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Computer Concept RanjeetPatil Wani Sir 27-4-15
Computer Concept RanjeetPatil Wani Sir 27-4-15
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Term - I
Unit Topic
No
1. Introduction to Computer Fundamentals
Introduction to Computer
Computer System Hardware
Computer Memory
Input and Output Devices
Interaction between User and Computer
Introduction to Free and Open Source Software
Definition of Computer Virus, Types of Viruses, Use of Antivirus
software
2. Basics of Operating System
Definition of Operating System
Objectives, types, and functions of Operating Systems
Working with Windows Operating System: Introduction, The
Desktop, Structure of Windows, Windows Explorer, File and Folder
Operations, The Search, The Recycle Bin, Configuring the Screen,
Adding or Removing New Programs using
Control Panel, Applications in windows (Paint, Notepad, WordPad,
Calculator)
3. Introduction to Business Communication Tools [
MS-Word: Introduction, Starting MS-Word, MS-Word Screen and its
Components, Elementary Working with MS-Word
MS-Excel: Introduction, Starting MS-Excel, Basics of Spreadsheet,
MS-Excel
Screen and Its Components, Elementary Working with MS-Excel
MS-Powerpoint: Introduction, Starting MS-PowerPoint, Basics of
PowerPoint, MS-PowerPoint Screen and Its Components, Elementary
Working with MSPowerPoint
4. Introduction to HTML.
Introduction to HTML. Working of HTML
Creating and loading HTML page, tags
2
Structure of on HTML, Document, Stand Alone Tags
Formatting text, Adding Images
Creating hyper Links, Tables
Sending E-mails through Web Page
Term - II
Unit Topic
No
1. Internet and Internet application
Introduction, Internet evolution
Working of Internet, Use of Internet
Overview of World Wide Web (Web Server and Client)
Introduction to Search engine and Searching the Web
Downloading files
Introduction to Web Browsers
Working with E-mail (creation and use of the same)
2. Electronic Data Interchange
Introduction to EDI
EDI Architecture
Financial EDI
Overview of the technology involved in EDI
3
3. Electronic Payment System
Introduction to EPS
Introduction to EFT (Electronic Fund Transfer)
Introduction to SET (Secure Electronic Transaction)
Business requirement addressed by SET
Introduction to Digital Signature and Digital Certificates , Stages of
SET
Types of Payment System: Digital Cash, Electronic Cheque, Smart
Card,
Credit/Debit Card
4. Introduction to HTML.
Introduction to HTML. Working of HTML
Creating and loading HTML page, tags
Structure of on HTML, Document, Stand Alone Tags
Formatting text, Adding Images
Creating hyper Links, Tables
Sending E-mails through Web Page
Sample web pages
5. Introduction To Web page Design
Introduction to Web design, Types of Web Pages
Web design Pyramid
Building web sites
Web development process model
6. Designing The web pages
Page size, Page type, Page margin, Entrance page
Exit page, Graphics in Webpage design
Animation Effect, Sound Effect
Color Effect
Uploading the web site (Web space, Domain Name, Hosting the web
site)
7. Internet Security
Security, Privacy
Ethical Issues & Cyber Law
4
Term I
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1. Introduction to Computer Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction to Computer
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes it under the control of set of instructions (called program), gives the result (output),
and saves it for the future use.
These notes provide a general introduction to computers systems. A computer system is made
up of both hardware and software. Software is another term for computer program. Software
controls the computer and makes it do useful work. Without software a computer is useless.
Hardware refers to the physical components that make up a computer system. These include
the computer's processor, memory, monitor, keyboard, mouse, disk drive, printer and so on.
In these notes we take a brief look at the functions of the different hardware components. In
addition we describe the some of the essential software required for the operation of a
computer system.
1.1.1Functionalities of a computer
Definition
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1.1.3Advantages
1) High Speed
2)Accuracy
3)Storage Capability
4)Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
5)Versatility
6)Reliability
7)Automation
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• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
• Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the program
and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
9)Reduction in Cost
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
1.1.4Disadvantages
1)No I.Q
2)Dependency
3)Environment
4)No Feeling
All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
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Saving data and instructions so that they are available for
2 Store Data
processing as and when required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to
3 Processing Data
convert them into useful information.
Output The process of producing useful information or results for the
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Information user, such as a printed report or visual display.
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
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workflow operations are performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit
makes link between user and computer. The input devices translate the information into the
form understandable by computer.
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the
operation of all parts of computer.
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer.
This unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's
output into the form understandable by users.
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1.1.6 Types of Computer
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
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2)Workstation
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form
a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
3)Minicomputer
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4)Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds
or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently
and supports many simultaneous execution of programs
5)Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
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1.2 Computer System Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.
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1.2.1 Relationship between Hardware and Software
• Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must
work together to make a computer produce a useful output.
• Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
• Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
• To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into
the hardware
• Hardware is a one-time expense.
• Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
• Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
• A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
• If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.
• Memory is used to store the information (programs and data) that the computer is
currently using. It is sometimes called main or primary memory. One form of memory
is called
• RAM - random access memory. This means that any location in memory may be
accessed in the same amount of time as any other location. Memory access means one
of two things, either the CPU is reading from a memory location or the CPU is
writing to a memory location. When the CPU reads from a memory location, the
contents of the memory location are copied to a CPU register. When the CPU writes
to a memory location, the CPU copies the contents of a CPU register to the memory
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location, overwriting the previous contents of the location. The CPU cannot carry out
any other operations on memory locations.
• RAM is a form of short term or volatile memory. Information stored in short term
storage is lost when the computer is switched off (or when power fails e.g. if you pull
out the power lead!). There is therefore a requirement for permanent or long term
storage which is also referred to as secondary storage or auxiliary storage. This role is
fulfilled by disk and tape storage.
RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program
and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
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Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as
cache memory and has very fast access.
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All
DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start
a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
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computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave
oven.
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli
second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs
can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.
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Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
• Non-volatile in nature
• These cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• These are static and do not require refreshing
• Its contents are always known and can be verified
1.4.1Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
1)Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to
the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there
are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
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The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
2)Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and
sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
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Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used
to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
3)Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.
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4)Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.
5)Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be
moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
6)Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then
converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited
before they are printed.
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7)Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in
a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts
graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing
fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
8)Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or
for mixing music.
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9)Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
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10)Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may
be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a
bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to
which bar code reader is connected.
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.
• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer
1.4.3Monitors
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Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels,
the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25
lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:
• Large in Size
• High power consumption
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, graphics display.
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• Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is
LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)
1.4.4Printers
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers
A)Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed
on the paper.
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These printers are of two types
• Character printers
• Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality
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2)Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.
Advantages
Disadvantages
3)Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
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These are of further two types
• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
4)Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed
5)Chain Printer
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Noisy
B)Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
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• Faster than impact printers.
• They are not noisy.
• High quality.
• Support many fonts and different character size.
1)Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Expensive.
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
2)Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
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They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Human–computer interaction (HCI) involves the study, planning, design and uses of the
interfaces between people (users) and computers.
HCI (human-computer interaction) is the study of how people interact with computers and to
what extent computers are or are not developed for successful interaction with human beings.
HCI is a very broad discipline that encompasses different specialties with different concerns
regarding computer development: computer science is concerned with the application design
and engineering of the human interfaces; sociology and anthropology are concerned with the
interactions between technology, work and organization and the way that human systems and
technical systems mutually adapt to each other; ergonomics is concerned with the safety of
computer systems and the safe limits of human cognition and sensation; psychology is
concerned with the cognitive processes of humans and the behavior of users; linguistics is
concerned with the development of human and machine languages and the relationship
between the two.
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1.6 Introduction to free and open source software
A computer virus is a program designed to harm or cause harm on an infected computer. Its
spreads through e-mail attachments, portable devices, websites containing malicious scripts
and file downloads. A computer virus attaches itself to the host files and always activate
whenever you open the infected files. The virus can replicate itself and then infect the other
files on your computer causing more damage. Below is a list of different types of computer
viruses and what they do.
1. Resident Viruses
This type of virus is a permanent which dwells in the RAM memory. From there it can
overcome and interrupt all of the operations executed by the system: corrupting files and
programs that are opened, closed, copied, renamed etc.
2. Multipartite Viruses
Multipartite viruses are distributed through infected media and usually hide in the memory.
Gradually, the virus moves to the boot sector of the hard drive and infects executable files on
the hard drive and later across the computer system.
The main purpose of this virus is to replicate and take action when it is executed. When a
specific condition is met, the virus will go into action and infect files in the directory or folder
that it is in and in directories that are specified in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file PATH. This
batch
file is always located in the root directory of the hard disk and carries out certain operations
when the computer is booted.
4. Overwrite Viruses
Virus of this kind is characterized by the fact that it deletes the information contained in the
files that it infects, rendering them partially or totally useless once they have been infected.
The only way to clean a file infected by an overwrite virus is to delete the file completely,
thus losing the original content.
5. Boot Virus
This type of virus affects the boot sector of a floppy or hard disk. This is a crucial part of a
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disk, in which information on the disk itself is stored together with a program that makes it
possible to boot (start) the computer from the disk.
The best way of avoiding boot viruses is to ensure that floppy disks are write-protected and
never start your computer with an unknown floppy disk in the disk drive.
6. Macro Virus
Macro viruses infect files that are created using certain applications or programs that contain
macros. These mini-programs make it possible to automate series of operations so that they
are performed as a single action, thereby saving the user from having to carry them out one
by one.
7. Directory Virus
Directory viruses change the paths that indicate the location of a file. By executing a program
(file with the extension .EXE or .COM) which has been infected by a virus, you are
unknowingly running the virus program, while the original file and program have been
previously moved by the virus.
8. Polymorphic Virus
This makes it impossible for anti-viruses to find them using string or signature searches
(because they are different in each encryption) and also enables them to create a large number
of copies of themselves.
9. File Infectors
This type of virus infects programs or executable files (files with an .EXE or .COM
extension). When one of these programs is run, directly or indirectly, the virus is activated,
producing the damaging effects it is programmed to carry out. The majority of existing
viruses belongs to this category, and can be classified depending on the actions that they
carry out.
This type of viruses consists of encrypted malicious code, decrypted module. The viruses use
encrypted code technique which make antivirus software hardly to detect them. The antivirus
program usually can detect this type of viruses when they try spread by decrypted
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themselves.
Companion viruses can be considered file infector viruses like resident or direct action types.
They are known as companion viruses because once they get into the system they
"accompany" the other files that already exist. In other words, in order to carry out their
infection routines, companion viruses can wait in memory until a program is run (resident
viruses) or act immediately by making copies of themselves (direct action viruses).
Network viruses rapidly spread through a Local Network Area (LAN), and sometimes
throughout the internet. Generally, network viruses multiply through shared resources, i.e.,
shared drives and folders. When the virus infects a computer, it searches through the network
to attack its new potential prey. When the virus finishes infecting that computer, it moves on
to the next and the cycle repeats itself.
This type of viruses is similar to Resident Viruses by using replication of module. Besides
that, Nonresident Viruses role as finder module which can infect to files when it found one (it
will select one or more files to infect each time the module is executed).
Stealth Viruses is some sort of viruses which try to trick anti-virus software by intercepting
its requests to the operating system. It has ability to hide itself from some antivirus software
programs. Therefore, some antivirus program cannot detect them.
In order to spread widely, a virus must attempt to avoid detection. To minimize the
probability of its being discovered a virus could use any number of different techniques. It
might, for example, only infect every 20th time a file is executed; it might only infect files
whose lengths are within narrowly defined ranges or whose names begin with letters in a
certain range of the alphabet. There are many other possibilities.
Many viruses take the easy way out when infecting files; they simply attach themselves to the
end of the file and then change the start of the program so that it first points to the virus and
then to the actual program code. Many viruses that do this also implement some
stealth techniques so you don't see the increase in file length when the virus is active in
memory.
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A spacefiller (cavity) virus, on the other hand, attempts to be clever. Some program files, for
a variety of reasons, have empty space inside of them. This empty space can be used to house
virus code. A spacefiller virus attempts to install itself in this empty space while not
damaging the actual program itself. An advantage of this is that the virus then does not
increase the length of the program and can avoid the need for some stealth techniques. The
Lehigh virus was an early example of a spacefiller virus.
The file allocation table or FAT is the part of a disk used to connect information and is a vital
part of the normal functioning of the computer.
This type of virus attack can be especially dangerous, by preventing access to certain sections
of the disk where important files are stored. Damage caused can result in information losses
from individual files or even entire directories.
18. Worms
A worm is technically not a virus, but a program very similar to a virus; it has the ability to
self-replicate, and can lead to negative effects on your system and most importantly they are
detected and eliminated by antiviruses.
Another unsavory breed of malicious code (not a virus as well) are Trojans or Trojan horses,
which unlike viruses do not reproduce by infecting other files, nor do they self-replicate like
worms.
They are not considered viruses because they do not replicate. They are not even programs in
their own right but rather camouflaged segments of other programs.
Their objective is to destroy data on the computer once certain conditions have been met.
Logic bombs go undetected until launched, and the results can be destructive.
Antivirus (or anti- virus)software is used to safeguard a computer from malware, including
viruses, computer worms, and Trojan horses
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Antivirus software may also remove or prevent spyware and adware, along with other forms
of malicious programs. Free antivirus software generally only searches your computer using
signature-based detection which involves looking for patterns of data that are known to be
related to already-identified malware. Paid antivirus software will usually also include
heuristics to catch new, or zero-day threats, by either using genetic signatures to identify new
variants of existing virus code or by running the file in a virtual environment (also called a
sandbox), and watching what it does to see if it has malicious intent.
Virus designers, however, usually test their malicious code against the major antivirus types
of malware, specifically ransomware, use polymorphic code to make it difficult to be
detected by antivirus software. Besides using antivirus software to keep your computer safe
and running smoothly, it is also always a good idea to be proactive: make sure your web
browser is updated to the latest version, use a firewall, only download programs from
websites you trust and always surf the web using a standard user account, rather than your
administrator one.
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2 .Basics Of Operating System
2.1 Definition of Operating System:
“An Operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs and
acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.”
A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program running at all
times on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else being applications programs.
An Operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such as
memory, processors, devices and information. The Operating System correspondingly
includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic controller, a scheduler,
memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system.
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• Reduces CPU idle time.
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Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. Real-time operating system has well-defined, fixed time constraints
otherwise system will fail. For example Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, and home-appliance controllers, Air
traffic control system etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems secondary storage is limited or missing with data stored in ROM. In these systems
virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, Multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers etc.
• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users
1) Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be access directly by the CPU. So for a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. Operating System does the following
activities for memory management.
• Keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it are in use by whom, what part are
not in use.
• In multiprogramming, OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.
• Allocates the memory when the process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when the process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
2) Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, OS decides which process gets the processor when and
how much time. This function is called process scheduling. Operating System does the
following activities for processor management.
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. Program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.
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• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when processor is no longer required.
3) Device Management
OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. Operating System does the
following activities for device management.
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
4)File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Operating System does the following
activities for file management.
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources
5)Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that Operating System does.
• Security -- By means of password and similar other techniques, preventing
unauthorized access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a service
and response from the system.
• Job accounting -- Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
• Error detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.
The Desktop :
The desktop is the main screen area that you see after you turn on your computer and log on
to Windows. When you open programs or folders, they appear on the desktop. You can also
put things on the desktop, such as files and folders, and arrange them as you want.
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you first start Windows, you'll see at least one icon on your desktop: The Recycle Bin. Some
examples of desktop icons are shown in picture.
Common desktop icons include Computer, your personal folder, the Recycle Bin, and
Control Panel.
3. Under Desktop icons, select the check box for each icon that you want to add to the
desktop, or clear the check box for each icon that you want to remove from the
desktop, and then click OK.
Windows stacks icons in columns on the left side of the desktop. But you're not stuck with
that arrangement. You can move an icon by dragging it to a new place on the desktop.
You can also have Windows automatically arrange your icons. Right-click an empty area of
the desktop, click View, and then clickAuto arrange icons. Windows stacks your icons in
the upper-left corner and locks them in place. To unlock the icons so that you can move them
again, click Auto arrange icons again, clearing the check mark next to it.
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Hiding desktop icons
If you want to temporarily hide all of your desktop icons without removing them, right-click
an empty part of the desktop, click View, and then click Show desktop icons to clear the
check mark from that option. Now no icons are displayed on the desktop. You can get them
back by clicking Show desktop icons again.
Windows Explorer:
Windows Explorer is the file management application in windows. Windows explorer can be
used to navigate your hard drive and display the contents of the folders and subfolders you
use to organize your files on your hard drive. Windows Explorer is automatically launched
any time you open a folder in windows XP.
When you delete a file or folder, it doesn't actually get deleted,it goes to the
Recycle Bin. That's a good thing, because if you want that deleted file, you can get
it back.
If you won't need the deleted items again, you can empty the Recycle Bin. Doing that will
permanently delete the items and reclaim any disk space they were using.
Start Menu:
The Start menu is the main gateway to your
computer's programs, folders, and settings.
It's called a menu because it provides a list
of choices.
• Start programs
• Open commonly used folders
• Search for files, folders, and
programs
• Adjust computer settings
• Get help with the Windows
operating system
• Turn off the computer
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To open the Start menu, click the Start button in the lower-left corner of your screen. Or,
press the Windows logo key on your keyboard.
The Start menu has three basic parts:
• The large left pane shows a short list of programs on your computer. Clicking All
Programs displays a complete list of programs.
• At the bottom of the left pane is the search box, which allows you to look for
programs and files on your computer by typing in search terms.
• The right pane provides access to commonly used folders, files, settings, and features.
It's also where you go to log off from Windows or turn off your computer.
To use the search box, open the Start menu and start typing. You don't need to click inside
the box first. As you type, the search results appear above the search box in the left pane of
the Start menu.
• Any word in its title matches or begins with your search term.
• Any text in the actual contents of the file matches or begins with your search term.
• Any word in a property of the file, such as the author, matches or begins with your
search term.
Click any search result to open it. Or, click the Clear button to clear the search results and
return to the main programs list. You can also click See more results to search your entire
computer.
Search box also searches your Internet favorites and the history of websites you've visited. If
any of these webpages include the search term, they appear under a heading called "Files."
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1. Personal folder. This folder, in turn, contains user-specific files, including the My
Documents, My Music, My Pictures, and My Videos folders.
2. Documents. Opens the Documents library, where you can access & open text files,
spreadsheets, etc.
3. Pictures. Opens the Pictures library, where you can access and view digital pictures and
graphics files.
4. Music. Opens the Music library, where you can access and play music and other audio
files.
5. Games. Opens the Games folder, where you can access all of the games on your
computer.
6. Computer. Opens a window where you can access disk drives, cameras, printers,
scanners, and other hardware connected to your computer.
7. Control Panel. Opens Control Panel, where you can customize the appearance and
functionality of your computer, install or uninstall programs, set up network connections,
and manage user accounts.
8. Devices and Printers. Opens a window where you can view information about the
printer, mouse, and other devices installed on your computer.
9. Default Programs. Opens a window where you can choose which program you want
Windows to use for activities such as web browsing.
10. Help and Support. Opens Windows Help and Support, where you can browse and search
Help topics about using Windows and your computer.
At the bottom of the right pane is the Shut down button. Click
the Shut down button to turn off your computer. Clicking the
arrow next to the Shut down button displays a menu with
additional options for switching users, logging off, restarting, or
shutting down.
Taskbar:
The taskbar is the long horizontal bar at the bottom of your screen. It has three main sections:
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The button shows an icon that represents the open program. In the picture below, two
programs are open—Calculator and Minesweeper—and each has its own button on the
taskbar. It also highlights the icon whose window is active. Click a taskbar button to switch to
that window
When you move your pointer to a particular icon, you will see that icon's name or the status
of a setting. Double-clicking an icon in the notification area usually opens the program or
setting associated with it. For example, double-clicking the volume icon opens the volume
controls.
