Power System

Operation and Control

Session 3.
 Lambda-Iteration method
• Set λ
1

2 • Calculate P for each unit (i=1,2,…N)

• Calculate the difference between demand and the generation of units.

3

• Compare the value of last step with the threshold value (error).
4

• If the error is greater than the calculated difference go to step 1 (update λ).
5

• Stop
6
 Example 6
Consider the input-output characteristics of generating plants as follows.
H ( MBtu / h ) =A + BP + CP 2 + DP 3
For the three units, find the optimum schedule using the lambda-iteration method.

A B C D
Unit 1 749.55 6.95 9.68×10 −4 1.27×10 −7
Unit 2 1285 7.051 7.375×10 −4 6.453×10 −8
Unit 3 1531 6.531 1.04×10 −3 9.98×10 −8

Assume the fuel cost to be 1.0 $/MBtu for each unit and unit limits as follows.
320𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ≤ 𝑃𝑃1 ≤ 800𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
300𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ≤ 𝑃𝑃2 ≤ 1200𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓Pr𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 × 𝐻𝐻
275𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ≤ 𝑃𝑃3 ≤ 1100𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
Calculating 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 from: = 𝜆𝜆
Two sample calculations are shown, both using the 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
flowchart.
In this calculation, the value for ;1 on the second
iteration is always set at 10% above or below the Iteration λ Total 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟑𝟑
starting value depending on the sign of the error; for the Generation
remaining iterations, lambda is projected as in Figure 1 8 1731.6 494.3 596.7 640.6
3.5.
The first example shows the advantage of starting λ near 2 8.8 2795 800 1043 952
the optimum value.
𝑃𝑃1 3 8.5781 2526 734.7 923.4 867.9
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 2500𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
First iteration �𝑃𝑃2
𝜆𝜆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 8 $⁄𝑀𝑀 𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑃𝑃3 4 8.5566 2497.5 726.1 911.7 859.7
The second example shows the oscillatory problems that
can be encountered with a lambda-iteration approach. 5 8.5586 2500 726.9 912.7 860.4
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 2500𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝜆𝜆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 10 $⁄𝑀𝑀 𝑤𝑤𝑤
 Line equation
𝑒𝑒𝜆𝜆2 − 𝑒𝑒𝜆𝜆1
𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒𝜆𝜆2 = 𝜆𝜆 − 𝜆𝜆2
𝜆𝜆2 − 𝜆𝜆1
error 245 − −768.4
𝑒𝑒2 � = 2795 − 2500 = 245 𝑒𝑒 − 245 = × (𝜆𝜆 − 8.8�
𝜆𝜆2 8.8 − 8

245

8 By putting e=0 𝜆𝜆3

8.8
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 � = 2795𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 > 2500𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
λ3 𝜆𝜆3
-768.4

𝑒𝑒1 � = 1731.6 − 2500 = −768.4

𝜆𝜆1
 Speed
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 2500𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Lambda iteration method depends directly to the λ𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜆𝜆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 10 𝑆𝑆⁄𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Accuracy

Iteration λ Total Generation 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟑𝟑

1 10 3100 800 800 1200
2 9 2974.8 800 800 1148.3
3 5.2068 895 320 320 300
4 8.134 1920.6 551.7 551.7 674.5
5 9.7878 3100 800 800 1200
6 8.9465 2927 800 800 1120.3
7 6.8692 895 320 320 300
8 8.5099 2435 707.3 707.3 886.1
9 8.5791 2527.4 735.1 735.1 924
10 8.5586 2500.1 726.9 726.9 91.8
 BASE POINT AND PARTICIPATION FACTORS

• This method assumes that the • We start from a given schedule-the

1 base point.
economic dispatch problem
has to be solved repeatedly by
moving the generators from • The scheduler assumes a load change.
one economically optimum 2
schedule to another as the load • And investigates how much each generating
changes by a reasonably small unit needs to be moved.(“participate” in the
3 load change)
amount.
In order that the new load be served
at the most economic operating point.
𝝀𝝀∘ → 𝝀𝝀∘ + 𝜟𝜟𝜟𝜟

Assume that both the first and second derivatives in the cost versus power output function are
available.( i.e 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖′ and 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖′′ ). As the unit load is changed by an amount ∆𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 the system
incremental cost moves.
 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃1 =
𝐹𝐹 ″1

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 The total change in generation

𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃2 = ″
N units: 𝐹𝐹 2
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃1 + 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃2 +. . . +𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝑁𝑁
⋮

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝑁𝑁 = ″
𝐹𝐹 𝑁𝑁

𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 1⁄𝐹𝐹 ″ 𝑖𝑖
Participation factor for each unit: =
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 1
� ″
𝑖𝑖 𝐹𝐹 𝑖𝑖

