Endocrine System
adrenal cortex
- The 2nd great controlling system of
the body
- Coordinates and directs the
activity of the body cells (along
with the nervous system)
- Uses chemical messenger called
HORMONES to bring about bodily
process
- Regulates process that go on for
relatively long periods (and in some
cases continuously)
- Organs are small and lack
structural or anatomical continuity
Major Process controlled by
Hormones:
1. Reproduction
2. Growth and Development
3. Mobilizing Body Defenses
4. Maintaining electrolytes, water and
nutrient balance of the blood
5. Regulate cellular metabolism and
energy balance
Hormone Overview
Hormone: “to arouse”
- Hormones are produced by
specialized cells
- Cells secrete hormones into
extracellular fluids
- Blood transfers hormones to target
sites
- These hormones regulate the
activity of other cells
Chemical Classification of Hormones
1. Steroids: made from cholesterol;
example: sex hormones made by
the gonads (ovaries and testes) and
1
the hormones produced by the
2. Amino acid-based: proteins,
peptides and amines (nonsteroidal)
3. Highly active lipids: found in the
cell’s plasma membrane:
prostaglandins
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
- A given hormone affects only
certain tissue cells or organs
(target cells or target organs) even
though it is bloodborne and
circulate to all organs of the body
- Specific receptors must be present
on the plasma membrane of a
target cell/ organ for it to respond
to a hormone
Typical Changes after Hormone
Bonding
1. Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
2. Syntheses of proteins or certain
regulatory molecules (such as
enzymes) in the cell
3. Activation or inactivation of
enzyme
4. Stimulation of mitosis
2 Mechanism by which Hormones
trigger Changes in Cells
Steroidal Hormones
1. Diffuse through the plasma
membrane of their target cells
(steroid hormones are lipid soluble)
2. Enters the nucleus
3. Binds to a specific receptor protein
(hormone-receptor complex)
4. Binds to specific sites on the cell’s
DNA
5. Activates certain genes to
transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA)
→ Transcription
6. mRNA is translated in the
cytoplasm → resulting in the
synthesis of new proteins
Non-steroidal Hormones
1. hormones bind to a membrane
receptors
2. setting off a series of certain
reactions that activates enzyme
3. enzyme catalyzes a reaction that
produces a second messenger
molecule (cyclic AMP or cAMP,
others G protein and calcium ions
among others)
4. second messenger molecule
oversees additional intracellular
changes that promote the typical
response of the target cell to
hormone
Control of Hormone Release
Negative Feedback Mechanisms: chief
means of regulating blood levels of
nearly all hormones
3 Categories of Stimuli that
Activates Endocrine Organs to
Release Hormones
1. Hormonal Stimulus
- most common stimulus
- an endocrine organ is activated by
other hormones
- Example: hypothalamic hormones
stimulate the Anterior Pituitary
Gland (APG) to secrete its
hormones, and many APG hormones
stimulate other endocrine organs
to release their hormones into the
blood
2
- Increase of hormones in the blood
produced by the target glands,
“feedback” to inhibit the release of
the APG hormones and thus their
own release
2. Humoral stimulus
- An endocrine organ is activated by
the blood levels of certain ions and
nutrients
- Example: decrease blood calcium
levels prompt the APG to release
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) which
acts by several ways to increase
blood Calcium level
- Increase blood Calcium level ends
the stimulus for PTH release
3. Neural Stimulus
- Nerve fibers stimulate hormone
release
- Example: SNS stimulation of the
adrenal medulla to release
norepinephrine and epinephrine
(catecholamines) during periods of
stress
Structural Classifications of Organs
1. Endocrine: ductless glands
- Produce hormones and release
into the blood or lymph
2. Exocrine: release hormonal
products at the body’s surface or
into body cavities through ducts
Note: both types of glands are