Windows hides icons in the notification area when you haven't
used them in a while. If icons become hidden, click the Show
hidden icons button to temporarily display the hidden icons.
Click the Show hidden icons button to display all icons in the notification area
Menus, buttons, scroll bars, and check boxes are examples of controls that you operate with
your mouse or keyboard. These controls allow you to select commands, change settings, or
work with windows.
Menus:
Most programs contain hundreds of commands that you use to work the program. Many of
these commands are organized under menus. A program menu shows you a list of choices.
To choose one of the commands listed in a menu, click it. Sometimes menus show submenus.
Recognizing menus isn't always easy, because not all menu controls look same or even
appear on a menu bar. When you see an arrow next to a word or picture, you're probably
looking at a menu control.
Scroll bars
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When a document, webpage, or picture exceeds the size of its window, scroll bars appear to
allow you to see the information that is currently out of
view. The following picture shows the parts of a scroll bar.
Command buttons
If a button changes into two parts when you point to it, you've
discovered a split button. Clicking the main part of the button performs a command, whereas
clicking the arrow opens a menu with more options.
Option buttons
Option buttons
allow you to make one choice among two or more options. They
frequently appear in dialog boxes. The following picture shows two
option buttons. The "Color" option is selected.
Check boxes
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Check boxes allow you to choose multiple options at the same time. Click an empty check
box to select that option
Sliders :
Text boxes:
Drop-down lists:
Drop-down lists are similar to menus. Instead of clicking a command, though, you choose an
option. When closed, a drop-down list shows only the currently selected option. The other
available options are hidden until you click the control, as shown below.
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List boxes:
A list box displays a list of options that you can choose from.
Unlike a drop-down list, some or all of the options are visible
without having to open the list.
To choose an option from the list, click it. If the option you want
isn't visible, use the scroll bar to scroll the list up or down. If the
list box has a text box above it, you can type the name or value of
the option instead.
Tabs :
In some dialog boxes, options are divided into two or more tabs. Only one tab, or set of
options, can be viewed at a time. The currently selected tab appears in front of the other tabs.
To switch to a different tab, click the tab.
Whenever you open a program, file, or folder, it appears on your screen in a box or frame
called a window.
Parts of a window
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• Borders and corners. You can drag these with your mouse pointer to change the size
of the window.
Minimizing a window:
To minimize a window, click its Minimize button . The window disappears from the
desktop and is visible only as a button on the taskbar, the long horizontal bar at the bottom of
your screen.
To make a minimized window appear again on the desktop, click
its taskbar button. The window appears exactly as it did before
you minimized it.
Closing a window
Closing a window removes it from the desktop and taskbar. To close a window, click
its Close button .
The taskbar provides a way to organize all of your
windows. Each window has a corresponding button on
the taskbar. To switch to another window, just click its
taskbar button. The window appears in front of all other
windows, becoming the active window—the one you're
currently working in.
To easily identify a window, point to its taskbar button.
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When you point to a taskbar button, you'll see a thumbnail-sized preview of the window. This
preview is especially useful if you can't identify a window by its title alone.
Dialog boxes:
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Understanding the parts of a window
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Column Use the column headings to change how the files in the file list are
headings organized.
File list This is where the contents of the current folder or library are displayed. If
you type in the search box to find a file, only the files that match your
current view (including files in subfolders) will appear.
Type a word or phrase in the search box to look for an item in the current
Search box folder or library. The search begins as soon as you begin typing—so if you
type "B," for example, all the files with names starting with the letter B
will appear in the file list.
Details pane Use the details pane to see the most common properties associated with the
selected file. File properties are information about a file, such as the
author, the date you last changed the file, and any descriptive tags you
might have added to the file.
Preview pane Use the preview pane to see the contents of most files. If you select an
e-mail message, text file, or picture, for example, you can see its contents
without opening it in a program. If you don't see the preview pane, click
thePreview pane button in the toolbar to turn it on.
When you open a folder or library, you can change how the files look in the window. For
You can also open Notepad first and then open the document from
Notepad’s File/Open command. Once the document is opened you can print it. Advantage of
opening Notepad prior to locating file:
• Can apply page formatting before you print.
• Can add a header or footer.
• Can adjust the margins.
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Features of Notepad:
1. Notepad has minimal editing features.
2. Notepad has word wrap which prevents text from running over into the margins and
automatically moves text to the next line.
3. Used to create/save/open/edit file.
4. Can create time log.
5. Within Notepad – cut, copy, and paste text.
6. Copy data to Notepad from other files.
7. Copy Notepad text to other word processing text or database document.
WordPad
WordPad is a simple word processor.
WordPad allows simple formatting:
• Change fonts.
• Character level formatting.
• Margins can be changed/created.
• Insert bulleted charts/graphic and sound files.
Paragraphs:
Traditional English style paragraph includes a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a
concluding sentence. Indented by one tab.
A paragraph, in word processing terms, is all the text between paragraph marks (¶). It can be
one character, one page, or several pages of text.
To indent a paragraph you use the <Tab> key.
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• Features of WordPad:
Title bar/Name of document first (docucentric approach)
Menu Bar
Toolbar
Format Bar
Document Ruler
Selection Bar: unmarked column along left edge of document window.
Insertion Point: is where you begin keying in text. 2 modes – Insert mode (Default) and
Typeover -Press Insert to toggle between modes.
Status Bar: tells you the status of the document.
WordPad and Microsoft Word both claim .RTF extension.
Rich text format (RTF) allows the exchange of text files between different word processors in
different OS.
Problems can occur when any registered file extension is claimed by more than one program.
The default extension for WordPad documents is .doc. This extension is also used by Word
for Windows, so if Word is installed, a document you create in WordPad might not open with
WordPad when you double-click it.
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If installed programs (such as Office) have correct graphic filters, Paint can read TIFF, JPEG,
GIF, PCX, Targa and Kodak Photo CD files. Save Paint files in GIF and JPEG format.
Images created can stand alone or be copied to other documents.
Graphics files are identified by file extensions.
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• Paint Window
The Paint window has many components, some are common to all windows programs, others
are not.
1. Menu Bar – location of choices consistent:
2. Tool Box - is actually a toolbar that you select your drawing tools from.
Below the Tool Box is an area called the Tool Options box where the options available for
the selected tool are displayed.
3. Color Box - contains the colors you can use in Paint. The foreground color is the color you
draw with. The background color is the color of your drawing area.
4. Drawing area - is like a canvas and is the area where you draw. Default drawing tool –
pencil. Cursor assumes shape of selected drawing tool.
The Tools:
1. Free-Form Select – Selects a free form cutout in a drawing.
2. Select – Selects a rectangular cutout.
3. Erase/Color Eraser – Changes the foreground color to the background color.
4. Fill With Color – Fills a bordered area with the selected foreground color.
5. Pick Color – Picks a color in your drawing and uses it as your foreground color
or background color.
6. Magnifier – Magnifies a selected area.
7. Pencil – Creates a free-form line.
8. Brush – Draws a free-form brush stroke.
9. Airbrush – Creates a spray can effect.
10. Text – Places text in the drawing.
11. Line – Draws a straight line.
12. Curve – Draws a straight line, then curves it.
13. Rectangle – Creates a rectangle or square.
14. Polygon – Draws a shape with an unlimited number of sides.
15. Ellipse – Creates a circle or ellipse.
16. Rounded Rectangle – Creates a round-cornered rectangle or square.
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• Fill Styles:
When you select a shape tool, three choices appear in the Tool Options area. Each of these
choices is a fill style.
The effect of each of the fill styles depends on the mouse button used to draw the shape.
• Using the Left mouse button:
Top: Outline in foreground color. No fill color.
Middle: Outline in foreground color. Fill in background color.
Bottom: Solid shape in background color. Has no outline.
• Using the Right mouse button:
Top: Outline in background color. No fill color.
Middle: Outline in background color. Fill in foreground color.
Bottom: solid shape in foreground color. Has no outline.
• Picture Characteristics
Paint used to view existing picture.
Paint can be used to create a new picture.
• Standard settings for new picture.
• Creates picture with default settings.
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To display the Calculator, open the Start menu and choose Programs, Accessories,
Calculator. The Calculator opens in the same view (Standard or Scientific) in which it was
displayed the last time it was used.
To close the Calculator, click the Close button in the title bar. If you use the Calculator
frequently, however, don't close it; click the Minimize button to minimize the Calculator to a
button on the taskbar.
The Calculator has only three menus: Edit, View, and Help. The Edit menu contains two
simple commands for copying and pasting; the View menu switches between the Standard
and Scientific views; and the Help menu is the same as in all Windows accessories.
2.Operating the Calculator
To use the Calculator with the mouse, just click the appropriate numbers and sign keys, like
you would press buttons on a desk calculator. Numbers appear in the display window as you
select them, and the results appear after the calculations are performed. To enter numbers
from the keyboard, use either the numbers across the top of the keyboard or those on the
numeric keypad (you must first press the NumLock key if the NumLock feature is not
enabled). To calculate, press the keys on the keyboard that match the Calculator keys.
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3 Introduction to Business Communication Tools
Introduction
Microsoft Office is a collection of different application programs that were originally
designed to be used to perform many of the tasks that are completed every day in an office
setting, but they can also be useful in your personal life as well.
Microsoft Word is a word processing program that can be used to type documents, from
simple letters to illustrated newsletters.
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that can be used to track of lists, numbers and
statistics, such as might be used in accounting.
Microsoft Access is a database program that can be used to track of diverse but related
information, such as customer orders, customer billing information, customer shipping
information, and product inventories.
Microsoft PowerPoint is presentation software that can be used for making fully animated
computer presentations.
Microsoft Publisher is publication design software that can be used for creating greeting
cards, business cards, calendars and more.
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• Page Setup and Margin Formatting
The screenshot below displays the menu path to change the margins in a paper. According to
APA, all margins are set at 1 inch.
1. From the menu tab at the top of Word, select Page Layout.
2. In the Page Layout menu, the margins button will allow you to change the margins to the
correct format.
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3. Select Normal to set all margins to one inch.
• Formatting Font
The screenshot below displays the menu path to change the font. Use a traditional font such
as Times New Roman or Courier in 12-point size.
• Formatting Spacing
The standard spacing format for a paper is double-spacing. Double-space the entire
document, including the reference page. The screenshot below displays the menu path to
change the spacing format to double.
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1. Select the Home tab.
2. From the Paragraph menu, you may adjust the line spacing from the Line Spacing
dropdown menu.
(Note: Word 2007 places extra space between paragraphs. You will need to adjust this by
selecting the Page Layout menu. Then access Paragraph and Indents and Spacing. Under the
Spacing heading, set the spacing option to 0 pt. before and 0 pt. after. Click OK.)
• Page Headers
Identify each page with the first two or three words of the title and with the page number
placed on the upper right hand corner of the page. Use five spaces between the title and the
page number. Do not use your name to identify each page. Be sure the font type and size are
the same as that used in the document.
To create a correct APA header with a page number in Word 2007, use the following
guidelines:
1. Click on the Insert tab.
2. Click on the Header tab.
1. Click on the Blank header tab from the drop-down menu. This will put the curser inside
the header.
2. Click on the Page Number tab.
3. Place the curser on the drop-down menu over Top of Page to bring up another drop-down
menu.
4. Click on Plain Number 3 on the drop-down menu (the third choice). This will place a
page number inside the header at the right margin.
5. Type the portion of the title to go in the header and add five spaces. Your header is
complete.
6. Click on Close Header and Footer on the far right.
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• Hanging Indent
Select the text that requires a hanging indent OR create a hanging indent before typing the
text. From the Home menu, click on the Paragraph command (see Picture One). This will
bring up the Indents and Spacing tab (see Picture Two). Under Indentation in the Special
box, click on Hanging and OK.
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• Centering Text
The screenshot below is an example of text that is centered and that is not centered. In order
to center text highlight the text that requires centering and select the icon in the formatting
toolbar as shown.
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the cursor to the next menu that opens and click Microsoft Office excel 2007. A blank
document will appear on the screen.
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Open a New Workbook
Some times you have to create a new workbook.
1. Click on the Office Button
2. Click on New
You are now able to open recently used or new workbooks from this panel. You can also
open up templates that are available with Excel or ones that you create. If you click on Blank
workbook, Excel will create a new workbook for you.
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What are Columns, Rows, and Cells?
Columns are the vertical markers in the worksheet and are denoted by the alphabet i.e. A, B,
C.
The rows are the horizontal markers in the worksheet and are denoted by numbers i.e. 1, 2, 3.
Cells are the single box that you get where the column and row intersect i.e. A1, B3, and C2.
You will often need to know the cell reference. The cell reference is the cell’s name and you
can
find that by looking at the toolbar. This means that the cell that is selected is named C28.
selecting a cell
1. We are going to select C28. Look for the C column.
2. Look for the Row number 28.
3. You may use your finger to follow the column C down to where row 28 is.
4. Once you have located it, click on it.
5. Look at the toolbar; the cell reference box should say C28. If it does not, try again.
6. After you have done this, click on a different cell and note the cell reference box.
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Selecting cells A4 to D10
Method 1
1. Click on cell A2 to select it.
2. Type in 1981 and hit Enter. Notice by hitting Enter, we automatically move down to the
next row. (we can also do the same by hitting the down arrow)
3. Click on cell B1 to select it.
4. Type in January and hit Tab. By hitting Tab (or right arrow), we move to the next column.
We can continue to doing this to enter the data from 1981 to 1992 and so on, but Excel
provides
us with a tool to complete sequences.
Method 2
1. Click on cell A2 to select it.
2. Type in 1981 and hit Enter.
3. Type in 1982, and then select both cells A2 and A3.
4. Move your mouse cursor over the fill handle (small black box on the bottom right of the
active cell) so that the cursor turns into a cross.
5. Click and drag the fill handle down to the cell desired.
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You can Copy, Cut and Paste anything into your worksheet. You can copy from one
worksheet
to another worksheet in another book. Let’s concentrate on the basics. We are going to copy
cells D4 to H9.
Cut/Copy and Paste to the same worksheet
1. Using the same worksheet, select cells A4 to D10.
2. Use CTRL-c to copy and CTRL-x to cut the selected cells.
3. Click on cell E29. It should be blank
4. Use CTRL-v to paste the data. You can also use the toolbar shortcuts for cut/copy/paste
as the functionality is the same.
2. Since Excel inserts to the left, you need to click on the column letter B. Column B
should
be highlighted.
3. Point (do not left click) the arrow at the B column and then right click.
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4. 4. A pop-up menu should appear. In the menu you should see Insert.
5. Click on the word Insert. Excel will insert a blank column between Full Name and
Address.
6. Click on B1 and type in Last Name..
Insert rows
1. We want to insert a new row for Anne Frank’s contact information between John Doe
and Fred Johnson.
2. Since Excel inserts rows above the selection, you need to click on row number 3. Row 3
should be highlighted.
3. Right click while pointing at the number 3
4. A pop-up menu should appear. In the menu you should see Insert.
5. Click on the word Insert. Excel will insert a blank row between John Doe and Fred
Johnson.
5. Click on A3 and type in Anne Frank’s contact information
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2. Select cells A1 to G5
3. Go to the Data tab, then click on Sort
3. In the sort option window, use the pull down boxes to select the sort criteria. In this
case we want to sort by Last Name, ascending order A-Z, then click on OK.
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Exercise 14: Insert a worksheet
1. Right Click on the tabs where the name of the worksheets are.
2. Click on Insert
4. To move the worksheet, click and hold the left mouse button on the worksheet tab. Drag
the tab to where you want it to be placed. Note: you can only move the worksheet tabs
to the left or right.
Delete a worksheet
1. Click on the tab of the worksheet that you want to delete.
2. Right Click on the same tab of the worksheet
3. Click on Delete
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Printing
Printing your worksheets out to a printer would be a nice thing to know how to do. If the
information that you have on the worksheet fits on an 8.5”x11” paper, you have no trouble
printing your worksheet out. The problem arises when you have a larger worksheet. You may
have noticed that your worksheet has dashed lines running down and across it; this is your
print
area.
2. The menu at the top is important because there are many print functions that you can
use for your worksheet. Here are some examples, turn on the gridlines, shrink to fit one
page, print headers or footers.
3. Click on Print. You will be at the Print menu.
4. Click Page Setup. You will see a control panel that will allow you to make some cosmetic
changes to the way the worksheet prints.
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3.3 Microsoft Powerpoint
Introduction to Microsoft Office Powerpoint 2007
PowerPoint enables anyone to produce, with a little practice, beautifully laid out
presentations, either as on-screen shows, or as OHP slides. The aim of these notes is to
introduce you to the basics of PowerPoint. It will tell you how to create attractive animated
presentations that include animation, images, charts, tables, and links to other software.
Users of previous versions of PowerPoint will notice that the user interface has changed
dramatically, but, these changes give PowerPoint a lot more features, in a very intuitive
layout.
Files produced in PowerPoint 2007 have the file extension ".pptx", and the files themselves
are very different from previous file formats. If you wish to use an old PowerPoint
presentation in PowerPoint 2007, PowerPoint will switch to compatibility mode, to let you
work on the old file with no problems.
The area in the centre displays the slide layout. The area on the left displays the
structure of your presentation as it builds. The area below the slide is labeled Click to
add notes. You can use this area to write notes, which you can read from as you
deliver your presentation, these notes can be printed out and are not visible whilst you
show the slides.
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The three buttons on the bottom left of the screen offer you different views of the
presentation.
The normal view shows all elements of the PowerPoint screen as above.
Slide sorter view shows all slides together, allowing you to re-order the
slides.
Presentation view lets you see each slide as it will appear in the presentation.
Building Slides
• PowerPoint presentations consist of a series of slides. In building up a presentation
you construct each slide adding titles, list points, and graphics as necessary. You can
either start with a blank slide, or start with a template with ready-made entries for
titles, lists and graphics.
• With PowerPoint loaded, you can build your first slide. To add a title to your slide
click on the text labeled Click to add title. As soon as you click, the text will
disappear and be replaced by a flashing insertion point. Type in text from the
keyboard, using the Backspace and Delete keys to correct mistakes. When you have
entered the title you can click on the next area of the slide to enter a subtitle in the
same way.
• To add a new slide to your presentation, from the Slides group on the Home
tab, click the top of the New Slide button to add a general slide.
click the bottom of the New Slide button to reveal a menu of slide designs.You will see a
collection of slide themes, which contain various combinations of titles and content.Content
is represented as a large, rectangular box, with a dotted border, containing a palette of
coloured icons. The dotted box is used to create a bulleted list, and each icon can used to
include a table, picture, or media clip. In creating each slide, you use whichever content
element that you require and ignore the other tools, the icons and dotted line do not appear on
the finished presentation.
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Text
Text on PowerPoint slides, needs to be formatted to be easily visible to all audience
members.
• To enter text in a title field, click inside the field and type in your text.
• To change the appearance or colour of any text, select the text, then use either the tools in
the Font and Paragraph groups on the Home tab.
• To add an additional text area to your document, click the Insert tab, then from the Text
group, click the Text Box button. Drag a box onto the slide using the mouse.
• To reposition text on your slide click the border of the text area, then drag it to its new
position.
• To remove a text area from your slide, click the border of the text area, then press the
Delete key.
Bulleted Lists
• Most presentations use bulleted lists to summarise points that the speaker can
elaborate upon. To use bulleted lists it is best to choose a slide theme that includes a
bulleted list area.
• When you click inside the bulleted list area you get a single bullet point and a flashing
insertion point. Type in the text for your first point and apply formatting if necessary.