∆𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 : Change in generation

∆𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 : Change in system demand
 Example 6
Starting from the optimal economic solution found in Example 3, use the participation factor
method to calculate the dispatch for a total load of 900 MW.
𝐹𝐹1 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝐻𝐻1 𝑃𝑃1 × 1.1 = 561 + 7.92𝑃𝑃1 + 0.00156𝑃𝑃12 𝑆𝑆⁄ℎ
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 = 850𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐹𝐹2 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐻𝐻2 𝑃𝑃2 × 1.0 = 310 + 7.85𝑃𝑃2 + 0.00194𝑃𝑃22 𝑆𝑆⁄ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 900 − 850 = 50
𝐹𝐹3 𝑃𝑃3 = 𝐻𝐻3 𝑃𝑃3 × 1.0 = 78 + 7.97𝑃𝑃3 + 0.00482𝑃𝑃32 𝑆𝑆⁄ℎ
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃2 0.00388 −1
−1 = = 0.38
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃1 0.003124 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 681.57
= −1 + 0.00388 −1 −1
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 0.003124 + 0.00964 Similarly: 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃3 0.00964 −1
320.1 = = 0.15
= = 0.47 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 681.57
681.57 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 900 − 850 = 50
The new value of generation is calculated using:

𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 + 𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 , 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓: 𝑖𝑖 = 1,2,3
𝛥𝛥𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷

Base power

𝑃𝑃1 = 393.2𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤1 = 393.2 + 0.47 50 = 416.7

𝑃𝑃2 = 334.6𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 Then for each unit: 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤2 = 334.6 + 0.38 50 = 353.6
𝑃𝑃3 = 122.2𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤3 = 122.2 + 0.15 50 = 129.7
 Piecewise Linear
Cost Functions
Many electric utilities prefer to
represent their generator cost functions
as single or multiple segment linear
cost functions.
NonLinear Cost Functions Linear Cost Functions (Straight-Line segments)

min
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
+ 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖1 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖2 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖3 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖3
 𝑷𝑷𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊 �𝑷𝑷𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏 < 𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 < 𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊𝟑𝟑
𝑷𝑷𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒊𝟑𝟑

Cost Function Linear expression

min
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
+ 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖1 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖2 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖3 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖3
min
0 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖+1
, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 → 𝑘𝑘 = 1,2,3
min
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
+ 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖3
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖+1 − 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖+1 − 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
 Economic Dispatch with LP

𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

Minimize min
� 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖
+ 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖1 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖2 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖3 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖3
𝑖𝑖=1

min
Unit Constraints: 0 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, 𝑘𝑘 = 1,2,3, . . . .

For all generators

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖min + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 + 𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖3

𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

Subject to: � 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Load Generation Balance:

𝑁𝑁=1
 E.D including transmission losses
For large interconnected system where power is
transmitted over long distances with low load density
areas:
• Transmission line losses are a major factor
• Losses affect the optimum dispatch of generation
• The economic dispatch problem is to
minimize the overall generation cost, 𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 = 𝐹𝐹1 + 𝐹𝐹2 + 𝐹𝐹3 +. . . +𝐹𝐹𝑁𝑁
which is a function of plant output. 𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 = � 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=1
• Constraints:
 The generation equals the total 𝑁𝑁𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

load demand plus transmission 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − � 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 𝜙𝜙 = 0

losses. 𝑖𝑖=1

 Each plant output is within the

upper and lower generation
limits’ inequality constraints.
 E.D including transmission losses
All-thermal power generation system connected to an equivalent load
bus through a transmission network.
N
Pload + Ploss − ∑ Pi =φ=0
i =1

By taking the derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to any

one of the N values of 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 : 𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔

𝐿𝐿 = 𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 + 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 + 𝜆𝜆 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − � 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖=1
= − 𝜆𝜆 1 − =0
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 The minimum point occurs when:
𝑁𝑁

𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − � 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 = 0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

=0 or + 𝜆𝜆 0 + −1 =0
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
 dFi  dPLoss 
+ λ 0+ − 1 =
0
Rearrange this equation: dPi dPi
 

The incremental fuel cost λ becomes:

1 𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 dFi
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
= 𝜆𝜆, 𝑖𝑖 = 1, . . , 𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔 or Li = λ=
, i 1, 2,..., n
1−
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 dPi

Where 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 is known as the penalty factor of plant i and is given by:
1
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 =
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃
1 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
 E.D including transmission losses
One common practice for including the effect of transmission
losses is to express the total transmission loss as a quadratic
function of the generator power outputs.
B𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 are called the loss coefficients
• Simplest form: Kron’s loss formula: • They are assumed to be
𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 constant
𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 • Reasonable accuracy is
expected when actual operating
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = � � 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 . 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 . 𝑃𝑃𝑗𝑗 + � 𝐵𝐵0𝑗𝑗 . 𝑃𝑃𝑗𝑗 + 𝐵𝐵00
conditions are close to the base
𝑗𝑗=1 𝑗𝑗=1
case conditions used to
𝑖𝑖=1
compute the coefficients.
 Economic Dispatch including loss
There are two methods for including the effect of transmission losses
1. Expressing the total transmission loss as a quadratic function of the
generator power outputs.
2. Considering load flow as a constraint in optimization problem
(Optimal Power Flow = OPF).
 Example 7