formed from epithelial cells
Major Endocrine Organs
• Pituitary
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal
• Pineal
• Thymus
• Pancreas
• Gonads (ovaries and testes)
• Hypothalamus: Part of the nervous
system; but is also a major
endocrine organ that produces
several hormones
- Purely endocrine organs: APG,
thyroid, adrenal, parathyroid,
thymus, pineal
- Mixed endocrine and exocrine
organs: pancreas, gonads
Pituitary Gland
- Approx. size of a grape
- Hangs by a stalk from the inferior
surface of the hypothalamus
- 2 Functional Lobes: Anterior
Pituitary (Glandular tissue) and
Posterior Pituitary (Nervous tissue)
Anterior Pituitary Gland (APG)
Hormones:
• Growth Hormone
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Gonadotropic hormones: Follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Thyrotropic hormone
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone
❖ GH and PRL exert effects on
nonendocrine targets
GH → bones and muscles
Prolactin → mammary gland
❖ Gonadotropic, Thyrotropic and
Adrenocorticotropic Hormones: are
tropic hormones
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Tropic hormones stimulate other
endocrine glands (target organs) to
secrete their hormones to exert
effects on other body organs and
tissues
❖ All Anterior Pituitary Hormones
are:
- Proteins (peptides)
- Act through second messenger
system
- Regulated by hormonal stimuli
(most cases, negative feedback)
A. Growth Hormone (GH)
- A general metabolic hormone
- Major effects are directed to the
growth of skeletal muscles and long
bones of the body (determine final
body size)
- A protein-sparing and anabolic
hormone
✓ Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins and stimulates most
target cells to grow in size and
divide
✓ Causes fats to be broken down and
used for energy
✓ Spares glucose (helps maintain
blood sugar homeostasis)
HI:
Pituitary Dwarfism
- Hyposecretion of GH
- Maximum adult height: 4 feet-
body proportions are normal
Gigantism
- Hypersecretion of GH
- Common height: 8-9 feet- body
proportions are normal
Acromegaly
- Hypersecretion of GH after the
long bone has ended
- Facial bones (jaw), bony ridges of
the eyebrows, hand and feet are
enlarge
Note: most cases of GH
Hypersecretion results from tumors
B. Prolactin
- A protein hormone structurally
similar to growth hormone
- Breast is the target organ
- Stimulates and maintains milk
production after childbirth
C. Gonadotropic Hormone
- Regulate the hormonal activity of
the gonads
❖ Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH)
- Stimulates follicle development in
the ovaries (female)
- Mature follicle produce Estrogen
(responsible for the appearance of
secondary sex characteristics in
young woman)
- Stimulates sperm development by
the testes (male)
❖ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Triggers ovulation of the egg from
the female ovary and causes the
rupture follicle to become CORPUS
LUTEUM
- Corpus luteum produce
progesterone and some estrogen
(helps maintain the endometrial
lining, pregnancy and prepare milk
for breast production)
4
- Referred to as Interstitial Cell-
stimulating Hormone (in men):
stimulates testosterone production
by the interstitial cells of testes
(testosterone: responsible for
appearance of secondary sex
characteristics in men)
Note: Hyposecretion of FSH and LH
leads to sterility in both males and
females
- Use of drugs to promote fertility
stimulate the release of
Gonadotropic Hormone → results
to multiple births
D. Thyrotropic Hormone (TH)
- Influences the growth and activity
of the thyroid gland
E. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ADH)
- Regulates the endocrine activity of
the adrenal cortex
Pituitary-Hypothalamus Relationship
❖ APG: “master endocrine gland” →
control activity of many other
endocrine glands
❖ Hypothalamus: controls the release
of Releasing and Inhibiting
hormones of the APG
- Release regulatory hormones via
the portal circulation (connects the
blood supply of the hypothalamus
with that of the anterior pituitary)
Posterior Pituitary