To create subsequent bullet points, simply press the Enter key to start a new line with
a new bullet point.
• If you wish for any of your text lines to be displayed without a bullet you can click in
the line, then click the bulleted list button to remove the bullet point.To create multi-
level bulleted lists, type in the text lines as usual. Click at the start of any lines that
you wish to appear as a lower level list then press the Tab key from the keyboard.
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The selected lines will receive an additional indent and will get a different bullet
symbol. Using the Backspace key produces the opposite effect.
• To change the bullet symbols used, first click in one text line of the list level that you
wish to change.
Next, click the down arrow to the right of the bulleted list button in the Paragraph group on
the Home tab. Choose a bullet design from the displayed collection.
• To choose a different button, click the Bullets and Numbering option, then in the
dialog box that
appears, click the Customize button.
Pictures
To place a picture in a new slide, choose a slide theme which contains a content area,
then click the Insert picture from file icon. To add a picture to an existing slide, go to the
Insert tab and in the Illustrations group click Picture. In the dialog box, locate and select
your image file, then click
the Insert button.
A small version of the picture will appear in the current slide. You can click and drag any of
the circles located in each corner of the picture, to change the size of the picture, or you can
click anywhere within the picture and drag it to a new position.
To put a clipart image into your document, click the Clip Art button on a new slide,
or in the Illustrations group on the Insert tab for an existing slide. In the pane that appears
on the right, type in a keyword to search through the clipart gallery.
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Tables
To place a table in a new slide, choose a slide theme which contains a content area, then click
the Insert able icon. To add a table to an existing slide, go to the Insert tab, and from the
Tables group, click the Table button.
Use your mouse on the grid to select the number of rows and columns that your table will
have, here a 7x4 table is being created. As you select cells in the grid the corresponding table
will be drawn in your document. When you release the mouse button the table will be
Created
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Graphs
To place a graph in a new slide, choose a slide theme which contains a content
area,
then click the Insert Chart icon. To add a graph to an existing slide, go to the Insert tab and
in the Illustrations group click the Chart button. In the dialog box that appears, click the
style of chart that you require, then click the OK button.
Microsoft Excel 2007 will then start up and you can input data in the Excel Spreadsheet,
which will then form a chart in your PowerPoint presentation
To change the order of your slides, or insert a new slide into the middle of a
presentation, it is worth switching to slide sorter view. Go to the View tab and in the
Presentation Views group, click the Slide Sorter button, or click the Slide Sorter View
button at the bottom of the screen to see the following layout:
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From here you can delete any slide by clicking it then pressing the Delete key. You can re-
order slides by dragging any slide to a new position, and you can add a new slide anywhere
by clicking between two existing slides and clicking the New Slide button, from the Slides
group on the Home tab.
• To look at the current slide, as it would appear in the show, click the From Current
Slide button in the Start Slide Show group.
• To view all slides from the beginning click the From Beginning button in the Start
Slide Show group.
• When you wish to return to the normal view press the Esc key.
Design Templates
To apply a design template to your presentation, go to the Design tab. In the Themes group,
click the bottom button in the column of three to see the available designs.
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Click any theme to apply it to all slides in your presentation.
In the Transition to This Slide group, click the bottom button in the column of three to the
right of the palette. Click any transition to see the effect played out on your presentation
slides in the background. When you have chosen an effect it will work when you move to this
current slide. You can have the effect work on every slide in your presentation by clicking the
Apply to All button.
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The Presentation
To deliver your presentation to an audience from the computer, start PowerPoint andload
your presentation file. Click the Slide Show tab, click the From Beginning button in the
Start Slide Show group.
Use the left mouse button, Enter key, Page Down key to advance through the slides, use the
Backspace, Page Up keys to retreat through the slides. To jump to a specific slide, right-
click the presentation, select Go to Slide then from the submenu select the required slide.
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If you wish to emphasise a point you can use the Pointer Options entry from this menu to
change the cursor into a pencil and you can underline or circle any part of a slide, without
changing the underlying file.
Creating a Show
When your presentation is complete you can save it as a show. When it is opened it starts
directly in a slide show, independent of the PowerPoint environment. To save your
presentation as a show, click the Office button, then from the menu position the mouse cursor
over Save As. In the submenu that appears select the PowerPoint Show option. Provide a
name, then click the Save button.
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4 Importance of networking
4.1 Introduction
Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the
success of every enterprise.
While today nearly every organization uses a number of computers and communication tools
(like telephone or fax), they are often still isolated. While managers today are able to use
applications like wordprocessors or spreadsheets, not very many of them use computer-based
tools to communicate with other departments or information retrieval programs.
To overcome these obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer
networks are necessary. They are a new kind of organization of computer systems produced
by the need to merge computers and communications. Computer networks can manage to put
down the barriers between information held on several systems. Only with the help of
computer networks can a borderless communication and information environment be built.
Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either of
the same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks
provide communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal
information and communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the
organizational learning rate
there are other reasons why any organization should have a computer network
A network is two or more computers connected together to share information and files
between them. Businesses aren't the only ones that can benefit from creating a network.
Home users can enjoy sharing music, movies and printers from any computer.
File Sharing : Computers connected to a network can share files and documents with each
other. Personal computers connected to a business network can choose which files and
folders are available to share on the network.
Printers : Computers can print pages to another computer with a printer on the network.
Additionally, printers can be connected using a print server, which allows direct printing
from all computers.
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A)Local Area Networks
Local area networks (LANs) are used to connect networking devices that are in a very close
geographic area, such as a floor of a building, a building itself, or a campus environment.
C)Wide area networks (WANs) are used to connect LANs together. Typically, WANs are
used when the LANs that must be connected are separated by a large distance.
.
A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different
places.
In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The
computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server In the
network the individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as
workstations or nodes.
Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area in two broad
categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
1 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network
2 High degree of interconnection between computers
3 Easy physical connection of computers in a network
4 Inexpensive medium of data transmission
• The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does
not
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effect the functioning for other computers.
• Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.
Disadvantages of LAN is
• If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
Use of LAN : Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used
A hub works in the physical layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-intelligent device,
and has no decision making capability. What a Hub basically does is take the input data from
one of the ports and broadcast the information to all the other ports connected to the network.
Port network
To demonstrate its working, consider a 4 port network as shown in Fig 1. There are 4
computers connected to the 4 ports. Suppose, if Computer A wants to send some data to
Computer B using a Hub, then, Computer A broadcasts the data on the network, and
Computer B, being connected to the network, has access to the data. But, in this case all the
other ports connected to the network has access to the data that is being transmitted by
Computer A. This happens because, the Hub works in the Physical Layer and hence it does
not know about the MAC addresses of the ports connected to the network. So, there is a lack
of security in the Hub.
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USB Hub
The picture shows a USB Hub, wherein the data is fed into the input port and is broadcasted
to all the other 4 ports. The Network Hubs are outdated and are out of the market.
2)Switch
A switch is an intelligent device that works in the data link layer. The term intelligent refers
to the decision making capacity of the Switch. Since it works in the Data link layer, it has
knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the network.
Switch
Hence, in the Fig 1, if data has to be sent from Computer A to Computer B, then, the data is
transferred to the Computer B only, and not to any other computers connected on the
network. Hence, it establishes a link between the sender and the receiver based on the MAC
addresses. This also means that when data is being sent from A to B, Computer C can
establish a link with Computer D and communication can take place between them. So,
simultaneous data transfer is possible in a switch. Also, Hub divides bandwidth, but a Switch
does not.
It is also to be noted that a switch is a secure device, because it sends information only to the
desired destinations, and also certain security features such as firewalls can be implemented
in the Switches.
3)Bridge
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A bridge is also a device which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more primitive when
compared to a switch. Initial bridges were used to connect only 2 LAN’s, but the most recent
ones perform similar operation as the switches. It also works on the principle of transfer of
information using the MAC addresses of the ports.
Bridge
It can be noted is that the normal ADSL modem can be connected via bridging also. The only
difference is that, when bridging is used, each time the device has to be connected to the
internet, it has to dial to the internet and establish a connection. Also, a bridge alone cannot
be used to connect to the internet, because, the bridge works in the Data Link Layer, and has
no knowledge of the IP Addresses, which are used in the Internet.
4)Router
Any computer can be connected to the internet via MODEM, which performs the
MODulation and the DEModulation operations. But, when there are more than one computer
at home or in an organization, and you have a single internet connection, you need a Router.
Router is a device which is used when multiple devices need to connect to the Internet using
the same IP.
Any Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides a single IP, and especially for personal use, the
IP address is assigned dynamically. This is done because, suppose, an ISP has 1000 IP
addresses, it does not mean that it has 1000 customers. An ISP assumes that not all devices
will be connected to the internet at the same time. Hence, when a user wants to access the
internet, any IP address from the pool of IP addresses from the ISP will be assigned to
connect the user to the internet.
Router
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Hence, the router does the job of connecting multiple devices in a LAN to the internet using
the same IP address. Since the router works in the Network Layer, it does forwarding on the
basis of IP addresses.
Functionality:
When a router receives the data, it determines the destination address by reading the header
of the packet. Once the address is determined, it searches in its routing table to get know
how to reach the destination and then forwards the packet to the higher hop on the route. The
hop could be the final destination or another router.
Routing tables play a very pivotal role in letting the router makes a decision. Thus a routing
table is ought to be updated and complete. The two ways through which a router can receive
information are:
• Static Routing: In static routing, the routing information is fed into the routing tables
manually. It does not only become a time-taking task but gets prone to errors as well.
The manual updating is also required in case of statically configured routers when
change in the topology of the network or in the layout takes place. Thus static routing
is feasible for tinniest environments with minimum of one or two routers.
• Dynamic Routing: For larger environment dynamic routing proves to be the practical
solution. The process involves use of peculiar routing protocols to hold
communication. The purpose of these protocols is to enable the other routers to
transfer information about to other routers, so that the other routers can build their
own routing tables.
5)Gateway
The Gateway devices work in the Transport layer and above, where the different network
technologies are implemented. A gateway is necessary when there are different technologies
implemented by the different LAN’s which are to be connected together.
Gateway function
The Fig shows the working of a gateway. Consider 2 networks, say in New York, and a
network in London. If data has to be sent from one place to another, we need to ensure that
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the network technologies that are being used by both the networks are the same. If not, we
need to use a Gateway.
In the more common example, we use a telephone network and internet networks, which
works on different technologies. The telephone network follows the ISDN, and the Internet
follows the IP. Here, 2 different technologies are being used. In this case, the router fails to
work, since the router cannot understand the functionalities of both the networks. Hence, we
require a Gateway, which acts as a translator in communicating between the 2 networks.
6)Modems
Modem is a device which converts the computer-generated digital signals of a computer into
analog signals to enable their travelling via phone lines. The ‘modulator-demodulator’ or
modem can be used as a dial up for LAN or to connect to an ISP. Modems can be both
external, as in the device which connects to the USB or the serial port of a computer, or
proprietary devices for handheld gadgets and other devices, as well as internal; in the form of
add-in expansion cards for computers and PCMCIA cards for laptops.
Configuration of a modem differs for both the external and internal modem. For internal
modems, IRQ – Interrupt request is used to configure the modem along with I/O, which is a
memory address. Typically before the installation of built-in modem, integrated serial
interfaces are disabled, simultaneously assigning them the COM2 resources.
For external connection of a modem, the modem assigns and uses the resources itself. This is
especially useful for the USB port and laptop users as the non-complex and simpler nature of
the process renders it far much more beneficial for daily usage.
Upon installation, the second step to ensure the proper working of a modem is the installation
of drivers. The modem working speed and processing is dependent on two factors:
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4.5 Network Topology
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology is
suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of topology
is dependent upon type and number of equipment being used, planned applications and rate
of data transfer required, response time, and cost. Topology can also be defined as the
geometrically interconnection pattern by which the stations (nodes/computers) are connected
using suitable transmission media (which can be point-to-point and broadcast).
Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily
correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the
computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be
highly unlikely to find a ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the
following basic types:
• bus
• ring
• star
• tree
• mesh
More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.
1)Bus Topology
Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common
backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device
wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto
the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.
bus networks work best with a limited number of Networking made it easy 2 Compiled by
devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance
problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network
effectively becomes unusable
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2)Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token
Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.
Definition: Token Ring is a data link technology for local area networks (LANs). It operates
at layer 2 of the OSI model.
that device checks whether the frame contains a message addressed to it. If so, the device
removes the message from the frame. If not, the frame is empty (called a token frame).
• the device holding the frame decides whether to send a message. If so, it inserts message
data into the token frame and issues it back onto the LAN. If not, the device releases the
token frame for the next device in sequence to pick up
• the above steps are repeated continuously for all devices in the token ring
3)Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection
point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub
with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network
generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one
computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire
network also fails.)
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4)Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form,
only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a
tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network
much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it
generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.
5)Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only
travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A
mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown
in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only
indirectly to others.
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4.5.1Wireless networking
A wireless network enables people to communicate and access applications and information
without wires. This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend applications to
different parts of a building, city, or nearly anywhere in the world. Wireless networks allow
people to interact with e-mail or browse the Internet from a location that they prefer.
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As with networks based on wire, or optical fiber, wireless networks convey information
between computer devices. The information can take the form of e-mail messages, web
pages, database records, streaming video or voice. In most cases, wireless networks transfer
data, such as e-mail messages and files, but advancements in the performance of wireless
networks is enabling support for video and voice communications as well.
WLANS allow users in a local area, such as a university campus or library, to form a network
or gain access to the internet. A temporary network can be formed by a small number of users
without the need of an access point; given that they do not need access to network resources.
The two current technologies for wireless personal area networks are Infra Red (IR) and
Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15). These will allow the connectivity of personal devices within an
area of about 30 feet. However, IR requires a direct line of site and the range is less.
This technology allows the connection of multiple networks in a metropolitan area such as
different buildings in a city, which can be an alternative or backup to laying copper or fiber
cabling.
These types of networks can be maintained over large areas, such as cities or countries, via
multiple satellite systems or antenna sites looked after by an ISP. These types of systems are
referred to as 2G (2nd Generation) systems.Comparison of Wireless Network Types
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5 Use of Computer in Commerce
5.1 Data Processing
Data is collection of facts- unorganized but able to organized in to useful information.
Information is data arranged in an order.So Data Processing is a series of actions and
operations that convert data into useful information. In the commercial world, data processing
refers to the processing of data required to run organizations and businesses.
5.2 Files- a file is considered as a sequence of bytes, the operating system supplies routines
that can read/write a specified number of bytes. file is a sequence of records of the same
type.
Records-
file is a sequence of records of the same type. A record is a sequence of data bytes together
with control information about the record's size and maybe some attributes.the unit of I/O
operations is one or more record(s).
File organization and access methods are separate but related concepts,organization refers to
the internal structure, access method is an "allowed method" to read/write from/to the file. It
may be possible to access a file in an access method other than the "natural" one.
Possible file organizations are:
1) Sequential - The info in file can be accessed only in the order it was written. The
writing order defines the "natural" order of data, in simple cases the data will reside on the
disk in consecutive locations.
2) Relative - The file is a sequence of equal-sized "data cells" you can access any "cell"
you want using its serial number, and the system will calculate the offset. Relative files are
just like arrays [of structures] but instead of residing in main memory, they are recorded on a
magnetic media.
3) Indexed - The file is made of "data cells", not necessarily of the same size, and
contain "indexes", lists of "pointers" to these cells arranged by some order. Standard
FORTRAN 77 doesn't require that indexed files are to be implemented, but some vendors
supply this nice extension.
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Communication
Communication is key when gaining and maintaining clients and other important contacts.
Computers give businesses access to email, instant messaging and custom customer contact
systems. Computerized phone systems allow for automated support during off hours and a
virtual operator can quickly direct callers to the correct department for faster support.
1. Marketing
Computers allow businesses to create websites, stunning ads and complete marketing
campaigns. Marketing videos can be edited and custom ads created in-house with the use of
specialized software. Businesses can completely develop and manage websites with their own
servers or connect remotely to a third-party business to upload their latest content such as
articles, product images and blog posts.
2. Accounting
Accounting without computers presents a high risk for human error. Accounting software
allows businesses to simply input their financial data and instantly see gains and losses. All
necessary tax reports are available the moment the data is entered. Using computers for
invoicing, managing expenses and calculating payroll is vital for ensuring financial data is as
accurate as possible.
3. Storage
Instead of filing cabinets, businesses are able to store millions of files using computers and
servers. Data can be stored centrally for easy access from multiple computers or stored
locally for individual use. Computerized storage saves space and provides a far more efficient
organization strategy. With encryption, passwords and replace keys, data remains secure.
Most businesses have some sort of productivity software which typically includes a word
processor and spreadsheet application. These two programs allow businesses to create
reports, memos, tutorials and even colorful ads for company events. Spreadsheet applications
give businesses the chance to organize, manage and calculate both numeric and alphabetic
data. With charts and graphs, reporting becomes visual instead of text-based.
5. Education
Businesses use computers to help educate employees on software, company policy, standard
procedures and safety. Instead of hiring teachers, computers can be used to educate
employees at their own pace or through an online webinar with live questions and answers.
This form of education fits the busy schedules of businesses without sacrificing the quality of
the education.
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5.3.1 Personal Administration (Human Resources)
Accounting
Preparing a budget is an integral part of establishing the business case for a project. An
evaluation of the financial requirements is central to establishing whether the project is viable
or not. In cases where external funding is being applied for, the budget will form an important
element of the bid and the benefits model. At the most fundamental level, budgeting should
answer the questions:
Purchasing:-
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Stock-Broking:-
The process of investing in the share market, either individually or through a broker is known
as stock broking, in simple terms. This is primarily done by opening a Demat account. If
done through a broker, he opens an account, helping you to operate through online stock
broking facility. Going ahead the broker suggests investment ideas and strategies suiting
individual requirements and based on his objective of investment. Tenure of investment, the
selected financial instruments and their respective companies, the schemes, the risk taking
ability, the sum available for investment, all are considered while forming investment
choices. After the amount is invested, the broker tracks and monitors the investments,
changes or reinvests depending on the performance and generates reports for them. This
entire process is known as stock broking.
Banking:
Banking is a business of accepting deposits and lending money. It is carried out by financial
intermediaries, which performs the functions of safeguarding deposits and providing loans to
the public.
In other words, Banking means accepting for the purpose of lending or investment of deposits
of money from public repayable on demand and can be withdrawn by cheque, draft order and
so on.
Banking System is a principal mechanism through which the money supply of the country is
created and controlled. The banking system enables us to understand Commercial Banks,
Secondary Banks, Central Banks, Merchant Bank or Accepting Houses and Discount Houses
but to exclude the Saving Banks and Investment and other intermediaries.
Insurance:
Insurance is a contract between the insurer and the insured wherein against receipt of certain
amount, called premium, the insurer agrees to make good any financial loss that may be
suffered by the insured, due to the operation of an insured peril on the subject matter of
insurance.
The Life is full of uncertainties.. People opt for insurance purely for the reasons of
uncertainties in life. Insurance gives the insured a kind of peace of mind as he is assured to
making up the loss in the event of such uncertainties in life happen.
2) Fire Insurance
3) Marine Insurance
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4) Miscellaneous Insurance. Fire and Miscellaneous insurance businesses are predominant.
Motor Vehicle insurance is compulsory.
Life Insurers transact life insurance business; General Insurers transact the rest i.e. Fire
Insurance, Marine Insurance and Miscellaneous Insurance.
Definition E-governance-
E-Governance : Focus
Why eGovernance?
