements in groups 3 to 12 are d-block elements.
• The general outer shell electronic configuration is (n - 1) d1-10 ns0-2.
• All of them are metals.
• Most of the d-block elements form coloured ions.
• They exhibit variable valencies (oxidation states), paramagnetism, and are often used as
catalysts except zinc, cadmium and mercury which do not exhibit paramagnetism due to
completely filled d-orbital configuration.
1 Hydrogen Metalloids 18
1 Alkali metals Non-metals
2 Alkaline earth metals Noble gas 13 14 15 16 17
2 Other metals f-block metals
d-block metals
3
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4

Lanthanides

Actinides

Fig. 5.3: d-block elements

Why are d-block elements known as transition elements?

d-block elements form a bridge between the chemically active elements of s-block and the less
active elements of groups 13 and 14, i.e., p-block elements. Hence, they are known as transition
elements.
All transition elements are d-block elements and all d-block elements are not transition elements
eg-zinc ,cadmium and mercury belongs to d-block and are not transition.

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Note

Exceptions
• Zn, Cd, and Hg have an electronic configuration as (n - 1) d10 ns2. They do not belong to
transition elements since they have completely filled penultimate d-orbitals and they cannot
form cations with incomplete d-orbitals.

f-block
• Two rows at the bottom of the periodic table, known as the lanthanides, lanthanum (Z = 57) –
lutetium (Z = 71), and actinides, actinium (Z = 89) – lawrencium (Z = 103) are f-block elements.
• They are characterised by the outer electronic configuration (n - 2) f1-14 (n - 1) d0–1 ns2.
• They are all metals.
1 Hydrogen Metalloids 18
1 Alkali metals Non-metals
2 13 14 15 16 17
Alkaline earth metals Noble gas
2 Other metals f-block metals
d-block metals
3
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4

Lanthanides

Actinides
Fig. 5.4: f-block elements
Why are lanthanides and actinides known as inner transition elements?
In the case of lanthanoids and actinoids, the last electron added to each element is filled in the
f-orbital. These two series of elements are known as the inner transition elements as these are
present between transition elements..

BOARDS
Naming of Elements

• Some elements get their names based on places.

• Germanium • Francium • Europium
• Some elements get names from the names of planets and stars.
• Neptunium • Plutonium • Mercury • Uranium • Helium

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• Some elements were named after famous scientists.

• Bohrium • Mendelevium • Curium • Rutherfordium • Einsteinium
• Some elements are also named based on their behaviour.
• Hydrogen got its name because it forms water.
• Rubidium is named because of its deep red color of spectral lines.
• Due to the faint glow in the air, phosphorus got its name.

BOARDS MAIN
IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements (Atomic Number > 100)

The roots are put together in the order of digits from 0 to 9 that make the atomic number and ‘ium’
is added at the end. The corresponding symbol has three letters.
Example
104
1 = un, 0 = nil and 4 = quad
So, adding these with ‘ium’ in the end, we get Unnilquadium (Unq).

Digit Name Abbreviation Atomic Name according to IUPAC Symbol

number nomenclature
0 nil n
101 Unnilunium Unu
1 un u
102 Unnilbium Unb
2 bi b
103 Unniltrium Unt
3 tri t
104 Unnilquadium Unq
4 quad q
105 Unnilpentium Unp
5 pent p
106 Unnilhexium Unh
6 hex h
107 Unnilseptium Uns
7 sept s
108 Unniloctium Uno
8 oct o
109 Unnilennium Une
9 enn e
110 Ununnillium Uun
Table 4: IUPAC nomenclature for
elements 111 Unununnium Uuu
112 Ununbium Uub
113 Ununtrium Uut
114 Ununquadium Uuq
115 Ununpentium Uup
116 Ununhexium Uuh
117 Ununseptium Uus
118 Ununoctium Uuo
Table 5: Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of elements

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Finding the IUPAC name of an element

What would be the IUPAC name of an element with atomic number 135?

Solution
Atomic number of element = 135
Root name for 1 = un, 3 = tri, 5 = pent
Add ‘ium’ in the end.
IUPAC name = Untripentium

Finding the IUPAC Symbol of the element

What would be the IUPAC symbol of an element with atomic number 122?