- Not an endocrine gland
- Does not make the peptide
hormones it releases (acts only as a
storage area for hormones made by
 the hypothalamus) and is released
into the blood in response to the
nerve impulse from the
hypothalamus
- 2 hormones: Oxytocin and
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
A. Oxytocin
- Released only during childbirth and
nursing women
- Stimulates powerful contractions
of the uterine muscles during labor,
during sexual relations and
breastfeeding women (causes milk
ejection → “letdown reflex”)
- Used to induce labor or to hasten
labor, stop postpartum bleeding
(constriction of the ruptured blood
vessels at the placental site)
B. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Inhibits or prevent urine
production
- Causes the kidney tubules to
reabsorb water
- Increase blood pressure (by
constricting of the arterioles
(small arteries))
- Sometimes called “vasopressin”
❖ Alcoholic Beverages: inhibits ADH
secretions
HI:
Diabetes Insipidus (nephrogenic or
neurogenic type)
- Hyposecretion of ADH or
unresponsiveness of the receptors
to ADH
- Leads to excessive urine output
Thyroid Gland
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- Located at the base of the throat,
inferior to the Adam’s apple
- Easily palpable during physical
examination
- Consist of 2 lobes joined by
ISTHMUS
- Composed of 2 hollow structure
called Follicles (store sticky
colloidal material where TH is
derived)
- 2 hormones produced: thyroid
hormones and thyrocalcitonin
(calcitonin)
A. Thyroid Hormones
- Body’s major metabolic hormone
- Controls the rate at which glucose
is oxidized and converted to body
heat and chemical energy
- 2 active iodine-containing hormones
(constructed from2 tyrosine amino
acids linked together):
❖ Thyroxine (T4): 4 bound iodine
atoms and Triiodothyronine (T3): 3
bound iodine atoms
- T3 is a major hormone secreted by
the thyroid follicles; most is
formed at the target tissues by
conversion of T4 to T3
HI:
Goiter: enlargement of the thyroid
gland
- Results from iodine deficiency diet
- Event: TSH keeps “calling” for
thyroxine, and the thyroid gland
continues to enlarge but without
iodine, only the peptide part of the
hormone is produce
- Management: surgery and diet
Cretinism: Hyposecretion of
thyroxine
- Childhood condition
- Causes: iodine deficiency, lack of
thyroid hormone stimulation
- Results: dwarfism, mental
retardation, scanty hair, dry skin
- Management: hormone replacement
Myxedema: hypothyroidism occurring
in adults
- Signs and symptoms: physical and
mental sluggishness, puffiness of
the face, fatigue, poor muscle tone,
low body temperature, obesity, dry
skin
- Management: hormone replacement
(oral thyroxine)
Grave’s Disease: hyperthyroidism;
extreme production of thyroxine
- Cause: tumor
- Signs and symptoms: high BMR,
intolerance to heat, rapid
heartbeat, weight loss, nervous and
agitated behavior, exophthalmos
(enlargement and protrusion of the
eyes anteriorly)
- Management: surgery, thyroid-
blocking drugs, radioactive iodine
B. Thyrocalcitonin (Calcitonin)
- Made by the C cells (parafollicular)
found in the connective tissue
between the follicles
- Function: decrease blood calcium
levels by causing Calcium to be
deposited in the bones
(“hypocalcemic hormone”)
- Antagonist of PTH
- Production is meager or ceases in
elderly adults → result to
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progressive decalcification of
bones
Parathyroid Glands
- Tiny masses of glandular tissue
found on the posterior surface of
the thyroid gland
- Secretes Parathyroid Hormone
(PTH) or Parathormone
A. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) or
Parathormone
- Regulates Calcium ion homeostasis
of the blood
- Function: stimulate bone
destruction cells (Osteoblast) to
break down bone matrix and
release Calcium into the blood
(“hypercalcemic hormone”)
- Target organs:
1. Skeleton or bone: resorption of
Calcium
2. Kidneys: reabsorption of Calcium
3. Intestine: absorption of Calcium
HI:
Hypoparathyroidism
- Results to decrease blood Calcium
→ neurons become extremely