5.4.1Features of e-Commerce
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5.4.2Role of E-Commerce
The e-commerce framework offers a set of options to the customers. Most of the electronic
commerce plans have different strategies for security and privacy, their skill to deal with the
payments, and their usability to different transactions
Framework tells about the detail of how e-commerce can take place. It defines actually how
e-commerce implemented, how online trading or business can be done. It defines important
components that should be present to do some transaction. Framework of e-commerce can be
viewed as shown below:-
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2. Multimedia Contents And Network Publishing- The Information Superhighway is
the transportation foundation that enables the transmission of content. The most
prevalent architecture that enables networking publishing is the World
Wide Web. The web allows small businesses and individuals to develop content in
the form of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and publish it on a web server.
Web provides a means to create product information (content) and a means to publish
it in a distribution center. ( network server).
5. Public Policy And Technical Standards- Public Policy And Technical Standards are
two support pillars for all e-commerce applications and infrastructure. Public policy
related to e-commerce encompasses such issues as universal access, privacy and
information pricing. Technical Standards dictate the specifics of information
publishing tools, user interfaces and transport. Standards are essential to ensure
compatibility across the entire network of world.
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B2C ecommerce growth.
********************************************************************
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Term -II
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1. Internet and Internet Application
1.1 Introduction
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Origins of the Internet
The Internet started as an experiment in the late 1960s by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA, now called DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. DARPA
experimented with the connection of computer networks by giving grants to multiple
universities and private companies to get them involved in the research.
In December 1969, the experimental network went online with the connection of a four-node
network connected via 56 Kbps circuits. This new technology proved to be highly reliable
and led to the creation of two similar military networks, MILNET in the U.S. and MINET in
Europe. Thousands of hosts and users subsequently connected their private networks
(universities and government) to the ARPANET, thus creating the initial "ARPA Internet."
ARPANET had an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP), which prohibited the use of the Internet for
commercial use. ARPANET was decommissioned in 1989.
By 1985, the ARPANET was heavily used and congested. In response, the National Science
Foundation (NSF) initiated phase one development of the NSFNET. The NSFNET was
composed of multiple regional networks and peer networks (such as the NASA Science
Network) connected to a major backbone that constituted the core of the overall NSFNET.
In its earliest form, in 1986, the NSFNET created a three-tiered network architecture. The
architecture connected campuses and research organizations to regional networks, which in
turn connected to a main backbone linking six nationally funded super-computer centers. The
original links were 56 Kbps.
The links were upgraded in 1988 to faster T1 (1.544 Mbps) links as a result of the NSFNET
1987 competitive solicitation for a faster network service, awarded to Merit Network, Inc.
and its partners MCI, IBM, and the state of Michigan. The NSFNET T1 backbone connected
a total of 13 sites that included Merit, BARRNET, MIDnet, Westnet, NorthWestNet,
SESQUINET, SURANet, NCAR (National Center of Atmospheric Research), and five NSF
supercomputer centers.
In 1990, Merit, IBM, and MCI started a new organization known as Advanced Network and
Services (ANS). Merit Network's Internet engineering group provided a policy routing
database and routing consultation and management services for the NSFNET, whereas ANS
operated the backbone routers and a Network Operation Center (NOC).
The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s.
Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several computer science laboratories in
the United States, Great Britain, and France. The US Department of Defense awarded
contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of the
ARPANET (which would become the first network to use the Internet Protocol.) The first
message was sent over the ARPANET from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's
laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at
Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, Mark I at NPL in the UK, CYCLADES,
Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using
a variety of communications protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development
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of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a
network of networks.
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation
(NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. In the early
1980s the NSF funded the establishment for national supercomputing centers at several
universities, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET project, which also
created network access to the supercomputer sites in the United States from research and
education organizations. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the
late 1980s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Private connections to the Internet
by commercial entities became widespread quickly, and the NSFNET was decommissioned
in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce,
including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice
over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World
Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites.
The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such
as NSF's very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National
LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over
fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover of the
global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated
1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year
1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by
2007.[1] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online
information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.
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A large number of books, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedia, and other types of materials
are available in electronic from on the Internet. We can find information or news on about
almost any thing of the world. We can also access latest information or news on any topic. It
means that Internet is an ocean of knowledge.In addition of finding information, we can
communicate with other people around the world. Due to Internet our world has become a
"global village".
Working of the InternetThere is no particular organization that controls the Internet. Different
networks of private companies, government agencies, research organizations, universities etc.
are interconnected together. You can say that the Internet is a collection of millions of
computers, all linked together.
A personal computer can be linked to the Internet using a phone-line modem, DSL or cable
modem. The modem is used to communicate with the server of an Internet Server Provider
(ISP). ISP is a company that provides the Internet connections to the users. There are many
ISP companies in each country of the world. The user has to get an Internet connection from
any ISP company to connect to the Internet.
The user's computer connects to ISP's server makes its connection to larger ISP. The largest
ISPs maintain fiber-optic lines, under sea cables or satellite links. In this way, every computer
on the Internet is connected to every other computer on the Internet.
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1.1.3 Use of Internet:
Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life. There are large numbers of
things that can be done using the internet and so it is very important. You can say that with
the progress in the internet we are progressing in every sphere of life as it not only makes our
tasks easier but also saves a lot of time. Today internet is used for different purposes
depending upon the requirement. Here in this very article we have mentioned then ten best
uses of the internet. Here goes the list.
Internet has been the most useful technology of the modern times which helps us not only in
our daily lives, but also our personal and professional lives developments. The internet helps
us achieve this in several different ways.
For the students and educational purposes the internet is widely used to gather information so
as to do the research or add to the knowledge of any sort of subject they have. Even the
business personals and the professions like doctors, access the internet to filter the necessary
information for their use. The internet is therefore the largest encyclopedia for everyone, in
all age categories.
The internet has served to be more useful in maintaining contacts with friends and relatives
who live abroad permanently. The easiest communication means like the internet chatting
systems and the emails are the best and the most common for the maintaining contacts with
the people around the world.
Not to forget internet is useful in providing with most of the fun these days. May it be all the
games, and networking conferences or the online movies, songs, dramas and quizzes, internet
has provided the users with a great opportunity to eradicate the boredom from their lives.
Internet is also used to upgrade the internet and use special software to work on the projects
and documentation works as the internet enables the user to download a myriad of different
software for a variety of different purposes, making it much easier than buying the costly
software cds.
1. Communication
Easiest thing that can be done using the internet is that we can communicate with the people
living far away from us with extreme ease. Earlier the communication used to be a daunting
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task but all that chanced once internet came into the life of the common people. Now people
can not only chat but can also do the video conferencing. It has become extremely easy to
contact the loved ones who are in some other part of the world. Communication is the most
important gift that the internet has given to the common man. Email, social networking sites
are some of the prime example of it. This is one such gift of the internet which is cherished
by everyone and has made our life easier to much extent.
2. Research
Now the point that has been placed next is research. In order to do research you need to go through
hundreds of books as well as the references and that was one of the most difficult jobs to do earlier.
Since the internet came into life, everything is available just a click away. You just have to search for
the concerned topic and you will get hundreds of references that may be beneficial for your
research. And since internet is here to make your research public, you can then benefit a large
amount of people from the research work that you have done. Research is one such thing which has
got lots of benefit from this evolution of internet. Research process has now got wings and has
gained the most due to the internet.
Education
The next point that we have in this list is education. Yes you read it right. Education is one of
the best things that the internet can provide. There are a number of books, reference books,
online help centres, expert’s views and other study oriented material on the internet that can
make the learning process very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There are lots and
lots of websites which are related to different topic. You can visit them and can gain endless
amount of knowledge that you wish to have. With the use of internet for education, you are
non-longer dependent on some other person to come and teach you. There are various
number of tutorials available over the internet using which you can learn so many thing very
easily. There can’t be any excellent use of the internet other than education as it is the key to
achieve everything in life.
4. Financial Transaction
Mentioned here is financial transaction. Financial transaction is the term which is used when
there is exchange of money. With the use of internet in the financial transaction, your work
has become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at the branch of your
particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that has
been provided to you by the bank and then can do any transaction related to finance at your
will. With the ability to do the financial transaction easily over the internet you can purchase
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or sell items so easily. Financial transaction can be considered as one of the best uses of
resource in the right direction.
Real time updates have been placed at the number fifth position here. This has been
mentioned here in regards to the news and other happenings that may be on-going in different
parts of the world but with the use of internet we come to know about it very easily and
without any difficulty. There are various websites on the internet which provides you with the
real time updates in every field be it in business, sports, finance, politics, entertainment and
others. Many a time the decisions are taken on the real time updates that are happening in
various parts of the world and this is where internet is very essential and helpful.
The World Wide Web (WWW, W3) is an information system of interlinked hypertext
documents that are accessed via the Internet. It has also commonly become known simply as
the Web. Individual document pages on the World Wide Web are called web pages and are
accessed with a software application running on the user's computer, commonly called a web
browser. Web pages may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia components, as
well as web navigation features consisting of hyperlinks.
The "Web", short for "World Wide Web" (which gives us the acronym www), is the name
for one of the ways that the Internet lets people browse documents connected by hypertext
links.
The concept of the Web was perfected at CERN (Centre Européen de Recherche
Nucléaire) in 1991 by a group of researchers which included Tim-Berners Lee, the creator
of the hyperlink, who is today considered the father of the Web.
The principle of the Web is based on using hyperlinks to navigate between documents (called
"web pages") with a program called a browser. A web page is a simple text file written in a
markup language (called HTML) that encodes the layout of the document, graphical
elements, and links to other documents, all with the help of tags.
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Besides the links which connect formatted documents to one another, the web uses the HTTP
protocol to link documents hosted on distant computers (called web servers, as opposed to the
client represented by the broswer). On the Internet, documents are identified with a unique
address, called a URL, which can be used to locate any resource on the Internet, no matter
which server may be hosting it.
• http:// indicates that we want browse the web using the HTTP protocol, the default
protocol for browsing the Web. There are other protocols for other uses of the
Internet.
• www.commentcamarche.net corresponds to the address of the server that hosts the
web pages. By convention, web servers have a name that begins with www., to make
it clear that they are dedicated web servers and to make memorising the address
easier. This second part of the address is called the domain name. A website can be
hosted on several servers, each belonging to the same name:
www.commentcamarche.net www2.commentcamarche.net,
intranet.commentcamarche.net, etc.
• /www/www-intro.php3 indicates where the document is located on the machine. In
this case, it is the file www-intro.php3 situé located in the directory www.
A search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World
Wide Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as
search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of web pages, images,
and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open
directories. Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by human editors, search
engines also maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.
1)Web Crawling
Matthew Gray’s World Wide Web Wanderer (1993) was one of the first efforts to automate
the discovery of web pages Gray’s web crawler would download a web page, examine it for
links to other pages, and continue downloading links it discovered until there were no more
links left to be discovered. This is how web crawlers, also called spiders, generally operate
today.
Because the Web is so large, search engines normally employ thousands of web crawlers that
meticulously scour the web day and night, downloading pages, looking for links to new
pages, and revisiting old pages that might have changed since they were visited last. Search
engines will often revisit pages based on their frequency of change in order to keep their
index fresh. This is necessary so search engine users can always find the most up-to-date
information on the Web.
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Maintaining an accurate "snap shot" of the Web is challenging, not only because of the size
of the Web and constantly changing content, but also because pages disappear at an alarming
rate (a problem commonly called linkrot). Brewster Kahle, founder of the Internet Archive,
estimates that web pages have an average life expectancy of only 100 days And some pages
cannot be found by web crawling. These are pages that are not linked to others, pages that are
password-protected or are generated dynamically when submitting a web form. These pages
reside in the deep Web, also called the hidden or invisible Web
Some website owners don’t want their pages indexed by search engines for any number of
reasons, so they use the Robots Exclusion Protocol (robots.txt) to tell web crawlers which
URLs are off-limits. Other website owners want to ensure certain web pages are indexed by
search engines, so they use the Sitemap Protocol, a method supported by all major search
engines, to provide a crawler with a list of URLs they want indexed Sitemaps are especially
useful in providing the crawler URLs it would be unable to find with web crawling.
Figure 1 below shows how a web crawler pulls from the Web and places downloaded web
resources into a local repository. The next section will examine how this repository of web
resources is then indexed and retrieved when you enter a query into a search engine.
Figure 1 - The Web is crawled and placed into a local repository where it is indexed and
retrieved when using a search engine.
When a web crawler has downloaded a web page, the search engine will index its content.
Often the stop words, words that occur very frequently like a, and, the, and to, are ignored.
Other words might be stemmed. Stemming is a technique that removes suffixes from a word
to improve the content of the index. For example, eating, eats, and eaten may all be stemmed
to eat so that a search for eat will match all its variants.
An example index (usually called an inverted index) will look something like this where the
number corresponds to a web page that contains the text:
cat > 2, 5
dog > 1, 5, 6
fish > 1, 2
bird > 4
So a query for dog would result in pages 1, 5, and 6. A query for cat dog would only result in
page 5 since it is the only page that contains both search terms. Some search engines provide
advanced search capabilities, so a search for cat OR dog and NOT fish would be entered
which would result in pages 1, 5, and 6.
The search engine also maintains multiple weights for each term. The weight might
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correspond to any number of factors that determines how relevant the term is to its host web
page. Term frequency is one such weight which measures how often a term appears in a
web page. For example, if someone wanted to search the Web for pages about dogs, a web
page containing the term dog five times would likely be more relevant than a page containing
dog just once. However, term frequency is susceptible to spamming (or spamdexing), a
technique which some individuals use to artificially manipulate a web page’s ranking, so it is
only one of many factors which are used
Another weight that is given to a web page is based on the context in which the term appears
in the page. If the term appears in a large, bold font or in the title of the page, it may be given
more weight than to a term that appears in a regular font. A page might also be given more
weight if links pointing to the page use the term in its anchor text. In other words, a page that
is pointed to with the link text “see the dogs” is more likely about dogs since the term dogs
appears in the link. This functionality has left search engines susceptible to a practice known
as Google-bombing, where many individuals collude to produce the same anchor text to the
same web page for humorous effect. A popular Google bomb once promoted the White
House website to the first result when searching Google for “miserable failure”. Google has
recently implemented an algorithmic solution capable of diffusing most Google bombs
A final weight which most search engines will use is based on the web graph, the graph
which is created when viewing web pages as nodes and links as directed edges. Sergey Brin
and Larry Page were graduate students at Stanford University when they noted just how
important the web graph was in determining the relevancy of a web page. In 1998, they wrote
a research paper about how to measure the importance of a web page by examining a page’s
position in the web graph, in particular the page’s in-links (incoming links) and out-links
(outgoing links). Essentially, they viewed links like a citation. Good pages receive many
citations, and bad pages receive few. So pages that have in-links from many other pages are
probably more important and should rank higher than pages that few people link to. Weight
should also be given to pages based on who is pointing to them; an in-link from a highly cited
page is better than an in-link from a lowly cited page. Brin and Page named their ranking
algorithm PageRank, and it was instrumental in popularizing their new search engine called
Google. All search engines today take into account the web graph when ranking results.
Figure 2 shows an example of a web graph where web pages are nodes and links from one
page to another are directed edges. The size and color of the nodes indicate how much
PageRank the web pages have. Note that pages with high PageRank (red nodes) generally
have significantly more in-links than do pages with low PageRank (green nodes).
Figure 2 – Example web graph. Pages with higher PageRank are represented with
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larger nodes.
3)Rank Optimization
Search engines guard their weighting formulas as a trade secret since it differentiates their
service from other search engines, and they do not want content-producers (the public who
produces web pages) to “unfairly” manipulate their rankings. However, many companies rely
heavily on search engines for recommendations and customers, and their ranking on a search
engine results page (SERP) is very important. Most search engine users only examine the
first screen of results, and they view the first few results more often than the results at the
bottom of the page. This naturally pits content-producers in an adversarial role against search
engines since the producers have an economic incentive to rank highly in SERPs.
Competition for certain terms (e.g., Hawaii vacation and flight to New York) is particularly
fierce. Because of this, most search engines provide paid-inclusion or sponsored results
along with regular (organic) results. This allows companies to purchase space on a SERP for
certain terms.
Vertical Search
Search engines like Google, Yahoo!, and Bing normally provide specialized types of web
search called vertical search [. A few examples include:
1. Regular web search is the most popular type of search which searches the index
based on any type of web page. Other on-line textual resources like PDFs and
Microsoft Office formats are also available through regular web search.
2. News search will search only news-related websites. Typically the search results are
ordered based on age of the story.
3. Image search searches only images that were discovered when crawling the web.
Images are normally indexed by using the image’s filename and text surrounding the
image. Artificial intelligence techniques for trying to discover what is actually
pictured in the image are slowly emerging. For example, Google can now separate
images of faces and line drawing from other image types.
4. Video search searches the text accompanied by videos on the Web. Like image
search, there is heavy reliance on people to supply text which accurately describes the
video.
Other specialty searches include blog search, newsgroup search, scholarly literature search,
etc. Search engines also occasionally mix various types of search results together onto the
same SERP. Figure 3 below shows how Ask.com displays news and images along with
regular web search results when searching for harding. The blending of results from different
vertical search offerings is usually called universal search .
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Figure 3 - Ask.com's universal search results.
Personalized Search
In order to provide the best possible set of search results for a searcher, many search engines
today are experimenting with techniques that take into account personal search behavior.
When searching for leopard, a user who often queries for technical information is more likely
to want to see results dealing with Leopard the operating system than leopard the animal.
Research has also shown that one third of all queries are repeat queries, and most of the time
an individual will click on the same result they clicked on before [14]. Therefore a search
engine should ideally present the previously-selected result close to the top of the SERP when
recognizing the user has entered the same query before.
Figure 4 below shows a screen shot of personalized search results via Google's SearchWiki
[15], an experiment in search personalization that Google rolled-out in late 2008. The user
was able to promote results higher in the list, remove poor results from the list, and add
comments to specific results. The comment and removal functions are no longer available
today, but Google does allow users to star results that they like, and these starred results
appear prominently when the user later searches for the same content.
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Figure 4 – Example of Google's SearchWiki.
As smartphones have become increasingly popular, search engines have started providing search
results based on the user's location A location-aware search engine recognizes that when a user
searches for restaurants on their mobile device, they are likely wanting to find restaurants in their
near vicinity.
• Metasearch engines
• Geographically limited scope
• Semantic
• Accountancy
• Business
• Computers
• Enterprise
• Fashion
• Food/Recipes
• Genealogy
• Mobile/Handheld
• Job
• Legal
• Medical
• News
• People
• Real estate / property
• Television
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• Video Games
1.3.2Downloading Files:
The term downloading is distinguished from the related concept of streaming, which
indicates the receiving of data that is used nearly immediately as it is received, while the
transmission is still in progress and which may not be stored long-term, whereas in a process
described using the term downloading, this would imply that the data is only usable when it
has been received in its entirety.
Increasingly, websites that offer streaming media or media displayed in-browser, such as
YouTube, and which place restrictions on the ability of users to save these materials to their
computers after they have been received, say that downloading is not permitted. In this
context, download implies specifically "receive and save" instead of simply "receive".
However, it is also important to note that downloading is not the same as "transferring" (i.e.,
sending/receiving data between two storage devices would be a transferral of data, but
receiving data from the Internet would be considered a download).
Downloading is the transmission of a file from one computer system to another, usually
smaller computer system. From the Internet user's point-of-view, to download a file is to
request it from another computer (or from a Web page on another computer) and to receive it.
When you download a file, you transfer it from the Internet to your computer. The most commonly
downloaded files are programs, updates, or other kinds of files such as game demos, music and
video files, or documents. Downloading can also mean copying information from any source to a
computer or other device, such as copying your favorite songs to a portable music player.
