Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Available
Available online
online at at www.sciencedirect.com
www.sciencedirect.com
Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

ScienceDirect
ScienceDirect
Procedia Structural
Structural IntegrityIntegrity
Procedia1000(2018)
(2016)203–210
000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

1st International Conference of the Greek Society of Experimental Mechanics of Materials

Solar energy contribution to an electric vehicle needs

XV Portuguese Conference on Fracture, PCF 2016, 10-12 February 2016, Paço de Arcos, Portugal
on the basis of long-term measurements
Thermo-mechanical
Em. Kostopoulos*,modeling G. Spyropoulos, of aK.high pressureJ.K.
Christopoulos, turbine Kaldellis blade of an
airplane gas turbine engine
Soft Energy Applications & Environmental Protection Lab, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece

P. Brandãoa, V. Infanteb, A.M. Deusc*

AbstractaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
Portugal
b
IDMEC, Department
The European Commission of Mechanical
has set theEngineering,
rules towardsInstituto Superior and
a cleaner Técnico,
moreUniversidade
sustainabledeenvironment.
Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001
Considering that the Lisboa,
trans-
Portugal
portation
c sector is a great GHG emitter, not only have pollution limits been set, but also the directives for
CeFEMA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001 Lisboa,
the necessary infra-
structure have been introduced. Namely, renewable energy sources Portugal(RES)-based electromobility is strongly promoted by EU
countries so as to encounter the polluting internal combustion engines on the one hand, and the fueling of electric vehicles (EVs)
with electricity generated from fossil fuels on the other. In this context, the current study provides useful insight with regards to
RES-based
Abstract electromobility, using real measurements from the operation of the innovative, solar-based EV charging station of the
Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory of the University of West Attica. The particular installment
canDuring
operatetheir
bothoperation,
autonomously modern aircraft engine
and connected to the components
local grid andare subjected
is used to research
both for increasingly demanding
and the operating
actual charging conditions,
of EVs, with
especially
similar the highbelieved
installations pressuretoturbine
pave the(HPT)
way blades.
-together Suchwithconditions
other novel cause these parts
elements- to undergo
for the creation different types and
of smart grids of time-dependent
future smart
degradation,
cities. The results oneofofthewhich is creep.
specific studyAderive
modelfrom using
thethe finite element
adoption method
of specific (FEM)
distance was developed,
scenarios in orderconcerning
(km per annum) to be able average
to predict
the creep behaviour of HPT blades. Flight data records (FDR) for a specific aircraft,
drivers and normal driving patterns. The available vehicle is discharged under real-world driving conditions and afterwards provided by a commercial aviation
company,
charged under were used to
the same obtain speed
charging thermal and mechanical
in order to assess the data for three of
contribution different flight (photovoltaics
solar energy cycles. In order to create
(PVs)). the end,
To this 3D model
it is
needed
proved thatfor the FEM
a solar carportanalysis,
of 3kWpatotalHPTcapacity
blade can scrapsupport
was scanned, and itsmore
an EV covering chemical composition
than 20000km andone
within material
year. The properties were
importance
of the results lies in the fact that the energy consumption of a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is estimated under real-world3D
obtained. The data that was gathered was fed into the FEM model and different simulations were run, first with a simplified
rectangular block shape, in order to better establish the model, and then with the real 3D mesh obtained from the blade scrap. The
driving conditions, together with the respective PV or grid contribution necessary for charging the vehicle, while, in addition to
overall expected behaviour in terms of displacement was observed, in particular at the trailing edge of the blade. Therefore such a
that, sizing directions for a solar charging station used for the supply of a BEV’s annual energy needs are provided.
model can be useful in the goal of predicting turbine blade life, given a set of FDR data.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
©© 20182016TheTheAuthors. Published
Authors. by Elsevier
Published Ltd. B.V.
This is an open access article under thebyCCElsevier
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
This is
Peer-reviewan
Peer-reviewopen
under access
under article under
responsibility
responsibility the
of the of CC BY-NC-ND
the Scientific
scientific committee license
the 1st(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Committee
of of PCF 2016.
International Peer-review
Conference of the Greek Society of Experimental under
Mechanics
st
of Materials. of the scientific committee of the 1 International Conference of the Greek Society of Experimental Mechanics of Materials
responsibility
Keywords: High Pressure Turbine Blade; Creep; Finite Element Method; 3D Model; Simulation.
Keywords: Battery electric vehicle; renewable energy; solar charging station; smart cities; autonomy

 Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 210 5381237; fax: +30 210 5381493.
E-mail address: emanouilkostopoulos@gmail.com
Received: May 28, 2018; Received in revised form: August 02, 2018; Accepted: August 10, 2018

2452-3216 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

* Corresponding
This author.
is an open access Tel.: under
article +351 218419991.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Peer-review under
E-mail address:
responsibility amd@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
of the scientific committee of the 1 st International Conference of the Greek Society of Experimental Mechanics of Materials

2452-3216 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

2452-3216  2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review
This underarticle
is an open access responsibility of the
under the CC Scientific
BY-NC-ND Committee
license of PCF 2016.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 1st International Conference of the Greek Society of Experimental
Mechanics of Materials.
10.1016/j.prostr.2018.09.029
204 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210
2 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Introduction