irritable and overactive (rapid
transmission of impulse)
- Cause: accidental removal of the
parathyroid gland in thyroidectomy
- sign: tetany (uncontrollable spasms)
Hyperparathyroidism
- results to increase blood Calcium
- sign: massive bone destruction
- cause: tumor
Adrenal Glands
- 2 bean-shaped glands over the top
of the kidneys
- 2 regions: adrenal cortex
(glandular) and adrenal medulla
(neural tissue parts)
Adrenal Cortex
- Contains 3 separate layers of cells
- Produces 3 major groups of steroid
hormones (collectively called
Corticosteroids):
1. Mineralocorticoids
2. Glucocorticoids
3. Sex Hormones
A. Mineralocorticoids
- Mainly Aldosterone
- Produced by the outermost
adrenal cortex cell layer
- Function: regulates the mineral
(salt) content of the blood (Sodium
and Potassium)
- Target organs: kidney tubules
(selectively reabsorb minerals
flushed out in the urine)
- Regulate water and electrolyte
balance
- Production is stimulated by:
1. Humoral factor: few Sodium or
more Potassium in the blood
2. Renin (enzyme): produce by the
kidneys (Juxtaglomerular
Apparatus) when blood pressure
drops → activates the Renin-
Angiotension-Aldosterone System)
❖ Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
- Release by the heart
- Prevents Aldosterone release
- Reduce blood volume and blood
pressure
7
B. Glucocorticoids
- Include Cortisone and Cortisol:
produced by the middle cortical
area
- “hyperglycemic hormones”
Function:
- Promote normal cell metabolism
- Increase blood glucose levels
(break down fats and proteins and
converted to glucose) → resist long
term stressors (operate during the
resistance stage of the stress
response)
- Anti-inflammatory
- Pain reliever (reduce pain by
inhibiting pain-causing molecules
(Prostaglandins)
C. Sex Hormones
- Produced by the innermost adrenal
cortex cell layer
- Produced throughout life in small
amounts
❖ Androgens: male sex hormone
(abundant)
❖ Estrogens: female sex hormone
HI:
Addison’s Disease
- Hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex
hormones
- Signs: bronze tone skin, water and
electrolyte problems, weakness,
possible circulatory shock,
hypoglycemia, immune system
suppression
Hyperaldosteronism
- Hyperactivity of the outermost
cortical area
- Cause; tumor
- Signs: increase BP and edema,
hypernatremia, hypokalemia
Cushing’s Syndrome
- Hyperactivity of the middle
cortical area
- Cause: tumor
- Signs: “moon face” “buffalo hump”
of fat on the upper back, increase
BP, hyperglycemia and possible
Diabetes, weakness (protein are
withdrawn to be converted to
glucose), severe immune system
depression
Masculinization
- Hypersecretion of the sex
hormones → masculinization
(regardless of sex)
- Signs: females → beard, masculine
pattern of body hair and other
Adrenal Medulla
- Nervous tissue
- Stimulated by the Sympathetic
Nervous System (SNS)
- 2 similar hormones collectively
called Catecholamines: Epinephrine
(Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine
(Noradrenaline)
- Released in response to stress/
“fight-or-flight” response
- Signs: Increase HR, BP, Blood
glucose level, dilate small
passageways of the lungs (better
oxygenation)
- Brief or short-term stressful
situation (alarm stage of stress
response)
- Thought of as “misplaced SNS
ganglion” (sympathetic neuron
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release norepinephrine as a
neurotransmitter)
HI:
❖ Damage or destruction of the
adrenal medulla has no major
effects as long as the SNS neurons
continue to function normally
❖ Hypersecretion of catecholamines
- Signs: rapid HR, increase BP,
increase sweating, irritability
- Management: surgery (remove
catecholamine-secreting cells)
Pancreas
- Located close to the stomach
- Houses the pancreatic islets
(formerly called “islet of
Langherhans”)
- 2 important hormones produced:
Insulin and Glucagon
A. Insulin
- Released by the “beta cells” of the
islets
- Stimulated by increased levels of
glucose in the blood
- Function: acts on all body cells and
increase glucose transport ability
across plasma membranes →