To copy data (usually an entire file) from a main source to a peripheral device. The term is
often used to describe the process of copying a file from an online service or bulletin board
service (BBS) to one's own computer. Downloading can also refer to copying a file from a
network file server to a computer on the network.
In addition, the term is used to describe the process of loading a font into a laser printer. The
font is first copied from a disk to the printer's local memory. A font that has been downloaded
like this is called a soft font to distinguish it from the hard fontsthat are permanently in the
printer's memory.The opposite of download is upload, which means to copy a file from your
own computer to another computer.
Purpose:
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Web browser is used to run the software application that allows retrieving, presenting and
traversing the information from one place to another.
- Web browser provides the resources using the WWW (World Wide Web) this can be
identified by URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).
- Web browser fetches the data like web page, image, video or other piece of content from the
server and displays it accordingly.
- Web browser uses hyperlinks to display the resources and allow the users to navigate their
browsers according to the resources.
- Web browser defines the application software that is designed for the user to access and
retrieve the documents using the Internet.
Web browsers communicated with web servers primarily using HTTP (hypertext transfer
protocol) to fetch web pages. HTTP allows web browsers to submit information to web servers
as well as fetch web pages from them. Pages are identified by means of a URL (uniform
resource locater), which is treated as an address, beginning with “http://” for HTTP access.
The file format for a web page is usually HTML (hyper-text markup language) and is identified
in the HTTP protocol. Most web browsers also support a variety of additional formats, such as
JPEG, PNG, and GIF image formats, and can be extended to support more through the use of
plugins. The combination of HTTP content type and URL protocol specification allows web
page designers to embed images, animations, video, sound, and streaming media into a web
page, or to make them accessible through the web page.
Popular Browsers
1)Firefox
Firefox is a very popular web browser. One of the great things about Firefox is that it is
supported on all different OSs. Firefox is also open source which makes its support group a
very large community of open source developers. Firefox is also known for its vast range of
plugins/add-ons that let the user customize in a variety of ways. Firefox is a product of the
Mozilla Foundation. The latest version of Firefox is Firefox 3.
Some of Firefox’s most prominant features include: tabbed browsing, a spell checker,
incremental find, live bookmarking, a download manager, and an integrated search system that
uses the user’s favorite search engine. Like mentioned before, one of the best things about
Firefox is its vast amount of plugins/add-ons. Some of the most popular include NoScript
(script blocker), FoxyTunes (controls music players), Adblock Plus (ad blocker), StumbleUpon
(website discovery), DownThemAll! (download functions), and Web Developer (web tools).
2)Internet Explorer
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Internet Explorer (IE - created by Microsoft) is a very prominant web browser for the Windows
OS. IE is the most popular web browser. It comes pre-installed on all Windows computers. The
latest version of IE is IE7 with IE8 in beta. IE was designed to view a broad range of web pages
and to provide certain features within the OS.
IE almost fully supports HTML 4.01, CSS Level 1, XML 1.0, and DOM Level 1. It has
introduced a number of proprietary extensions to many of the standards. This has resulted in a
number of web pages that can only be viewed properly using IE. It has been subject to many
security vulnerabilities just like Windows has. Much of the spyware, adware, and viruses across
the Internet are made possible by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of IE.
These are were drive-by downloads come into play (see computer security lesson for more
details on that).
3)Others
Safari (created by Apple) is a very popular web browser among Apple computers. Safari is also
the native browser on the iPhone and iPod touch. Safari is available for Windows, but has not
reached a very high level of Windows users since. In May 2008 Safari controlled 6.25% of
marketshare among all web browsers.
Opera (created by the Opera Software company) is another fairly popular web browser. It
handles common Internet-related tasks. Opera also includes features such as tabbed browsing,
page zooming, mouse gestures, and an integrated download manager. Its security features
include phishing and malware protection, strong encryption when browsing secure web sites,
and the ability to easily delete private data such as cookies and browsing history. Opera runs on
Windows, OS X, and Linux.
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• Bookmarking options
• Refresh and stop buttons for refreshing or stopping the loading of current documents
• Home button that takes you to your home page
Strangely enough, the browser's user interface is not specified in any formal specification, it
just comes from good practices shaped over years of experience and by browsers imitating
each other. The HTML5 specification doesn't define UI elements a browser must have, but
lists some common elements. Among those are the address bar, status bar and tool bar. There
are, of course, features unique to a specific browser like Firefox's downloads manager.
1. The user interface: this includes the address bar, back/forward button, bookmarking
menu, etc. Every part of the browser display except the window where you see the requested
page.
2. The browser engine: marshals actions between the UI and the rendering engine.
3. The rendering engine : responsible for displaying requested content. For example if
the requested content is HTML, the rendering engine parses HTML and CSS, and displays
the parsed content on the screen.
4. Networking: for network calls such as HTTP requests, using different
implementations for different platform behind a platform-independent interface.
5. UI backend: used for drawing basic widgets like combo boxes and windows. This
backend exposes a generic interface that is not platform specific. Underneath it uses operating
system user interface methods.
6. JavaScript interpreter. Used to parse and execute JavaScript code.
7. Data storage. This is a persistence layer. The browser may need to save all sorts of
data locally, such as cookies. Browsers also support storage mechanisms such as
localStorage, IndexedDB, WebSQL and FileSystem.
E-mail can be distributed to lists of people as well as to individuals. A shared distribution list
can be managed by using an e-mail reflector. Some mailing lists allow you to subscribe by
sending a request to the mailing list administrator. A mailing list that is administered
automatically is called a list server.
E-mail is one of the protocols included with the Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) suite of protocols. A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple Mail Transfer
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Protocol and a popular protocol for receiving it is POP3. Both Netscape and Microsoft
include an e-mail utility with their Web browsers.
write in address bar www.gmail.com and you will get below image
Now click on "CREATE AN ACCOUNT", as shown in below (check the red arrow) .
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After clicking on "CREATE AN ACCOUNT " button you will get a window as shown in
below image
Fill all the details, here the user name is the desired user ID which you want to create.
after felling all the details click on "Next step" Button (check the red arrow)
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after next step it will ask for Phone number for verification, enter cell phone number and
click on next
now click on "next step " button and you will get you inbox .
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Congs you have created your new gmail ID.
Enjoy your new Gmail account. You're finished! Click on "Continue to Gmail" to access your
inbox, read your emails, and write new ones.
The email is actually used to transfer messages between one to another. It is also used for :-
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2. Electronic Data Interchange
Computer-to-computer
1. EDI replaces postal mail, fax and email. While email is also an electronic approach, the
documents exchanged via email must still be handled by people rather than computers.
2. Having people involved slows down the processing of the documents and also introduces
errors. Instead, EDI documents can flow straight through to the appropriate application on the
receiver’s computer (e.g., the Order Management System) and processing can begin
immediately.
.A typical manual process looks like this, with lots of paper and people
involvement :
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The EDI process looks like this — no paper, no people involved:
For example, within many documents, such as the purchase order and invoice, you will find
data elements such as city, state, country, item number, quantity and price.
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Each data element in a transaction set is defined in the EDI Standard by the type of data it
represents. For example, it would be important to distinguish numeric data from text data or
calendar dates.
The data element definition will describe:
-Data type of numeric, alphanumeric, date or time
-Minimum and maximum length
-Code values, if applicable, that must be observed with a particular type of data. For example,
if the data element is unit cost, you would use a currency code element as well to allow you to
indicate what currency (e.g., US dollars or euros) is being used in the unit cost field.Elements
are combined into segment.
2. EDI Data Segment: A segment in an EDI transaction set is a group of like data elements.
If you were filling out information on a purchase order, you would expect to see groups of
related data.
For example, look at the diagram below of a paper purchase order in which only one item is
being ordered. Note that there are four sections, each providing a different set of information:
In an EDI document, each section is described by a particular segment. Below is the set of
EDI segments that would describe the purchase order above when using the ANSI standard.
Each segment begins with a segment ID (e.g., ST, BEG, N1) that describes the type of data
elements that follows. The elements within each segment are separated by a data element
separator, in this case the ‘*’.
ST, to indicate start of a transaction
set – in this case the 850 purchase
ST*850*1001 order
BEG, to indicate the beginning of
BEG*00*SA*4768*65*20120930 the PO, specifically
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PO1*1*100*EA*27.65**VN*331896-
42 PO1, to provide line item detail
CTT, to provide summary data for
CTT*1*100 the PO
For each type of business document, the EDI standard documentation defines:
-The segments that may be included and which ones are mandatory, optional and/or
conditional (i.e. must be included only if another segment or element is included)
-For each segment, the elements that may be included – for every piece of information in a
paper document there is a corresponding EDI element. These elements are defined in the
standards dictionary and each standard has its own dictionary
-The required sequence of the segments and elements
-How many times a segment may be repeated.Now, once all the segments are collected into a
prescribed sequence, they form a complete electronic document, or transaction set. Next, the
transaction sets must be put into envelopes in preparation for transmission to your partners.
3. EDI Envelope:EDI document transmission uses a system of three “envelopes” to house
your transaction sets – Message envelope, Group envelope and Interchange envelope.
Just as paper business documents are sent in envelopes and it’s possible to mail many
documents in a single envelope, EDI documents are exchanged using several envelopes.
Each transaction set is placed in its individual envelope
A group of transaction sets – e.g., a group of purchase orders – is placed in a group envelope.
(The group envelope is mandatory in ANSI and optional in EDIFACT.)
All group envelopes being sent from one sender to one receiver are placed in an Interchange
envelope
See the diagram
below:
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An envelope is formed by a pair of segments that define the beginning and end of the
appropriate section. Using the EDIFACT standard as the example, the Transaction Set
Envelope uses the UNH and UNT segments, the Group Envelope uses the UNG and UNE
segments and the Interchange Envelope uses the UNA/UNB and UNZ segments. In each case,
the “S” indicates the “start” of the envelope and the “E” indicates the “end” of the envelope.
The diagram below illustrates the three levels of envelopes that would surround a single EDI
purchase order.
Standard format– Because EDI documents must be processed by computers rather than
humans, a standard format must be used so that the computer will be able to read and
understand the documents.
A standard format describes what each piece of information is and in what format (e.g.,
integer, decimal, mmddyy). Without a standard format, each company would send documents
using its company-specific format and, much as an English-speaking person probably doesn’t
understand Japanese, the receiver’s computer system doesn’t understand the company-
specific format of the sender’s format.
There are several EDI standards in use today, including ANSI, EDIFACT,
TRADACOMS and ebXML. And, for each standard there are many different
versions, e.g., ANSI 5010 or EDIFACT version D12, Release A. When two
businesses decide to exchange EDI documents, they must agree on the specific EDI
standard and version.
Businesses typically use an EDI translator – either as in-house software or via an EDI
service provider – to translate the EDI format so the data can be used by their internal
applications and thus enable straight through processing of documents.
Business partners – The exchange of EDI documents is typically between two different
companies, referred to as business partners or trading partners. For example, Company A
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may buy goods from Company B. Company A sends orders to Company B. Company A
and Company B are business partners.
1)Semantic Layer :
The semantic layer describes the business application that is driving EDI. Examples of these data are
quotes, price quotes, purchase orders, acknowledgments, and invoices. At the sender’s site, this layer
consists of the business application to convert the business proprietary information into EDI standard
format which is agreed upon by all business partners involved. This standard formatted data is then
sent to the trading partner. At the receiver’s site, the EDI translator translates the EDI file into the
receiver’s local format. The EDI translator on the receiver’s site sits in this semantic layer.
2)EDI Standards :
The EDI standards follow the X12 and EDIFACT standards to specify business form structure and to
some extent influence content seen at the application layer.
For example, an address field on the purchase order might hold maximum of 20 characters in an X12
standard. An application using 50-character address field length will produce string truncation during
the translation from the application layer to the standard layer.
3)EDI Transport Layer :This layer involves the network mechanism to transport data between two
parties. When EDI was first introduced, direct communication between two parties was used which
means that both parties must communicate through the same transport protocol such as SMTP
(Simple Mail Transport Protocol). However, as e-commerce becomes more popular and EDI being
more widely used, a third-party service provider was introduced to eliminate problems with
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maintaining many different transport protocols for communicating with different trading partners.
This third-party service provider is commonly known as VAN (Value Added Network). VAN acts as
a postal system for EDI. These third-party service providers furnish clients with electronic mailboxes,
storage and forwarding services, tracking capabilities, and translation services. VANs are an integral
part of the EDI picture and without them, a large scale EDI program is virtually impossible. When
using a VAN, there is no need to worry about different communication protocols between partners, a
partner’s system downtime, or system security risks. VANs provide 24-hour access to the merchant
and all the business partners’ mailboxes and can ensure data integrity. Also, VAN interconnects allow
different VANs to pass information back and forth .
4)EDI Document Transport :This document transport layer is far more complicated than simply
sending email messages between two parties. EDI documents are structured and contain header
information that is used during transport and authentication process.
2.2.1Benefits of EDI
• Better, faster exchange of business information
• Reduced administrative costs
• Fewer errors
• Improved customer service
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Business Activities and EDI
In the most general sense, the marketplace for financial EDI consists of two distinct segments.
o Originators - companies or government agencies who electronically initiate payments and the
associated remittance information to their suppliers using the standard EDI format.
o Receivers - companies and government agencies who electronically receive payments and the
related remittance information using the standard EDI format.
In financial EDI, a bank acts as the financial intermediary between originators and receivers for both
the actual payment and the associated payment data.
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How Does Financial EDI Work?
o The buyer, or originator, electronically extracts payment information from the company's accounts
payable system,
o Formats the data into an EDI standard (ANSI 820 transaction set),
o Transmits an ANSI 820 file to the company's bank,
o The bank then takes the 820 data and puts it into the format necessary for it to be carried through the
Automated Clearinghouse Network as an ACH transaction,
o The ACH network then delivers the payment and data to the seller's bank. The bank credits the
seller and,
o Electronically transmits the payment-related information in the 820 format to the seller's accounts
receivable system where the payment is then posted automatically.
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7) Benefits of Financial EDI for Banks
For banks in the cash management industry, offering financial EDI services is one way to
defend the revenue generated by current check business, whether it is in disbursements or
collections, since over time, a great many of these payments will be converted to electronic
EDI transactions. However, because of the investment required, not every cash management
bank will be an EDI player This is why financial EDI is a rapidly growing way of doing
business.
5) AS1: The AS1 protocol is based on SMTP and S/MIME. It was the first AS protocol
developed and uses signing, encryption andMDN conventions. In other words:
• Messages may request an MDN back if all went well, but do not have to request such a
message
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• If there are any problems receiving or interpreting the original AS1 message, a
"failed" MDN may be sent back.
Like any other AS file transfer, AS1 file transfers typically require both sides of the exchange
to trade SSL certificates and specific "trading partner" names before any transfers can take
place.
6) AS2:
If there are any problems receiving or interpreting the original AS2 message, a "failed"
MDN may be sent back. However, part of the AS2 protocol states that the client must
treat a lack of an MDN as a failure as well, so some AS2 receivers will simply not return
an MDN in this case.
Like any other AS file transfer, AS2 file transfers typically require both sides of the
exchange to trade SSL certificates and specific "trading partner" names before any
transfers can take place. AS2 trading partner names can usually be any valid phrase.
7) CLEO devices: Cisco router in Low Earth Orbit, is an Internet router from Cisco
Systems that was integrated into the UK-DMCDisaster Monitoring Constellation satellite
built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL) as a secondary experimentalhosted payload,
and launched into space with the satellite from Plesetsk on 27 September 2003
8) value-added networks
9) Internet protocols such as FTP, telnet, and e-mail
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3. Electronic Payment System
EPSs enable a customer to pay for the goods and services online by using integrated hardware and
software systems. The main objectives of EPS are to increase efficiency, improve security, and
enhance customer convenience and ease of use. Although these systems are in their immaturity, some
significant
development has been made. There are several methods and tools that can be used to enable EPS
implementation (Figure 3.2)
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Figure3.2 Electronic payment scheme
While customers pay for goods/services by cash, check, or credit cards in conventional businesses,
online buyers may use one of the following EPSs to pay for products/services purchased online:
• Electronic funds transfer (EFT): EFT involves electronic transfer of money by financial institutions.
• Payment cards : They contain stored financial value that can be transferred from the customer's
computer to the businessman's computer.
• Credit cards : They are the most popular method used in EPSs and are used by charging against the
customer credit.
• Smart cards: They include stored financial value and other important personal and financial
information used for online payments.
• Electronic money (e-money/e-cash): This is standard money converted into an electronic format to
pay for online purchases.
• Online payment: This can be used for monthly payment for Internet, phone bills, etc.
• Electronic wallets (e-wallets) : They are similar to smart cards as they include stored financial value
for
online payments.
• Micro-payment systems : They are similar to e-wallets in that they include stored financial value for
online payments; on the other hand, they are used for small payments, such as kurus in Turkey .
• Electronic gifts : They are one way of sending electronic currency or gift certificates from one
individual to another. The receiver can spend these gifts in their favorite online stores provided they
accept this type of currency.
Although these groups appear to be separate, there is some overlap among them. When the industry
matures, this duplication in naming and function ought to be renamed. For example, e-wallets can be
classified as payment cards when they are used to store credit card information or as e-money when
they store electronic currency. The standardization of payment mechanisms on the Internet is essential
to the success of e-commerce. Businesses offering domestic and international services must have
assurance that payment will be received, that it is secure and that it is valid. Addressing security issues
is crucial to the acceptance of online payment standards: consumers and merchants must be able to
trust that their information is kept intact and remains secure during transmission. SET and SSL are
two standards that protect the integrity of online transactions.
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3.2 Introduction to Electronic Fund Transfer(EFT)
Electronic funds transfer is one of the oldest electronic payment systems. EFT isthe
groundwork of the cash-less and check-less culture where and paper bills, checks,
envelopes, stamps are eliminated. EFT is used for transferring money from one bank
account directly to another without any paper money changing hands. The most popular
application of EFT is that instead of getting a paycheck and putting it into a bank account,
the money is deposited to an account electronically.EFT is considered to be a safe, reliable,
and convenient way to conduct business.
The advantages of EFT contain the following:
• Simplified accounting
• Improved efficiency
• Reduced administrative costs
• Improved security
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7) SET allows for the merchant's identity to be authenticated via digital
certificates.However, SET also allows for the merchant to request users to
authenticate themselvesthrough digital certificates. This makes it much more
difficult for someone to use a stolen credit card.
Point 1 ensures that card information cannot be viewed by unauthorized parties. Point
2 ensures that the information cannot be changed or tampered. Points 3 and 4 ensure
that the cardholder and merchant are really who they claim they are. Hence, in
essence, this framework, if implemented effectively, will allow both buyers and sellers
to transact in total confidence in an open network.
3.5.1Digital Certificates:
1. Digital Certificate is a data with digital signature from one trusted Certification Authority
(CA).This data contains:
– Who owns this certificate
– Who signed this certificate
– The expired date
– User name & email address
2. A digital certificate is a special kind of machine-readable document issued by a trusted
Certificate Authority (CA) to an individual or organization which is unique to them. It is
kept secret and access to it is usually protected by a password. There is a public part of
the certificate which is included with your digital signature (see below). In order for
someone to send you something encrypted so that only you can read it they require their
own digital certificate and the public part of your certificate.
3. A digital certificate can exist in several different formats. One of the most popular
certificate standards is X.509 developed by the ITU Telecommunication
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Standardization Sector (ITU-T). It specifies standard formats for public key
certificates and algorithm for certification path validation. There is some variation
in the items contained in a digital certificate but, typically, it will contain the
following:
• public key of the certificate owner
• public key algorithm used
• name of the person or organization to whom the certificate was issued
• date that the public key expires
• name of the issuing certificate authority
• serial number assigned to the digital certificate
• URL of the relevant certificate revocation list
• certificate signature algorithm
• digital signature of the issuing certificate authority
Depending on who is doing the definition, you may find certificates broken down
into a differing number of classes. The class roughly corresponds to the level of
trust assigned to the certificate. The most commonly recognized classes include
the following:
• Class 1 — Certificates assigned to individuals and intended for use with e-mail.