The transportation sector plays a crucial role in the development of current economies having a large impact on
society. Fig.1(a), depicts the different shares in the global transportation market per type of transportation, considering
road, rail, air or sea transport. As expected, road transport holds 70% of the global market. According to the European
Commission (2016), only in the EU-28, 10 million people are employed in the transportation sector and 5% of the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is attributed to it.
In terms of energy and as data coming from the International Energy Agency (2018) reflect, the transportation
sector is heavily dependent on fossil fuels and corresponds to 20% of the global total primary energy supply. More-
over, transportation is responsible for almost 14% of global CO2 emissions (C2ES (2017)), while it mainly relies on oil
products (92%) and natural gas (4%). Renewable Energy Sources (RES) including biomass and electricity represent
3% and 1% of the total fuel shares respectively, while other sources such as, nuclear, crude oil, NGL, coal etc. con-
tribute with less than 0.1% of the total energy consumption (Fig.1b).

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. (a) Shares of the global transportation market, Euler Hermes Economic Research (2018); (b) World transportation sector delivered energy
consumption by energy source, 2015 (ktoe).

According to the available data, it is obvious that the increased dependence on oil products implies environmental
issues. The transportation sector is the second largest CO2 emitter after the energy generation sector, as Ritchie and
Roser (2018) also mention, and among those sectors largely responsible for air pollution. Transports contributed in
2015 virtually 26% of the total EU-28 greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which were found to be 23% higher than the
respective 1990 levels (European Environment Agency (2017)). According to Eurostat (2017), the transportation sector
absorbs more than 30% of the EU-28 final energy consumption, while it is responsible for emitting more than 1000
Mtn of carbon dioxide equivalent, i.e., 20% of the entire CO2 production of the EU on an annual basis. Road transport
especially accounted for almost 73% of the total GHG emissions for the same year (Fig.2a), of which 44.5% were
due to passenger cars (i.e. a road motor vehicle designed to seat no more than nine persons) and 18.8% due to heavy-
duty vehicles. Thus, it can be readily seen that road transport is an important source of many harmful air pollutants.
Moreover, according to the European Environment Agency (2016) and Kaldellis et al. (2015), air pollutants emitted
by road vehicles can be split into those that are regulated under the EU road transport legislation and those not current-
ly regulated. The former include carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbons (HCs), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter
(PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), while the latter include certain acidifying pollutants (e.g. NH3 and SO2), carcinogenic
and toxic organic pollutants (e.g. PAHs and POPs) and heavy metals (e.g. arsenic, cadmium, nickel etc.).
Since 1970 (Dir. 70/220/EC) the EU has specified emission regulations for motor vehicles (Official Journal of the
European Communities (2001)). Nevertheless, specific regulatory standards for petrol and diesel vehicles were set
after 1991 (Dir. 91/441/EEC), starting with EURO 1 to EURO 6 at present (Spyropoulos et al. (2016)). Mandatory
emission reduction targets have been set for new cars, especially after the "Volkswagen emissions" scandal, which,
according to Hotten (2015), raised awareness and changed the emission measuring procedure. The average emission
level for a new car sold in 2016 was 118,1gr CO2/km, while the 2021 target is 95gr CO2/km. Despite these strict
measures-targets, cars are responsible for 12% of the total EU emissions of CO2. Therefore, Electric Vehicles (EVs)
of all types seem to be the solution in order to improve the current situation.
 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210 205
Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. (a) Share of transportation sector GHG emissions, 2015, European Environment Agency (2017); (b) Global electric car stock, 2010-2016,
EV volumes (2018).

According to the latest available data (International Energy Agency (2017) and EV volumes (2018)), the global
electric car stock (i.e., Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Plug-in Hybrid EVs) surpassed two million vehicles in 2016
(Fig.2b). Combined with announcements from the world's largest car markets and manufacturers that by 2020 no new
combustion engine-only car will be designed, a promising future for the EV industry is unfolding (Pentland (2017);
Chrisafis and Vaughan (2017); Roberts (2017)). Nevertheless, as Fig.3 suggests, EV cars will contribute to the GHGs’s
reduction in a substantial way, only if RES power generation is exploited. Acknowledging the above, the aim of the
present work is to prove, using extended experimental data, that under real-world driving conditions, a solar EV
charging station of 3kWp adequately covers a BEV annual energy needs. In a future work one should examine some
additional parameters affecting the PV production, such as shading, insufficient orientation and inclination and dust.

350

300
CO2 emissions (gr/km)

250

200

150

100

50

0
ICE ICE BEV BEV BEV
Vehicle Vehicle
Vehicle type

Fig. 3. Range of life-cycle CO2 emissions for different vehicle and fuel types, European Energy Agency, 2017.