• Starting with the same units and fuel costs as in Example 3, we will
include a simplified loss expression.
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 0.00003𝑃𝑃12 + 0.0000𝑃𝑃22 + 0.00012𝑃𝑃32

𝐹𝐹1 𝑃𝑃1 = 𝐻𝐻1 𝑃𝑃1 × 1.1 = 561 + 7.92𝑃𝑃1 + 0.001562𝑃𝑃12 𝑆𝑆⁄ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹i 𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐹𝐹2 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐻𝐻2 𝑃𝑃2 × 1.0 = 310 + 7.85𝑃𝑃2 + 0.00194𝑃𝑃22 𝑆𝑆⁄ℎ = 𝜆𝜆 1 −
𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃i 𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝐹𝐹3 𝑃𝑃3 = 𝐻𝐻3 𝑃𝑃3 × 1.0 = 78 + 7.97𝑃𝑃2 + 0.00482𝑃𝑃22 𝑆𝑆⁄ℎ
 7.92 + 0.003124𝑃𝑃1 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 2 0.00003 𝑃𝑃1
First derivative of F 7.85 + 0.00388𝑃𝑃2 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 2 0.00009 𝑃𝑃2
7.97 + 0.00964𝑃𝑃3 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 2 0.00012 𝑃𝑃3

𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 − 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 850 = 0

We no longer have a set of linear equations as before. This necessitates a more complex solution
procedure as follows.
 • Pick a set of starting values for 𝑃𝑃1 , 𝑃𝑃2 , and 𝑃𝑃3 that sum
1 to the load. (Ignoring losses)
• Calculate the incremental losses 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ⁄𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 , as well as
2 the total losses 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 and total losses.
• Calculate the value of λ that causes 𝑃𝑃1 , 𝑃𝑃2 , and 𝑃𝑃3 to sum to the total load plus
losses. This is now as simple as the calculations in Example ? since the
3 equations are again linear.
• Compare the 𝑃𝑃1 , 𝑃𝑃2 , and 𝑃𝑃3 from step 3 to the values used at the start of step
2. If there is no significant change in any one of the values, go to step 5,
4 otherwise go back to step 2.

5
• End
Using this procedure, we obtain
𝑃𝑃1 = 400𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Starting Values: 𝑃𝑃2 = 300𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 � → 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 0.0003𝑃𝑃12 + 0.00009𝑃𝑃22 + 0.00012𝑃𝑃32
𝑃𝑃3 = 150𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 15.6𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
850MW
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= 2 0.00003 400 = 0.024
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃1
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= 2 0.00009 300 = 0.054
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃2
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= 2 0.00012 150 = 0.036
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃3

7.92 + 0.003124𝑃𝑃1 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 0.024 = 𝜆𝜆 0.976 𝜆𝜆 = 9.5252 𝑆𝑆⁄𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

7.85 + 0.00388𝑃𝑃2 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 0.054 = 𝜆𝜆 0.946 𝑃𝑃1 = 440.68
𝑃𝑃2 = 299.12
7.97 + 0.00964𝑃𝑃3 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 0.036 = 𝜆𝜆 0.946
𝑃𝑃3 = 125.77
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 − 850 − 15.6 = 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 − 865.6 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
= 2 0.00003 440.68 = 0.0264 𝑃𝑃1 = 440.68
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃1
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑃2 = 299.12 𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 15.78𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
= 2 0.00009 299.12 = 0.0538 𝑃𝑃3 = 125.77
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃2
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= 2 0.00012 125.77 = 0.0301
𝜕𝜕𝑃𝑃3

7.92 + 0.003124𝑃𝑃1 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 0.0264 = 𝜆𝜆 0.9736 𝜆𝜆 = 9.5275 𝑆𝑆⁄𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑃𝑃1 = 433.94
7.85 + 0.00388𝑃𝑃2 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 0.0538 = 𝜆𝜆 0.9462
𝑃𝑃2 = 300.11
7.97 + 0.00964𝑃𝑃3 = 𝜆𝜆 1 − 0.0301 = 𝜆𝜆 0.9699
𝑃𝑃3 = 131.74
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 − 850 − 15.78 = 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑃3 − 865.78 = 0
 Summarizing the iterative process used to solve this problem

Iteration 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 (𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌) 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 (MW) 𝑷𝑷𝟑𝟑 (MW) Losses(MW) λ

Start 400.00 300.00 150.00 15.60 9.5252

1 440.68 299.12 125.77 15.78 9.5275

2 433.94 300.1 1 131.74 15.84 9.5285

3 435.87 299.94 130.42 15.83 9.5283

4 434.13 299.99 130.71 15.83 9.5284