• Class 2 — Certificates assigned to identify organizations.
• Class 3— Certificates issued to identify servers and for software signing.
Web of trust
In the context above, trust refers to how much you trust that the certificate belongs to who it says it
does, not to how trustworthy the person it refers to might be. This is true whether you are talking
about a web of trust or a hierarchical certificate authority (CA). A web of trust is composed of a web
of people certifying that the others are who they say they are. While it is possible to
setup a PKI employing only a web of trust, as is done with OpenPGP, combining the concept of a web
of trust with a hierarchical certificate authority combines many of the best features of each. A local
web of trust can be used to confirm identity to the hierarchical CA, allowing it to provide
identification assurance to others who are not members of the initiating web of trust.
Many of the commercial certificate authorities will provide free certificates, at least for e-mail
encryption use. However, most of these 'free' certificates are short trial certificates, good for 30 to 60
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days at most. However, there are a few certificate authorities which do issue more than basic trial
certificates. One of these is Thawte, operating globally out of South Africa. A second is the Comodo
Group, operating out of New Jersey. Another organization that issues free certificates is CAcert. This
is a non-profit community-driven CA incorporated in New South Wales, Australia. Start Commercial
(StartCom), based in Eilat, Israel, is in the process of setting up a somewhat similar web-of-trust-
based certificate system. A careful search of the Web will turn up others as well.
Thawte
In addition to their various paid certificates, Thawte offers free personal certificates which can be
used for encrypting e-mail and digitally signing messages. The base certificate simply incorporates
your e-mail address. By participating in their web of trust, you can include additional information,
such as your name. To do this, you must accumulate 50 trust points from Thawte notaries. If you don't
happen to live near any Thawte notaries, there is a trusted third party (TTP) program, but it is
associated with a $25 processing fee.
COMODO
The default COMODO Secure E-mail Certificate, unlike most others, does include your name. Instead
of having you create a revocation certificate, they have you create a revocation password, allowing
you to revoke a certificate by logging into their Web site. The COMODO Web site indicates that you
must apply for and collect the certificate using Microsoft Internet Explorer. However, I didn't seem to
have any problems using Firefox to do this. Unlike some certificates, it is restricted to private use
only. Note that, unlike the other CAs, there is no validation process to ensure that the name submitted
with the application is actually yours. This lack of verification is a good reminder to look at even
digital security certificates with a bit of skepticism.
CAcert
CAcert contrasts with most other certificate authorities in that it is not associated with a commercial
entity, being staffed entirely by volunteers and incorporating open source tools. Their default
certificate also includes only your e-mail address. As with Thawte, you can add your full name to
your certificate by accumulating 50 Assurance Points from a CAcert Assurer. You can also have your
name added to your certificate by participating in CAcert's free TTP program. To be assured in their
TTP system, you simply need to provide two forms of photo identification to an assurer, who
completes a simple form, signs their name over copies of the photo identification, and has you mail it
all back to CAcert. A TTP assurer can be a bank manager, an accountant, a lawyer, a justice of the
peace or a notary public. In essence, it is someone officially responsible for witnessing signatures and
ID documents. CAcert is also different in that they also issue free certificates for code signing, servers
and assured servers.
AIM
AIM Encrypt takes a somewhat different tact in that they provide free SSL Certificates for both free
and commercial use of AOL Instant Messenger (AIM). Note that these will not currently work with
the AIM Triton program, as it does not support encrypted conversations. Once installed, you screen
name will show up on other clients with a padlock to indicate that encrypted conversations are
supported.
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3.5.2Digital Signatures:
Digital signature can be used in all electronic communications -Web, e-mail, e-commerce.It is an
electronic stamp or seal that append to the document.Ensure the document being unchanged during
transmission.
Bob has been given two keys. One of Bob's keys is called a Public Key, the other is
called a Private Key.
Bob's Public key is available to anyone who needs it, but he keeps his Private Key to himself. Keys
are used to encrypt information. Encrypting information means "scrambling it up", so that only a
person with the appropriate key can make it readable again. Either one of Bob's two keys can encrypt
data, and the other key can decrypt that data.
Susan (shown below) can encrypt a message using Bob's Public Key. Bob uses his Private Key to
decrypt the message. Any of Bob's coworkers might have access to the message Susan encrypted, but
without Bob's Private Key, the data is worthless.
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With his private key and the right software, Bob can put digital signatures on documents and
other data. A digital signature is a "stamp" Bob places on the data which is unique to Bob, and
is very difficult to forge. In addition, the signature assures that any changes made to the data
that has been signed can not go undetected.
To sign a document, Bob's software will crunch down the data into just a few lines by a
process called "hashing". These few lines are called a message digest. (It is not possible to
change a message digest back into the original data from which it was created.)
Bob's software then encrypts the message digest with his private key. The result is the digital
signature.
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Finally, Bob's software appends the digital signature to document. All of the data that was
hashed has been signed.
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Now Bob's co-workers can check Bob's trusted certificate to make sure that his public key
truly belongs to him. In fact, no one at Bob's company accepts a signature for which there does
not exist a certificate generated by Susan. This gives Susan the power to revoke signatures if
private keys are compromised, or no longer needed. There are even more widely accepted
certificate authorities that certify Susan.
Let's say that Bob sends a signed document to Pat. To verify the signature on the document,
Pat's software first uses Susan's (the certificate authority's) public key to check the signature on
Bob's certificate. Successful de-encryption of the certificate proves that Susan created it. After
the certificate is de-encrypted, Pat's software can check if Bob is in good standing with the
certificate authority and that all of the certificate information concerning Bob's identity has not
been altered.
Pat's software then takes Bob's public key from the certificate and uses it to check Bob's
signature. If Bob's public key de-encrypts the signature successfully, then Pat is assured that
the signature was created using Bob's private key, for Susan has certified the matching public
key. And of course, if the signature is valid, then we know that Doug didn't try to change the
signed content.
3.5.3Stages of SET
Process Steps
1). Merchant sends invoice and unique transaction ID (XID)
2). Merchant sends merchant certificate and bank certificate (encrypted with CA’s private
key) 3). Customer decrypts certificates, obtains public keys
4). Customer generates order information (OI) and payment info (PI) encrypted with
different session keys and dual-signed
5). Merchant sends payment request to bank encrypted with bank- merchant session key, PI,
digest of OI and merchant’s certificate
6). Bank verifies that the XID matches the one in the PI
7). Bank sends authorization request to issuing bank via card network 8). Bank sends
approval to merchant
9). Merchant sends acknowledgement to customer
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3.5.4Types of payment System
1) Digital cash:
Similar to regular cash, e-cash enables transactions between customers without
theneed for banks or other third parties. When used, e-cash is transferred directly
andimmediately to the participating merchants and vending machines. Electronic
cashis a secure and convenient alternative to bills and coins. This payment
systemcomplements credit, debit, and charge cards and adds additional convenience
andcontrol to everyday customer cash transactions. E-cash usually operates on a
smartcard, which includes an embedded microprocessor chip. The microprocessor
chipstores cash value and the security features that make electronic
transactionssecure. Mondex, a subsidiary of MasterCard (Mondex Canada
Association) is a goodexample of e-cash
How a typical e-cash system works: A customer or merchant signs up with one of
the participating banks or financial institutions. The customer receives
specificsoftware to install on his or her computer. The software allows the customer
todownload “electronic coins” to his or her desktop. The software manages
theelectronic coins. The initial purchase of coins is charged against the customer's
bank account or against a credit card. When buying goods or services from a web site
that
accepts e-cash, the customer simply clicks the “Pay with e-cash” button.
Themerchant's software generates a payment request, describing the
item(s)purchased, price, and the time and date. The customer can then accept or
rejectthis request. When the customer accepts the payment request, the
softwareresiding on the customer's desktop subtracts the payment amount from the
balanceand creates a payment that is sent to the bank or the financial institution of
themerchant, and then is deposited to the merchant's account. The attractive featureof
the entire process is its turnaround time which is a few seconds. The merchant
isnotified and in turn ships the goods.
2) Electronic cheque:
E-check is the result of cooperation among several banks,government entities,
technology companies, and e-commerce organizations. An e-check uses the same
legal and business protocols associated with traditional paper checks. It is a new
payment instrument that combines high-security, speed, convenience, and processing
efficiencies for online transactions. It shares the speed and processing efficiencies of
all-electronic payments. An e-check can be used by large and small organizations,
even where other electronic payment solutions are too risky or not appropriate. The
key advantages of e-checks are as follows:
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• Fast check processing
3) Smartcard:
A smart card is about the size of a credit card, madeof a plastic with an embedded
microprocessor chip
that holds important financial and personal information. The microprocessor chip is
loaded with the relevant information and periodically recharged. In addition to these
pieces of information, systems
have been developed to store cash onto the chip. The money on the card is saved in
an encrypted form and is protected by a password to ensure the security of the smart
card solution. In order to pay via smart card it is necessary to introduce the card into a
hardware terminal. The device requires a special key from the issuing bank to start a
money transfer in either direction. Smart cards can be disposable or rechargeable. A
popular example of a disposable smart card is the one issued by telephone companies.
After using the pre-specified amount, the card can be discarded. Smart cards have
been extensively used in the telecommunications industry for years. Smart-card
technology can be used to hold information on health care, transportation,
identification, retail, loyalty programs and banking, to name a few. Smart cards
enable information for different purposes to be stored in one location. The
microprocessor chip can process different types of information, and therefore, various
industries use them in different ways. Due to their multipurpose functions, their
popularity in Turkey is also on the rise.
Smart cards are broadly classified into two groups:
Contact: This type of smart card must be inserted into a special card reader to be
read and updated. A contact smart card contains a microprocessor chip that makes
contact with electrical connectors to transfer the data.
Contact-less: This type of smart card can be read from a short distance using radio
frequency. A contact-less smart card also contains a microprocessor chip and an
antenna that allows data to be transmitted to a special card reader without any
physical contact. This type of smart card is useful for people who are moving in
vehicles or on foot. They are used extensively in European countries for collecting
payment for highway tolls, train fares, parking, bus fares, and admission fees to
movies, theaters, plays, and so forth.
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Some of the advantages of smart cards include the following:
• Portable
The disadvantages of smart cards :the lack of universal standards for their
design and utilization. On the other hand, smart card applications are expected to
increase as a result of the resolution of these disadvantages in the near future.
4) Credit/debit card: Credit cards, debit cards, charge cards, smart cards are
payment cards. They arethe most popular tool for electronic payment transactions.
Credit Cards:
a) Credit cards issued by credit card companies (e.g., MasterCard, Visa)
andmajor banks (e.g. Is Bankasi, ZiraatBankasi, YapiKredi, etc.)
Credit cards are issued based on the customer's income level, credit history,
andtotal wealth. The customer uses these cards to buy goods and services or get
cash from the participating financial institutions. The customer is supposed to pay
his or her debts during the payment period; otherwise interest will accumulate.
Two limitations of credit cards are their unsuitability for very small or very large
payments. It is not cost-justified to use a credit card for small payments. Also,
due to security issues, these cards have a limit and cannot be used for excessively
large transactions.
Dedit Cards:
The difference between credit cards and debit cards is that in order to pay with adebit
card you need to know your personal identification number (PIN) and need a
hardware device that is able to read the information that is stored in the magnetic strip
on the back .Debit cards task similar to checks in that the charges will be taken from
the customer's checking account. The benefit for the customer is the easiness of use
and convenience. These cards also keep the customer under his or her budget
because they do not allow the customer to go beyond his or her resources. The
advantage to the merchant is the speed at which the merchant collects these charges.
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4 Introduction to HTML:
• HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language, it is the widely used language to
write Web Pages.
• Hypertext refers to the way in which Web pages (HTML documents) are linked
together. Thus the link available on a webpage are called Hypertext.
• HTML is a Markup Language which means you use HTML to simply "mark up" a
text document with tags that tell a Web browser how to structure it to display.
• HTML was developed with the intent of defining the structure of documents like
headings, paragraphs, lists, etc.
• HTML is being widely used to format web pages with the help of different tags
available in HTML.
<!DOCTYPE>
<html>
<head>
<Title>TITLE OF WEB PAGE</Title>
SCRIPT AND STYLE TAGS HERE…
</head>
<body>
DOCUMENT BODY RELATED TAGS..
</body>
</html>
I. <!DOCTYPE html>
The < !DOCTYPE> declaration tag is used by the web browser to understand
the version of the HTML used in the document.
II. <html>
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This tag encloses the complete HTML document and mainly comprises of document
header which is represented by <head>...</head> and document body which is
represented by <body>...</body> tags.
III. <head>
This tag represents the document's header which can keep other HTML tags like
<title>, <link>, <script> etc.
IV. <title>
The <title> tag is used inside the <head> tag to mention the document title.
V. <body>
This tag represents the document's body which keeps other HTML tags like <h1>,
<div>, <p> etc.
Ex.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>HTML demo</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
This is First HTML Program
</BODY>
<HTML>
Container tag :
A container tag has a beginning (opening) tag and an ending (closing) tag. Eg. <p></p>
Stand Alone Tags:
An empty tag has only the opening tag. All of the data represented by an empty tag is
contained in the tags attributes.
Eg. <Br/>
I. <LINK ...>
This tag is a stand-alone tag that can be used to denote relationships between documents.This
is used to manage several documents in large website. The attributes for this tag are href,
name, rel, title, etc.
The <LINK> tag also has a role in providing style sheet information in HTML documents. If
style information is in a separate
The META tag is used within the HEAD tag to embed Meta information. Such information
can be extracted by servers/clients for use in identifying, indexing and cataloguing
documents. The attributes for this tag are HTTP-EQUIV,name, content,etc.
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Http-equiv: Provides an HTTP header for the information/value of the content attribute
This attribute can have values content-type, default-style, refresh.
NAME
Meta-information name. It can have values application-name, author, description, generator,
keywords.
CONTENT
The meta-information content to be associated with the given name and/or HTTP response
header. Typically, the META tag would be used to introduce Client Pull into HTML
documents, or to specify keywords that may be used by search engines to determine a
documents relevance to the current search (although some are stopping using this method).
Ex.
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="description" content="Free Web tutorials">
<meta name="keywords" content="HTML,CSS,XML,JavaScript">
<meta name="author" content="Hege Refsnes">
</head>
III. <HR>
A <HR> or Horizontal Rule element is a divider between sections of text such as a full width
horizontal rule or equivalent graphic. Attributes which allow the document author to describe
how the horizontal rule should look are;
< HR SIZE=number>
The SIZE attributes lets the author give an indication of how thick they wish the horizontal
rule to be. A pixel value should be given.
< HR WIDTH=number|percent>
The default horizontal rule is always as wide as the page. With the WIDTH attribute, the
author can specify an exact width in pixels, or a relative width measured in percent of
document width.
< HR ALIGN=left|right|center>
Now that horizontal rules do not have to be the width of the page it possible to specify the
horizontal alignment of the rule.
< HR NOSHADE>
For those times when a solid bar is required, the NOSHADE attribute specifies that the
horizontal rule should not be shaded at all.
Example:
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CSS defines how to display HTML elements.
This tag adds images into the web browser. Attributes of <img> tag are align, src, alt, height,
width etc.This is also a stand alone tag as t doesn’t have closing tag.
V. <INPUT>
The Input element represents a field whose contents may be edited by the user.
VI. <BR>
The Line Break element specifies that a new line must be started at the given point. A new
line indents the same as that of line-wrapped text.
Example :
< P>
Line 1 of text<BR>
Line 2 of text<BR>
Formatting tags:
a. Bold Text(<b>…</b>)
Anything that appears within <b>...</b> element, is displayed in bold as shown below
Ex.
<html>
<head>
<title>Bold Text Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>The following word uses a <b>bold</b> typeface.</p>
</body>
</html>
The result is :
The following word uses a bold typeface.
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b. Italic Text(<i>…</i>)
Anything that appears within <i>...</i> element is displayed in italicized as shown below:
The result is :
The following word uses a Italicized typeface.
Anything that appears within <u>...</u> element is displayed in underined as shown below:
The result is :
The following word uses a Underlined typeface.
d. Strike Text(<strike> tag):
Result is:
The following word uses a strikethrough typeface.
The content of a <sup>...</sup> element is written in superscript; the font size used is the
same size as the characters surrounding it but is displayed half a character's height above the
other characters.
Result is:
The following word uses a superscript typeface.
The content of a <sub>...</sub> element is written in subscript; the font size used is the same
as the characters surrounding it, but is displayed half a character's height beneath the other
characters
Result is:
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The following word uses a subscript typeface.
Result is:
I want to drink cola wine
Result is:
I want to drink cola wine
The content of the <big>...</big> element is displayed one font size larger than the rest of the
text surrounding it as shown below:
The content of the <small>...</small> element is displayed one font size smaller than the rest
of the text surrounding it as shown below:
The <div> and <span> elements allow you to group together several elements to create
sections or subsections of a page.
For example, you might want to put all of the footnotes on a page within a <div> element to
indicate that all of the elements within that <div> element relate to the footnotes. You can
then attach a style to this <div> element so that they appear using a special set of style rules.
Ex.
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Div Tag Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<div id="menu" align="middle" >
<a href="/index.htm">HOME</a> |
<a href="/about/contact_us.htm">CONTACT</a> |
<a href="/about/index.htm">ABOUT</a>
</div>
Result is:
HOME | CONTACT | ABOUT
Content Articles
The <span> element, on the other hand, can be used to group inline elements only. So, if you
have a part of a sentence or paragraph which you want to group together, you could use the
<span> element as follows
Ex. <p>This is the example of <span style="color:green">span tag</span> and the <span
style="color:red">div tag</span> alongwith CSS</p>
Result is:
This is the example of span tag and the div tag alongwith CSS
Other HTML Tags
l. <center> tag:
The content enclosed within <center>..</center> will appear to be centered.
Ex.
<center> This is my first application</center>
Result
This is my first application
OTHER TAGS:
a. Heading Tags
Any document starts with a heading. You can use different sizes for your
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headings. HTML also have six levels of headings, which use the elements
<h1>, <h2>, <h3>, <h4>, <h5>, and <h6>. While displaying any heading,
browser adds one line before and one line after that heading.
Example
<html>
<head>
<title>Heading Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is heading 1</h1>
<h2>This is heading 2</h2>
<h3>This is heading 3</h3>
<h4>This is heading 4</h4>
<h5>This is heading 5</h5>
<h6>This is heading 6</h6>
</body>
</html>
Result:
Attribute Description
Specifies the color of text. It can be color= rgb(x,x,x) or #xxxxxx
color
or colorname
face Specifies the font of text
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c. List tags:
HTML offers web authors three ways for specifying lists of information. All lists must
contain one or more list elements. Lists may contain:
• <ul> - An unordered list. This will list items using plain bullets.
• <ol> - An ordered list i.e a numbered list
An unordered list is a collection of related items that have no special order or sequence. This
list is created by using HTML <ul> tag. Each item in the list is marked with a bullet.