oxidized for energy (ATP) or
converted to glycogen or fat for
storage
- “hypoglycemic effect”
HI:
Diabetes Mellitus
- Increase of blood glucose (normal:
80-120 mg/dl of blood)
- Signs: polyuria – excessive urination
to flush out glucose and ketones;
polydispsia- excessive thirst due to
 water excretion and blood
saturation; polyphagia- hunger due
to inability to use sugars and loss
of fat and proteins from the body
- Fat and proteins are broken down
and used to meet energy
requirements of the body
- Sign: decrease ability to fight
infection (loss of body proteins);
acidosis- presence of ketones
(product of fat breakdown)
Types of Diabetes
1. Type 1: juvenile Diabetes
- Insulin Dependent diabetes
- Management: continuous infusion of
insulin by insulin pump (worn
externally) or a regimen carefully
planned insulin injections
2. Type II: Non-Insulin Dependent
Diabetes
- Adult-onset diet
- Management: special diet; oral
hypoglycemic medications
B. Glucagon
- Antagonist of insulin
- Released by “alpha cells” of the
islets
- Stimulated by decreased blood
glucose level
- Function: stimulates the breakdown
of glycogen to glucose and to
release it to the blood
- Target organ: liver
Note: no important disorder resulting
from hypo-or-hypersecretion of
glucagon is known
Pineal Gland (Pineal Body)
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- Small, cone-shaped gland found in
the roof of the 3rd ventricle of the
brain
- Produced Melatonin in substantial
amount
Melatonin
- Levels rise and fall during the
course of the day
- Peak levels (night) → causing
drowsiness
- Lowest level (day/noon)
- Function: Believes to trigger sleep;
established body’s day-night cycle
Thymus
- Located in the upper thorax,
posterior to the sternum
- Size is large in infants and
children; decreased size in adults
- Produces hormone Thymosin
Thymosin
- Acts for the maturation of T
lymphocytes (white blood cell) in
the thymus → important in immune
response
Gonads
- Produce sex hormones that are
identical to those produced by the
adrenal cortex cells (difference:
source and relative amount
produced)
Ovaries
- Female gonads
- Paired; almond-size organs located
in the pelvic cavity
- 2 steroid hormones produced:
estrogen and progesterone
- Begin to function during puberty
through the stimulation of the
anterior pituitary gonadotropic
hormone
A. Estrogen
- Primarily Estrone and Estradiol
- Produced by the Graafian follicles
Function:
- stimulate development of
secondary sex characteristics
- prepare uterus for the implantation
of fertilized egg
- results in cyclic changes in the
uterine lining (menstrual cycle)
- Help maintain pregnancy (placenta-
source of estrogen)
- Prepare breast to produce milk
B. Progesterone
- Function: menstrual cycle
- Produced by the Corpus Luteum
(corpus luteum produces both
estrogen and progesterone)
Testes
- Male gonads
- Paired oval-shaped, suspended in
the scrotum outside the pelvic
cavity
- Begin to be active at puberty under
the influence of APG hormone
- Produce Androgens (male sex
hormones)
A. Testosterone
- The most important androgen
hormone
- Made by the interstitial cells of
the testes
- Specifically stimulated by the LH
10
- Causes the development of the
adult male sex characteristics
- Promotes growth and maturation of
the male reproductive system
HI:
Hyposecretion of Testosterone
- Man becomes sterile
- Management: testosterone
injections
Other Hormone-Producing Organ
Placenta
- Formed temporarily in the uterus
of pregnant women
- Produces hormones that help
maintain the pregnancy (Estrogen
and progesterone)
❖ Human Placental Lactogen
- works with estrogen and
progesterone in preparing breast
for lactation
❖ Relaxin
- Causes the mother’s pelvic ligament
and the pubis symphysis to relax
and become flexible (eases birth
passenger)
❖ Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
(hCG)
- Produced by the conceptus (first 2
months)
- Stimulates the corpus luteum of
the ovary to continue producing
estrogen and progesterone
- In the 3rd month, placenta will
assume the job of producing
estrogen and progesterone