Solution
Atomic number of element = 122
Symbol for 1 = u, 2 = b, 2 = b
IUPAC symbol = Ubb

Finding the atomic number of the element

What will be the atomic number of an element with the IUPAC name ‘ununpentium’?

Solution
IUPAC Name = Ununpentium
Digits for root name Un = 1, un = 1, pent = 5
Hence, atomic number = 115

• A group is a vertical column of elements in the periodic table.

• A block is a set of adjacent groups in the periodic table.

• A period is a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table.

BOARDS MAIN
Finding the Position of an Elements in the Periodic Table

Step 1: Find the block

Write the electronic configuration of the element, i.e., the subshell in which the differentiating
electron enters is the block of the element.

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Step 2: Find the group Step 3: Find the period

In s-block, the group number is the number of After writing the electronic configuration,
electrons in the outer s-orbital. the highest value of the principal quantum
In p-block, the group number will be the number (n) denotes the period.
number of electrons in the outermost shell +
10.
In d-block, the group number will be the
number of electrons in the outermost shell +
the penultimate d-subshell.

Example: Sodium (Na)

Step 1: Find the block
Write down the electronic configuration of the given element.
Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Here, the last electron enters in the s-subshell. Hence, the element of the given electronic
configuration belongs to the s-block.

Step 2: Find the group Step 3: Find the period

Since, Na belongs to the s-block and we know As we know, period is the highest value of
that the number of electrons present in outer principal quantum number.
s-orbital is equal to the group. Here, highest value of principal quantum
Hence, group is 1. number = 3
Hence, period is 3.

Table representing all the noble gases and their atomic number

Noble
Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon
gases/Inert
(He) (Ne) (Ar) (Kr) (Xe) (Rn)
gases

Atomic
2 10 18 36 54 86
number (Z)

Finding the position of an element in the periodic table

What is the period, group, and block of the element Cs (Z = 55)?

Solution
Atomic number (Z) of Cs = 55
The previous noble gas is Xe (Z = 54).
Electronic configuration of Cs (Z = 55) = [Xe] 6s1

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Period = Highest principal quantum number = 6

Block = The subshell in which the last electron enters = s-subshell
Group = Number of electrons in the outer s-orbital = 1
Hence, Cs belongs to s-block, 6th period, and 1st group.

Finding the position of an element in the periodic table

What is the period, group, and block of the element Br (Z = 35)?

Solution
Atomic number (Z) of Br = 35
The previous noble gas is Ar (Z = 18).
Electronic configuration of Br (Z = 35) = [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5
Period = Highest principal quantum number = 4
Block = The subshell in which the last electron enters = p-subshell
Group = Number of electrons in the outermost shell + 10 = 7 + 10 = 17
Hence, Br belongs to p-block, 4th period, and 17th group.

Finding the position of an element in the periodic table

What is the period, group, and block of the element Sc (Z = 21)?

Solution
Atomic number (Z) of Sc = 21
The previous noble gas is Ar (Z = 18).
Electronic configuration of Sc (Z = 21) = [Ar] 3d1 4s2
Period = Highest principal quantum number = 4
Block = The subshell in which the last electron enters = d-subshell
Group = Number of electrons in the outermost shell + Penultimate d-subshell = 2 + 1 = 3
Hence, Sc belongs to d-block, 4th period, and 3rd group.

Based on the classification of elements

The elements with atomic numbers 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86 are known as ____ .
(a) Noble gases (b) Rare metal (c) Noble metal (d) Halogens

Solution
According to Bohr, the maximum number of electrons in each shell will be 2n2, where n is the
principal quantum number. In the 1st, 2nd, 3rd shell, the maximum number of electrons are 2, 8, 18,
respectively. So, the atomic numbers given are 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86, which shows that these
elements have completely filled orbitals and are known as noble gases or zero group members.
Hence, option (a) is the answer.

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 15

Finding the position of an element in the periodic table

The element Eu with atomic number 63 belongs to?