<ul> have type attribute to display different bullets shapes. It can have values as disc, square,
circle. Default is disc.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Unordered List</title>
</head>
<body>
<ul type="square">
<li>Beetroot</li>
<li>Ginger</li>
<li>Potato</li>
<li>Radish</li>
</ul>
</body>
</html>
Beetroot
Ginger
Potato
Radish
o Beetroot
o Ginger
o Potato
o Radish
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HTML Ordered Lists
It will display numbered list instead of bullets. This list is created by using <ol> tag. The
numbering starts at one and is incremented by one for each successive ordered list element
tagged with <li>.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Ordered List</title>
</head>
<body>
<ol>
<li>Beetroot</li>
<li>Ginger</li>
<li>Potato</li>
<li>Radish</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
1. Beetroot
2. Ginger
3. Potato
4. Radish
You can use type attribute for <ol> tag to specify the type of numbering you like. By default
it is a number. Following are the possible options:
<ol type="I">
<li>Beetroot</li>
<li>Ginger</li>
<li>Potato</li>
<li>Radish</li>
</ol>
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I. Beetroot
II. Ginger
III. Potato
IV. Radish
You can use start attribute for <ol> tag to specify the starting point of numbering you need.
Following are the possible options:
Ex.
iv. Beetroot
v. Ginger
vi. Potato
vii. Radish
I. <IMG ...>
This tag adds images into the web browser. Attributes of <img> tag are;
Attributes Description
Align: This attribute specifies the alignment of an image according to surrounding
elements. Values of align can be : top, bottom, middle, left, right.
Alt: It is a optional text as an alternative to the image on the browser. Alternate text
appears when the image doesn’t load on the web page.
e.g. : <IMG SRC="somepicture.gif" ALT="This is some picture">
Ismap The ismap attribute identifies an image as an image map. This is used for
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server-side maps. Image maps are graphics in which certain regions are mapped
to URLs. By clicking on different regions, different resources can be accessed
from the same image.
Creating Hyperlinks:
Using an anchor tag one document can be linked to the other documents. Anchor elements
are defined by the <A> element. The <A> element accepts several attributes but HREF is
required.
Attributes of the <A> element :
Attributes Description
HREF If the HREF attribute is present, the text between the opening and closing
anchor elements becomes hypertext.
With the HREF attribute, the form HREF="#identifier" can refer to another
anchor in the same document. Ex. .<a href=”new.html#info”>click me</a>
NAME If present, the NAME attribute allows the anchor to be the target of a link. It is
similar to a bookmark. The value of the NAME attribute is an identifier for the
anchor. Which must be unique within the HTML document.
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Example : <A NAME=“info”>IMG</A> is a frequently used tag.
An example of this is <A HREF=“#info”>IMG</A>.
Another document can then make a reference explicitly to this anchor by
putting the identifier after the address, separated by a hash sign :
< A HREF=“new.html#info”>
TITLE Title attribute should provide the title of the document whose address is given
by the HREF attribute.
TARGET Specifies where to open the linked document. It can have values _blank,
_parent, _self
_top, framename which specifies whether the document to be displayed in
same page or new browser window etc.
Creating Tables:
The HTML tables allow web authors to arrange data like text, images, links, other tables, etc.
into rows and columns of cells.
The HTML tables are created using the <table> tag in which the <tr> tag is used to create
table rows and <td> tag is used to create
Ex.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Tables</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>Row 1, Column 1</td>
<td>Row 1, Column 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Row 2, Column 1</td>
<td>Row 2, Column 2</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
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Border is an attribute of <table> tag and it is used to put a border across all the cells. If you
do not need a border then you can use border="0".
Table heading can be defined using <th> tag. This tag will be put to replace <td> tag, which
is used to represent actual data cell. Normally you will put your top row as table heading as
shown below, otherwise you can use <th> element in any row.
Example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Header</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Salary</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ramesh Raman</td>
<td>5000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Shabbir Hussein</td>
<td>7000</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Name Salary
Ramesh Raman 5000
Shabbir Hussein 7000
Attribute Description
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Specifies the alignment of a table according to surrounding text. It
align
can have values left, center, right
border Specifies whether the table cells should have borders or not
Specifies the space between the cell wall and the cell content. Its
cellpadding
value is in form of pixels
cellspacing Specifies the space between cells. Its value is in form of pixels
Example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Cellpadding</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" width="400" height="150"
bgcolor=”green”>
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Salary</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ramesh Raman</td>
<td>5000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Shabbir Hussein</td>
<td>7000</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Name Salary
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Shabbir Hussein 7000
Table Caption
The caption tag will serve as a title or explanation for the table and it shows up at the top of
the table. This tag is depracated in newer version of HTML/XHTML.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Caption</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" width="100%">
<caption>This is the caption</caption>
<tr>
<td>row 1, column 1</td>
<td>row 1, columnn 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>row 2, column 1</td>
<td>row 2, columnn 2</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Attribute Description
align Aligns the content in a cell. It can have
values : left, right, center, justify
bgcolor Specifies the background color for a cell
It can be specified as bgcolor= rgb(x,x,x) or
#xxxxxx or colorname
colspan Specifies the number of columns a cell
should merge
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Height Sets the height of a cell
Rowspan Sets the number of rows a cell should merge
Width Specifies the width of a cell
Example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Colspan/Rowspan</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Column 1</th>
<th>Column 2</th>
<th>Column 3</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Row 1 Cell 1</td>
<td>Row 1 Cell 2</td>
<td>Row 1 Cell 3</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Row 2 Cell 2</td><td>Row 2 Cell 3</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="3">Row 3 Cell 1</td></tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Tables can be divided into three portions: a header, a body, and a foot. The head and foot are
rather similar to headers and footers in a word-processed document that remain the same for
every page, while the body is the main content holder of the table.
The three elements for separating the head, body, and foot of a table are:
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A table may contain several <tbody> elements to indicate different pages or groups of data.
But it is notable that <thead> and <tfoot> tags should appear before <tbody>
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" width="100%">
<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="4">This is the head of the table</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td colspan="4">This is the foot of the table</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Cell 1</td>
<td>Cell 2</td>
<td>Cell 3</td>
<td>Cell 4</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Nested Tables
You can use one table inside another table. Not only tables you can use almost all the tags
inside table data tag <td>.
Example
Following is the example of using another table and other tags inside a table cell.
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<table border="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Salary</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ramesh Raman</td>
<td>5000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Shabbir Hussein</td>
<td>7000</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Name Salary
Ramesh Raman 5000
Shabbir Hussein 7000
1. Open your Gmail account by clicking on the gmail link on the Google search page.
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2. Click the button labeled 'Compose'. Then type the email address of the person you
want to send the email to in the box that says 'To'.
3. Type the email subject. The subject lets people know what the email is going to be
about.
4. Type your message in the big box below the subject box.
5. Click the send button, which is located above the 'To' box.
o You have completed your email. Now you can wait until the person you sent
the email replies.
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Sample web page:
<html>
<head><title>My first web page</title></head>
</html>
<body>
<center>
<h2>Student Inf0rmation</h2>
<Table border=1>
<tr>
<th>Roll Number</th>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Class</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td>Priya</td>
<td>MCA I</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td>Riya</td>
<td>BCA I</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td>Rina</td>
<td>MCA I</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4</td>
<td>Tina</td>
<td>MCA II</td>
</tr>
</Table>
</center>
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</body>
</html>
Result:
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5. Introduction To Web page Design
5.1Introduction to Web Design
The term web designing in simple terms can be understood as a representation of content, related to
an individual, business or any other topic; using design and graphics principles on the internet in the
form of web applications and web sites. Web design usually involves and uses technologies and
standards such as HTML,CSS,XML,SSL,PHP,ASP ect.
Web design differs completely from web development, which is more technical and deals with issues
concerning the web site dynamics, validations and constrains. The principle of web site design further
involves the conception and collection of web pages, which in-tern collectively is kn own as single
entity, a web site. Web pages are usually the basic content and design holders for the entire web site.
Web Design
Web design is the process of creating websites. It encompassed several different aspects, including
webpage layout, content production, and graphic design. While the terms web design and web
development is often used interchangeably, web design is technically a subset of the broader category
of web development.
Meaning
Web design is the art and process of creating a single web page or entire web sites and amy
involve both the aesthetics and the mechanics of web site’s operation although primarily it focuses on
the look and feel of the web site – design elements. Some of the aspects that may be included in the
web design or web production are graphics and animation creation, colot selection , font selection,
navigation design, content creation, HTML/XML authoring, Javascript programming , and e-
commerce development. Web design is a form of electronic publishing.
Web design Pyramid
One way to think of all the components of web design is through the metaphor of the web pyramid as
shown in figure.
Content provides the bricks that build the pyramid, but the foundation rests solidly on both visuals and
technology, with a heavy reliance on economics to make out projects worth doing.
While web development challenges aren’t quite on the level of those faced by the ancient Egyptians,
building a functional, pleasing web sites that can stand the test of internet time is certainly not easy.
The pyramid provides a simple way for designers to think of all the aspects of web design in interplay,
but does little to provide a deeper understanding of the web medium.
a) The medium of the web
While the web pyramid analogy is a very abstract way of describing web design, it is a useful
tool for showing the interplay of the various components of web building. A more practical
way to discuss web design is to think of the various components of the web medium.
Today’s web sites are primarily a basic client – server network programming model with their
common elements.
b) The server side
This includes the web server hardware and software as well as programming elements and
built – in technologies. The technologies can range from simple CGI programs written in
PERL to complex multi-tier java based applications, and include backend technologies such
as database servers that may support the web site.
c) The client side
The client – side is concerned with the web browser and its supported technologies, such as
HTML, CSS and Java script languages and Active – X controls or Netscape plug – ins , which
are Utilized to create the presentation of a page or provide interactive features.
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d) The Network
The network describes the various connectivity elements untilised to deliver the web site to a
user. Such elements may be the various networks on the public internet or the private
connections within a corporation – often dubbed an internet.
1) Advocacy
An advocacy webpage is one sponsored by an organization to influence option. The URL
address of this type of page frequently ends .in, .org.
Example :
de
2) Business and marketing
A business or marketing webpage is one sponserd by a commercial enterprise that is
typically trying to sell or market their services / products. The URL address frequently
ends in, .com
3) News
A news webpage is one whose purpose is to provide timely information about current
events and issues. The URL address frequently ends in.com
4) Informational
An informational webpage’s purpose is to present factual information. This include
reports research finding, and general topical information. The URL address frequently
ends with edu.or.gov.
5) Personal
A personal webpage is created by an individual for his/her own personal need. The URL
frequently has a tilde(~) somewhere in the address
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required reader software . pfd should be produced by proper pdf creation tools instead of
scanning from the document, as scanned image of text file is inheriently inaccessible .
3. Using meta data to assist search engine Registration
The most common methods for users to find web site through popular search engine. These
search engines operate on the principle of keyword search, where the use enters a keyword
and the search engine returns web pages realated to the keyword enterd. To ensure that the
site is returned as one of the to listing in the serach results, a descriptive title and meta tags of
description and keyword containing the keywords that users commonly search should be
defined.
4. Regular Re-registration in prominent search engines
Registration can be conducted manually by visting the individual search portal sites. Chinese
web pages should be submitted to Chinese based search engine. Each web page should have a
descriptive and accurate page tiltle to facilitate work of search engine.
5. Facilitate search engine indexing
Web page hyper links generated by java script should be avoided because search hyper links
normally cannot be indexed by common search engines. As an alternative, webmasters may
create a site map with static hyper links pointing to all pages in the website, and in the web
site of the site , add the static hyper link to the site map.
6. Browsers
In theory , gov websites should be tested on deferent browsers. In practice , testing them on
prevalling versions of internet explorer , Firefox, chrome and safari will suffice. As most user
do not upgrade their browsers regullary, it will be use full to try out page with more popular
and low end versions. If PDA version of the website is provided, it should also be tested on a
web browser on a pda or a mobile internet device.
7. Screen resolution
The lowest acceptable screen resolution should be determined at the onset before
development stage. The common screen resolutions of a width of 1024 pixels or above.
Conduct tests for websites viewed under different resolution to avoid an improper page layout
under certain screen resolution.
8. Bilingual pages
Use separate pages for the Chinese and English versions. This is to avoid upsetting English
screen reader software that cannot handle Chinese encoding. If the entry page is in Chinese,
the link to English version should be the first link at the top left hand croner of the web site to
facilitate language switching. Limitation in English screen reader software is also the reason
for placing the English version as the first link of the website. Gov websites should include
simplified Chinese version in addition to the English and traditional Chinese versions to
enhance the accesbility of the website to the other Chinese communities.
9. User’s preference
For better relation with website users and their best viewing experience, government website
should recognize users previous preference by storing his / her language, fort side and / or
color reference ect, such as cookies best on the last access. When the user access a gov
website user should check the cookies about the stored user preference and automatically
redirect to the well come massage page of the corresponding language reference with
appropriate font side and/or color preference
10. Use of embedded video links on websites
The use of embedded video links on web sites is now very popular. B/Ds ,may considers
embedding video links to the other video websites according to their particular requirements.
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5.4 Web development process model :
No two projects are identical, but the following stages illustrate how the different
skills of information architect, graphics designers.
1) Objectives and outcomes
As with any design process, the first stage in the web development project is to agree and
than clearly state the desired outcomes – the objectives the site needs to achieve. This will
for the basis of a design and development brief and although it is not carved in stone it if
will give client , designers and programmers a basis on which to build the site elements
and assess their suitability and success at different stages in project.
2) User experience (UE) and information architecture (IA)
There are potentially many different types of user for any given website and there are
numerous ways they may approach and access the site. It the design consultancies job to
ensure that all potential targets audiences are catered for. UE consultants develops
wireframe models of different user journeys, which are then used by information
architects, graphics designers and programmers to construct and populate site with
content. Information architects and client than work together to start constructing the IA
or site map. The IA will ensure that everything that needs to be in the site is present.
3) Wireframes
Graphics designers , user experience designers and programmers start to build wireframe
models of how the site is structured. These wireframe may be flat images or liked html
pages. The wireframe models show where the blocks of content are located, how they are
accessed and give an overall feel for how the site will be setup. Wireframes can also be
shown to user groups to test the site structure and navigation against the project objectives
4) Graphics design
Once the structure is clearly understood from the wireframes and the client has signed off
the IA,the graphic desigeners can start work on visual version of the pages.these graphic
designs may be develope as flat visuals or as prototype HTML built(or as a combination
of the two)and may or may not be directly linked to the IA at this stage.the bulk of early
visual work will not usually be shown to the client although the degree of collaboration at
this stage dependes on the nature of project and the relationship between the client and
desiginer. When the desigener have settled on one or more graphis ideas the suggested
routes are discussed and selected with the client.
5) Build :
After a graphics design scheme is chosen, proper building of site can begin.The build is
based on all the information gathered so far-during the IA user testing and user
experience phases-and aims to create visually and functionally appealing implementation
of the ideas.Programers/coders work with the designers to ensure that the design is
delivering the right content at the right time and in a way the users will be able to
understand and navigate. These stage often involves a number of iterative cycles
interaction designers are responsible for everyway that digital system respondes to user
input. In the case of screen based system, they will develop integration mechanics, such
as graphics or text motions and transitions, selections and focusing, media player controls
and so .. on
6) Launch and post – lunch
Once the site is fully functioning there may be a final user test in a order to in iron out any
remaining glitches and ensure that nothing major has been over look. After these the site
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can be launched. Even at this point, a site may be launched in a beta testing state, where
live version is used to workout in bugs or identify any changes that need to be made.
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6. Designing The web pages
Introduction:
WWW, world wide web,is a system used to find and access different internet resources. it
uses hypertext to cross-reference or link related resources anywhere on the internet.
HTML(hypertext markup language)is the language used by the Web to define and display its
files. These files can contain text, or multimedia. HTML files are ASCII text files that contain
the text to be displayed and the markup tags that tell how to display them. Web pages are
created using HTML which stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. All web pages whether
big or small, have to be developed in HTML to be displayed in web browsers.
6.1.1Page Size:
Overall web page size may be considered from 2 factors: web pages and web page
width. Web pages today are either 720 pixels wide or about a thousand pixels wide. Pages
created at 7420 pixels wide can just make it when printing in standard printer mode- portrait
and can be fully seen on monitors / screens setup at 800 wide. Wider web pages require the
viewer adjusting the printer to landscape mode if they choose to print it. If web pages are
created wider than 720 pixels, anyone with a monitor setup of 800 pixels wide will have to
scroll right to see the entire page and that proves an inconvenience to the web page visitor. If
the setup of web page is at a width of 720 pixels, users with wider screens can close down
part of the screen to they can see other items on their screen at the same time which many do,
but they would not miss any part of the message posted on the website. If designers are
designing for 1024 pixel wide monitor use, the scroll bars are on the right and left and 80
pixels wide are to be deducted so that a page design should only be 944 pixels wide. Viewers
will need to print the web page in landscape mode.
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A) Content pages:
Content pages are those subpages that are very focus on content presentation.
In some sense ,a content page is destination page.often they are the leaf pages
in site tree and represent the “bottom” of site .Like other subpages in a site, a
content page will probably have some navigational elements , lest it become
an orphan page.the layout of a content-focused page will vary with the content
presented,but it tends to take cues from ancestors , pages, such as main
section or home pages. Often , sites tend to get less visual the deeper in , but
this is not necessarily hard and fast rule.common content pages found in
commercial sites include things like press releases , product
specification,biographics, customer testimonials ,technical support,
documentation ,news articles , fianancial reports, leagal informations, and
on.personal websites might have stories , resumes , poems,and family
trees,while educational site might have syllabi, homework assignments ,and
presentations. Other forms of site might have document types completely
unique to themselves. The reality is that there are potentially as many types of
content pages as there are prople in the world.
B) Navigation-specific pages:
A variety of special navigation-focused pages,beyond home pages or main
sectional pages,can be found in many sites. Two of the most common special
navigation pages are site maps and site indices. A site map is used to provide a
structural overview of a web site,while a site index provides a list of site’s
content organized alphabetically rather than structurally. A search page is the
another common navigation-specific page.
Search facilities generally include a query page, result pages and ideally, a
help page.
C) FAQ Pages:
A particular class of Web “Legal” pages that has garnered much attention is the
privacy statement page. Many sites collect sensitive or personal data from users,
and what sites do with this data is of particular concern to many users. Because
of this concern, which is often well founded, sites should provide a privacy
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statement that indicates what any collected data will be used for. Links to this
statement should be available throughout the site and be prominently displayed
in any data collection pages. The design of this page should be like other legal
pages, with only basic navigation and graphics limited to those, like logos or
colors that identify the organization. The privacy page may also include icons
associated with and links to various organizations, particularly if site is built to
follow some industry standard.
E) Contact Pages:
A contact page provides information for or evens a form contacting the owners
of a site. Usually a contact page will provide numerous methods to contact the
sites owners, ranging from a simple e-mail address phone number to a form or
even an instant chat service.
6.1.3 Page Margin:
Cascading style sheets allow designers to enhance appearance of company’s website
surrounding content within boxes or containers of empty gapes or whitespaces. These content
containing boxes are standard HTML page element like divs, paragraphs, heading or ordered
list elements. The margin CSS attribute allows them to designate the distance for all sides of
content box or also, it can be specified a different margin for the top, right, left and bottom
sides. Margin distances are measured in percentages, pixels, points, centimeters and ems.
Margin can be added to content boxes by inserting an in-line CSS style. The following are
some steps are to add margins to a web page.
Step 1:
Launch the Notepad plaintext editor. Load the HTML file for the Web page for which
margins are to be added.
Step 2:
Type style=”margine:10x;” inside of any <div> or other tag that is to be created margins
around. Changes the 10px margin value to a number that suits the design of the web page.
<div style=”margin:10 px;”> in this example, a margin 10pixels wide surrounds the div on all
four sides, this works for heading <h1> to<h6>,<p> and <li> tags as well.
Step 3:
Type the following inside of any <div> tags you want to create margin around:
style=”margin: 10px 0px 5px 0px;” Change the numbers to suit the layout design. The first
margin is the top margin. the second number is the margin on the right. The third number is
the margin for the bottom side of the <div style=”margin:10px 0px 5px 0px;”> in this
example, the /,div> has a top margin of 1pixels, a bottom margin of 5 pixels and no margins
on left or right sides.
Step 4
Type style =”margin:10px;” inside of any paragraph or <p> tags that are to be created for the
margins around. Change the 10px margin value to a number that design for the web page. For
example: <p style=”margin:15px;”> This style adds a 15 pixels-width margin around any text
contained within the “<p>” tag.
6.1.4 Entrance Page:
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Theoretically, any page in a site can serve as an entrance page If the users knows the page’s
URL, sites that did not limit entry to particular set of pages were considered porous, while
sites that limited entry could be dubbed semi porous or solid, depending on how limited
entrance was regardless of any formal attempt to limit users, most sites tend to have only a
few entry points. The home page is main entry to a site, but certain important sectional pages
or “sub-home” pages might also be entry points into a site, particularly if they have special
URLs or unique domains. While most sites will focus traffic through a home page, some sites
may have a special entry page called a splash page.
A) Splash Pages:
A splash page is the page that is used to introduce a site, to “make a splash” and leave
a strong impression. Often a splash page is used to set the tone of site through the use
of graphic layout, animation or even sound.
B) Home Pages:
A home page is generally the first page user see when they visited site. The home
page acts as the main entry point of a site and should be a prominent landmark in a
site. As a landmark page, a home page’s appearance should be distinct from all other
pages in a site. If it is not different, users may feel lost in a site, needing an obvious
starting point.
C) Legal pages:
Now that web is used for commerce, legal terms pages have become commonplace
within many sites. Often, bottom of a webpage on public sites includes a corporate
statement of some kind. There may also be a short statement about the site usage.
Either of this short statement will generally include a link to another page describing
the legal aspects of the site. The way legal information is linked to pages varies. Some
examples are shown here.
Read our terms and Conditions of Use.
Copy right and trademark Notice.
6.1.5 Exit Page:
While it’s clear that the home page serves as the main entry point to a web site, is there a
similarly defined exit point? For content=oriented sites,there may not be one, and every page
could be considered an obvious exit point. Ideally,in such cases the user will have found
some interesting content and then left from a content page.
Not all sites can afford to lack a point of closure. Sites that have definable tasks,such as
downloading software,buying a product, making a stock trade and so on ,should have an
obvious exit page. The exit page provides a sense of completion or closure to a visit. Closure
is very important to site usability,as it signifies to user that they have completed the task
properly.
6.2: Graphics In Webpage Design-
When designing graphics for a web page,designer has to always keep in mind the image of
someone surfing the Net, idly searching for a topic. As they stumble upon a specific page,
this is web designer’s chance to show their stuff. Now on,imagining them entering home page
and waiting for graphics to load….. 10 seconds….20….30….40….. The potential viewer
viewing the website is now gone and hence off to explore a better and faster site. In the world
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of web graphics,smaller is better. The trick is to create high quality graphics,with small file
sizes.
1) Animation Effect:
An animated graphics can be created using appropriate animation software. GIF animation
software layers multiple images and controls timing and looping options. Flash software
creates the animated SWF(Adobe flash file format) format and, while more
complicated,offers more extensive programming options. Creators offer some animated
graphics to copy, at no cost, on their websites in exchange for website link.Graphic
professionals offer animated graphics for sale. The HTML code written to insert the
animation into a website depends on the graphics format, There are some steps given below
to add animations to awebsite.
A) Steps to Insert a Flash Animation on a Website:
1) The user can upload the SWF file to their web server. For the sake of this code,
users must place the file in the same folder as their HTML file.
2) The next step to open HTML file to edit it. Navigate to the desired location for the
animation.
3) Users can refer the following code
<OBJECT classid=”clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-444553540000”
CODEBASE=http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflas
h.cab#version=6,0,40,0“ WIDTH=”X” HEIGHT=”Y” id=”Movie Name”>
<PARAM NAME=movie VALUE=”filename.swf”>
<PARAM NAME=quality VALUE=high><PARAM NAME=bgcolor
VALUE=#FFFFFF>
<EMBED href=”/support”>
4) Users can replace “Movie Name” with their chosen name and “filename.swf” with
the name of their flash file. Also, users can replace “X” and “Y” with their desired
width and height settings.
5) Users should save the HTML file to their server.
B) Steps to insert GIF animation in website-
1) Users should upload the GIF file to their web server. For the sake of this
code,users should place the file in the same folder as their HTML file.
2) Next step for users is to open their HTML file to edit it and navigate to desired
location for the animation.
3) Type the following code
<imag src=”filename.gif” width=X height=Y>
4)Users can replace “filename.gif” with their filename and can also change the width
and height settings.
5)Users should save the HTML file to their server.
2)Sound Effect
There are a few different ways to add sound to web pages. Designers can also
have a control panel and let users start the sound file on their own or have the
sound start automatically. Another option is to link to the sound file to have the
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sound file open in an external player. That option also gives users the option to
save the sound file to their computer. The following point describes to add sound
to a webpage.
A)Sound with a Control Panel-
Depending on the available software and configuration, most users will see the
miniature control panel below. Users may have to click the play button twice to
hear the sound. The code for this mini-panel is shown below except a change in
hidden parameter to true, change the autostart to false, and added width=”70” and
height=”28” to the code. For the full-sized control panel just leave out the width
and height parameters.
Where it has 0(zero) in the code, that is how long of the delay the browser should
wait before opening the sound file. The filename.mid is the name and extension of
the sound file, and be sure to include the path to the file in front of the file name if
the sound file is not kept in the same directory. The autostart can be set to true or
false as with an embedded sound.
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value.Harmonic compositions can abruptly change completely because of additional coour
elements. The following types of colour contrast are distinguished.
a) Complementary Contrast:
Colours which face each other in the colour circle are termed complementary. Each
colour has its complementary. Each colour has its complementary colour with which it is
balanced and even can increase to the highest luminosity.
b) Simultaneous Contrast:
Simaltaneous contrast appears where a rich colour stands without its complementary
colour(in which case the eye wil generate this complementary colour), through which
phenomenon its tonqal value is optically changed.
c) Quality Contrast:
Quality contrast depends on the opposition between bright and dull colours.
d) Quantity Contrast:
Quantity contrast arises from the confrontation of differently sized colour areas . here the
intensity, the strength of a colour’s brightness is of importance, e.g. yellow has a much bigger
optical impact than violet . The order reads: yellow,orange,red,gree,blue and violet .
e) Cold-Warm-Contrast :
The opposition between the red-orange and blue-green pair has the biggest effect on the
contrast .
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Name . Domain Names are used in various networking context and applications specific
naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name represents an internet protocol
(IP) resources such as personal computers used to access internet, a server computer hosting a
web site, or the website itself or any their services communicated via the internet.
3)Hosting the Website:
Web hosting is the most widespread hosting service. It allows a website to be assessable on
the internet 24 hours a day 365 days a year. The website itself is being hosted on a web server
most often located in a specialized data center. The web server offers uninterrupted internet
connectivity , a certain set of software packages, which offers additional services such as
email, FTP, databases as well as an environment for utilizing different programming
languages such as Perl, php, Java, XHTML, HTML and others .
Meaning :
Web Hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post a web site or web
page on to the internet. A web host, or web hosting service provider , is a business that
provides the technologies and services needed for the websites or web page to be viewed in
he internet .Webstes are hosted, or stored , on special computers called servers. When internet
users want to view any websites , al they need to do is type the website address into their
browser. Their computer will then connect to the main server and the relevant web pages will
be delivered to them through the browser .Most hosting companies require that site owner
should own domain name in order to host with them. If there is no domain name , the hosting
companies will help in purchasing one.
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7. Internet Security
Introduction :
Internet security relies on specific resources and standards for protecting data
that gets sent through the internet. This includes various kinds of encryption such as Pretty
Good Privacy(PGP). Other aspects of a secure web setup includes firewalls, which block
unwanted traffic, anti-malware, anti-spyware & anti-virus programs that work from specific
networks or devices to monitor internet traffic for dangerous attachments. Internet security is
generally becoming a top priority for both businesses & governments. Good internet security
protects financial details & much more of what is handle by a business or agency’s servers &
network hardware. Insufficient internet security can threaten to collapse an e-commerce
business or any other operation where data gets routed over the web.
7.1 Internet Security :
Web security may be termed as technological & managerial procedures applied to
computer systems to ensure the availability, integrity & confidentiality of computer assets &
services from associated threats & vulnerabilities.
7.1.1Concept of Internet Security :
Three basics security concepts important to inforation on the internet are
confidentiality, integrity, &availability. Concepts relating to the people who use that
information are authentication, authorization & non-repudiation. Integrity and confidentiality
can also be enforced on web services through the use of transport layer security(TLS).both
SSL and TSL are the same.
1) Integrity:
The concept of integrity is divided in 2 forms:
a)Data integrity:
this property, that data has not been altered in an unauthorized manner while in storage,
during processing or while in transit. another aspect of data integrity is the assurances that
data can only be accessed and altered by those authorized to do so. often such integrity is
insured by use of a number referred to as message integrity code or message authentication
code. This are abbreviated as MIC and MAC respectively.
b)System integrity:
This quality states that a system has when performing the intended function in an unimpaired
manner, is free from unauthorized manipulation. Integrity is commonly an organizations most
important security objective, after availability. Integrity is particularly important for critical
safety and financial data used for activities such as electronic funds transfers ,air traffic
control ,and financial accounting.
2)Confidentiality:
Confidentiality is the requirement that private or confidential information should not be
disclosed to unauthorized individuals. Confidentiality protection is applies to data in storage
,during processing ,and while in transit. For many organizations ,confidentiality is frequently
behind availability and integrity in terms of importance. For some types of information
,confidentiality is a very important attribute. Examples includes research data ,medical and
insurance records ,new product specifications ,and corporate investments strategies. In some
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locations ,there may be a legal obligation to protect the privacy of individuals. This is
particularly true for banks and loans companies; debt collectors; businesses is that extend
credit to their customers or issue credit cards ; hospitals ,doctor offices ,and medical testing
laboratories; individuals or agencies that offer services such as psychological counseling or
drug treatment; and agencies that collect taxes.
3) Availability:
Availability is a requirement intended to assure that system works promptly and services is
not denied to authorized users. This objective protects against , intentional or accidental
attempts to either perform unauthorized deletion of data otherwise cause a denial of service or
data. Availability is frequently an organizations foremost security objective. To make
information available to those who need it and who can be trusted with it, organizations used
authentication and authorization.
7.1.2Types internet Security:
The Security of the web s divided into two (a) Computer Security, and (b) Network Security. In
generic terms, computer security is the process of securing a single, standalone computer,while
network security is the process of securing an entire network of computers.
a)computer Security:
technology and managerial procedures applied to computer systems to ensure the availability
integrity , and confidentiality of data managed by the computer.
b)Network security:
Protection of network and their services from unauthorized modification destruction, or disclosure and
provision of assurance that the network performs its critical functions correctly and there are no
harmful side effects. The major points of weakness in computer system are hardware, software, and
data however ,other components f the computer system may be targeted.
7.2 Internet Privacy:
Internet privacy is the privacy and security level of personal data published via the internet. It is a
broad term that refers to a Variety of factors, techniques and technology use to protect sensitive and
private data, communication ,and preference. Internet privacy and anonymity are paramount to users,
especially as a E-commerce continues to gain traction, privacy violation and threat risks are standard
considerations for any website under development.internet privacy is also known as online privacy
7.3 Ethical Issues In Internet Security
Ethics in everyday life serves as moral guide posts, comprising a code that defines behavior
as right or wrong . The web offers a vast store of information coupled with extensive
communications capabilities , and unethical users can harness this capabilities for personal
and financial gains at others expense. Web ethics provide a guide to appropriate online
behavior , adapting familiar ethical standards to provide a moral framework for navigating the
internet’s virtual environment.
1) Intellectual Property:
Using material properly without properly citing its source constitutes plagiarism when applied
to written works , and the same standard applies to documents and websites on the internet.
The creator of the original work is still due acknowledgement of her efforts . File-sharing
sites and applications may also provide a means for Web surfer to infringe on other
intellectual properties by offering copy righted works for downloading. While illegally
downloading copyrighted material is no different form theft , the anonymity which the
internet provide coupled with ease of access to artist creation can embolden users who would
never think f stilling a physical copy from a store
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2) Netiquette:
Netiquette concerns basic rules and ethics of online social interaction when a person is
interacting with other in chat rooms or other social environment , He/she should conduct there
selves as if they where face to face with the other sharing venue . even when a person is
engaged in a heated disagreement , it is mandate to remain respectful and refrain from the use
of inflammatory invective, or flaming . it is also considered a faux pas to compose messages
consisting entirely of capital letters as it carries the collation that you are shouting . if
somebody is new to a chat room or a forum , then it is there responsibility to make sure to
learn the site standards of conduct and read its frequently asked questions page to ensure that
they do not commit any breaches or netiquette.
3) respecting Privacy:
A persons computer should be inviolate,a safe place to store data and information, but un
ethical individual employ a variety of mean to breach network security and access personal
data. Hacking not only represent a gross breach of privacy, it can also personally and
financially damaging to the people whose information is accessed. Online businesses
routinely collect personal and financial information from there customer and many respect
there customers need for confidentiality and security. However, un ethical merchants may
share information on there customers contact information, income and spending with third
parties without there customers knowledge, abusing there trust in the merchant.
4) cultivating web ethics :
Parents and teachers should become knowledgeable enough about the internet capabilities and
venues for social networking to be able t teach children ethical standard for web use. Children
should understand that in addition to being unethical action such as piracy and harassment
can carry substantial civil and criminal penalties . organizations such as businesses and
schools should develop a clearly articulated acceptable use policy governing permissible
internet use among within the institution . the AUP must be written a document an ideally ,
every member in the organization should sign a document attesting that he’s read the AUP
and agrees to abide by it.
7.4Cyber Law
Cyber law is new phenomenon having emerged much after the offset of internet . internet
grew in completely unplanned and un regulated manner . even the inventor of internet could
not have really anticipated the scope and the far reaching consequence of cyber space.the
growth rate of cyber space has been enormous.the internet is growing rapidally and with the
population of internet doubling roughly every 100 days,the cyber space is becoming the new
preferred environment of the world with the spontaneous and almost phenomenl growth of
cyber space,the new ticklish issues relating to various legal aspects of cyber space began a
cropping up,in response to the absolutely complex and the newly emerging legal issues
relating to cyber space,cyber law or the law of internet came into being the growth of cyber
space has resulted in development of a new and highly specialized branch of law called cyber
laws – laws of the internet and the world ide wed there is no one exhaustive definition of the
term”cyber law”. However,simply put cyber law in is a term in which refer to all the
legal regulatory aspect of internet and world wide web. anything concern with or related to,or
emanating from,any legal aspects or issues concerning any activity of Netizens and others, in
cyber space comes within the ambit of cyber law.
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7.4.1 Importance Of Cyberlaw:
1)EMAIL become valid and legal form of communication:
From the perspective of E-commerce in india,this law contains many positive aspects.the
provision for E-businesses would be that Email would now be valid and legal form of
communication in our country that can be duly produce and approval in court of law
2) Provide Legal Infrastructure:
Companies shall now be able to carry out electronic commerce using the legal infrastructure
provided by the Act.
3) Cover all Aspects of Cyberspace:
Cyber law is important because it touches almost all aspects of transactions and activities on
and concerning the Internet, the World Wide Web and Cyberspace. Initially it may seem that
Cyber law is a very technical field and that it does not have any bearing to most activities in
Cyberspace. But the actual truth is that nothing could be further than the truth .Whether the
internet user realize it or not , every action and every reaction in Cyberspace has some legal and
Cyber legal perspectives.
4) Provide Legal Framework For Transactional Activities:
We need such laws so that people can perform purchase transaction over the Net through
credit cards without fear of misuse .The act offers the much-needed legal framework so that
information is not denied legal effect ,validity or enforceability ,solely on the ground that it is in
the form of electronic records.
5) Promote E-Governance:
In view of the growth in transactions and communications carried out through electronic
records, the Act seeks to empower government departments to accept filling ,creating and
retention of official documents in the digital format. The Act has also proposed legal
framework for the authentication and origin of electronic records / communications through
digital signature.
6) Enhance use of Electronic Form:
This law enables the companies to file any form, application or any other document with any
office, authority, body or agency owned or controlled by the appropriate Government in
electronic form by means of such electronic form as may be prescribed by the appropriate
Government.
7) Addresses Important Issues of Security:
This law also addresses the important issues of security ,which are so critical to the success of
electronic transaction .The Act has given a legal definition to the concept of secure digital
signatures that could be required to have been passed through a system of a security
procedure ,as stipulated by the Government at a later date under the IT Act 2000 ,it shall now be
possible for corporate to have statuary remedy in case if anyone breaks into their computer system
or network and cause loss .
8) Origin of Electronic Records:
The Act has also proposed a legal framework for the authentication and origin of electronic
records communications through digital signature. From the perspective of e-commerce.
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cyber laws has major impact for e-business and the new economy in India. So ,it is
important to understand the various perspectives of the IT Act 2000 and what it occurs. The
Information Technology Act, 2000 also aims to provide for the legal framework so that the
legal sanctity is accorded to all electronic records and other activities carried out by
electronic means . The Act states that unless otherwise agreed, an acceptance of contract
may be expressed by electronic means of communication and the same shall have legal
validity and enforceability. Some highlights of the Act are listed below:
1) Chapter II:
Chapter-II of the Act specifically stipulates that any subscriber may authenticate an electronic
record by affixing his digital signature. It further states that any person can verify an
electronic record by use of a public key of the subscriber.
2) Chapter III:
Chapter-III of the Act details about Electronic Governance and provides inter-alia amongst
others that where any laws provides that information or any other matter shall be in writing or
in the typewritten or printed form, then, notwithstanding anything contained in such law, such
requirement shall be deemed to have been satisfied if such information or matter is rendered
or made available in an electronic form; and accessible so as to be usable for a subsequent
reference. The said chapter also details the legal recognition of Digital Signatures.
3) Chapter IV:
Chapter-IV of the said Act gives a scheme for Regulation of Certifying Authorities. The Act
envisages a Controller of Certifying Authorities who shall perform the function of exercising
supervision over the activities of the Certifying Authorities as also laying down specifying the
various forms and content for recognizing foreign Certifying Authorities and it further details
the various provisions for the issue of licenses issue Digital Signature Certificates.
4) Chapter VII:
Chapter –VII of the Act details about the scheme of things relating to Digital Signature
Certificates. The duties of subscriber are also enshrined in the said Act.
5) Chapter-IX:
Chapter-IX of the said Act talks about penalties and adjudication for various offences. The
penalties for damage to computer, computer systems etc. has been fixed as damages by way
of compensation not exceeding Rs. 1,00,00,000 to affected persons. The Act talks of
appointment of any officers not below the rank of a Director to the Government of India or an
equivalent officer of state government as an adjudicating officer who shall adjudicate whether
any person has made a contravention of any of the provisions of the said Act or rules framed
there under. The said Adjudicating officer has been given the powers of Civil Court.
6) Chapter-X:
Chapter-X of the Act talks of the establishment of the Cyber Regulations Appellate Tribunal,
Which shall be an appellate body where appeals against the orders passed by the Adjudicating
Officers, shall be preferred.
7) Chapter-XI:
Chapter-XI of the Act talks about various offences and the said offences shall be investigated
only by a Police Officer not below the rank of the Deputy Superintendent of Police. These
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offences include tampering with computer source documents, publishing of information,
which is obscene in electronic form, and hacking.
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