(a) f-block, 4th group, and 6th period (c) f-block, 3rd group, and 6th period
(b) d-block, 4th group, and 6th period (d) f-block, 3rd group, and 7th period

Solution
Electronic configuration of Eu (Z = 63) = [Xe] 4f7 6s2
Block = The subshell in which the last electron enters = f-subshell
Period = Highest principal quantum number = 6
All f-block elements belong to the 3rd group of periodic table.
Hence, option (c) is the answer.

Finding the position of loosely bound electron

If one electron is removed from Au (Z = 79), it will be removed from which orbital?
(a) 6s (b) 5d (c) 4d (d) 5s

Solution
The previous noble gas is Xe (Z = 54).
Electronic configuration of Au (79) = [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
Since half-filled and fully filled orbitals are more stable than partially filled orbitals, to get fully filled
5d-orbital, an electron from 6s-orbital is transferred to 5d-orbital. Therefore, we get the above
configuration. The most loosely bound or valence shell electrons will be removed first. Hence, 6s
orbital electrons will be removed from Au.
Hence, option (a) is the answer.

Summary

The need for classification of elements is in order to ease the problem of studying elements separately.

Dobereiner’s triads
• He arranged the three elements in a triad in an increasing order of atomic mass and showed that
the atomic mass of the middle element was nearly equal to the mean of the atomic masses of the
other elements.
Example: Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K)
• Dobereiner called this grouping method the law of triads. Later on, it was found that this law was
not true for every element. Hence, it was not successful.

Newland’s law of octaves

• Elements can be arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights.

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 16

• He also said that in this arrangement every eighth element of a row had similar properties to that
of the first element of the same row, depicting the octaves of music.
This law was also dismissed as it was only true for elements of up to calcium.

Mendeleev’s periodic table

• He arranged 63 known elements in the increasing order of atomic weight. Also, Argon and
Potassium show anomalous atomic masses of 40 and 39 due to the presence of isotopes.
• The properties of an element are the periodic function of their atomic masses.
• He arranged elements in periods (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical columns) in the increasing
order of atomic weights.
• The vertical column consists of elements that have similar properties.
Drawbacks of Mendeleev’s periodic table are as follows:
• Hydrogen did not have a fixed position.
• There was no regular trend in the increasing order of atomic mass while moving along the
elements.
• The isotopes were found later that failed to comply with the periodic table.

Main features of the modern periodic table are as follows

• Elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic numbers (Z). The physical and
chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers.
• The horizontal rows are known as periods and the vertical columns are known as groups.
• Elements having similar outer electronic configurations are arranged in vertical columns, referred
to as groups.
• Each period corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the elements in the
period.
• There are a total of 18 groups and 7 periods.
The modern periodic table of elements can be broken down into four blocks. They are s-block,
p-block, d-block, and f-block. This classification is based on the types of orbitals that contain
the valence electrons of the element. For example, s-block elements have valence electrons in
s-orbitals and d-block elements have their valence electrons in d-orbitals.
d-block elements are known as transition elements because they form a bridge between the
chemically active elements of s-block and the less active elements of groups 13 and 14, i.e., p-block
elements. Hence, they are known as transition elements.
In the case of lanthanoids and actinoids, the last electron added to each element is filled in the
f-orbital. These two series of elements are known as the inner transition elements.

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 17

Note

Exceptions
• Helium belongs to the s-block but placed in the p-block in the 18th group. It is because of the
completely filled valence shell.
• Hydrogen shows the property of metal by showing the tendency to donate electron, whereas
it also shows the property of a nonmetal by accepting one electron like halogens in order to
attain a noble gas configuration like that of He.
• Zn, Cd, and Hg have an electronic configuration as (n - 1) d10 ns2. They do not belong to
transition elements since they have completely filled penultimate d-orbitals and they cannot
form cations with incomplete d-orbitals.

• In the IUPAC nomenclature of elements above the atomic number 100, the roots are put together
in the order of digits from 0 to 9 that make the atomic number and ‘ium’ is added at the end.
Example: For atomic number 104
Roots for 1 = un, 0 = nil, and 4 = quad
So, adding these with ‘ium’ in the end, we get unnilquadium (Unq).

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