2. Utilization of a solar EV charging station for covering BEV energy needs

Having real energy data (real world measurements) is of utmost importance for the evaluation of the EV and solar
charging combination investigated in the current study, since simple calculation used up to now give usually unreliable
results. To this end, the autonomous/grid connected solar EV charging station (Fig.4a) of the Soft Energy Applications
206 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210
4 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

and Environmental Protection Laboratory of the University of West Attica (UNIWA) used has two different charging
speeds, i.e. “normal” and “slow”. During “normal” charging, high power via a P-charge Wallbox Mono (of up to 22
kW) incorporated in the solar EV charging station is provided. During “slow” charging, the vehicle is connected
with a conventional AC 230-volt (16 A) household power socket, incorporated also in the solar EV charging station.
According to Fig.4b, 15% higher energy consumption is recorded during the charging phase when using the fast
charging mode. Moreover, due to charging losses, the final energy absorbed by the electric vehicle is found to be
higher by approximately 20% in comparison with the pure electrical vehicle energy consumption resulting by simple
calculations. In this context, three different distance scenarios have been implemented, with the first one considering
8000 km per year, the second 12000 km and the third 15000 km, and with a total distance of almost 2000 km
covered, using also five different drivers and adopting a normal driving style.

(a) (b)

Fig. 4. (a) UNIWA solar EV charging station; (b) BMW i3 energy consumption comparison between vehicle’s display and carport’s values for
slow and fast charging.

Furthermore, the commercial BEV model used is the BMW i3, which is a B-class, high-roof hatchback manu-
factured and marketed by BMW, with an electric power train using rear wheel drive via a single-speed transmission
(Wikipedia (2018)). Moreover it is packed with a high voltage lithium-ion battery pack. The technical data of the BEV
are presented in Table 1, as provided by the official manufacturer’s site (BMWi3 (2015)).The i3 is BMW's first
mass-produced zero emissions vehicle and has been launched as part of BMW's electric vehicle sub-brand, BMW I
(Ewing (2010)).

Table 1. Technical data of BEV.

Capacity of lithium-ion battery in kWh 18.8
Energy consumption in kWh/100km* 12.9
Total energy consumption, average driver in kWh/100km 14-17
Electric range everyday use** in km Up to 160
CO2 emissions gr/km 0
*According to NEDC
**Range dependent by various conditions, e.g. driving style, route characteristics etc.

Taking into account that the solar EV charging station is supported by advanced electronic measurement equip-
ment, it is easy to analytically record the produced energy from the 12 PV panels of 3kWp total nominal power (Fig.
5). This is realized through the Laboratory’s advanced electronic monitoring system, readily quantifying the amount of
energy coming from solar panels and directly used for the charging of the EV under the “normal” mode. Although
the car can be charged in two different modes, the “normal” mode has been currently selected. To this end, after each
scheduled route is over, the driver is plugging the car in the charging station for a full charging in order to define the
real energy consumption data as well as the charging profile.
 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210 207
Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

Fig. 5. A typical data analysis for the PV production, on a selected date, as shown on web.

The Laboratory’s carport is placed in the parking area outside of the Laboratory’s facilities, mainly to allow easy
access. It should be noted that the EV charging station is located in an area of the University where shadings from
surrounding obstacles exist and both inclination and orientation of the PV array are not ideal. Additionally, after three
years of operation of the carport station, the PV panels are not in a perfect condition concerning cleanliness as dust,
dirt and other fly-ash particles have covered them. As Kaldellis and Fragos (2011) and Kaldellis and Kapsali (2011)
mentioned, the existing dust in the atmosphere of heavy polluted areas, such as urban environments, when deposited on
the PVs’ front side, can cause significantly lower energy output, up to 30%. Additionally, according to Quaschning
and Hanitsch (1996), energy losses from shadings can be disproportionally greater than the actually shaded area of
the panels. These are the factors that reflect the real conditions of operation for an urban environment PV structure,
without this necessarily compromising the fact that a BEV can even under these circumstances cover its energy
needs in an efficient way and even allow for an energy surplus to occur.
Our calculations are based on Spyropoulos et al. (2016) work, where results regarding BEV’s real energy con-
sumption per km, at the energy meter of the power supplier, are provided. More specifically, charging losses have
been found to be ~15%, taking into account both the winter and summer period, as well as slow and normal charging
mode; thus the energy that a BEV consumes reaches 17.4 kWh/100 km. By utilizing real data (including losses) that
have been obtained after driving almost 2000 km, our results come from the calculation of the BEV’s energy con-
sumption for each month of an entire year. It should be noted that this consumption of kWh refers to the actual energy
that a consumer will have to pay for to his power provider after using and charging his/her vehicle.

3. Results and discussion

As previously mentioned, three distance scenarios have been examined under a normal driving pattern in order to
identify the PV station contribution over a year's time. Fig.6 shows the monthly PV energy production for year 2017,
together with the energy consumption for each of the tested scenarios. PV production for the year examined is almost
3600 kWh, corresponding to a fair specific value of 1200 kWh/kWp on annual basis. It is found that when a BEV
travels 8000 km annually under the aforementioned driving conditions, a 3 kWp PV array can sufficiently cover its
needs, with an energy surplus also occurring for every single month. Concerning the 12000 km scenario, results have
shown that energy surplus does occur once again year-round, with the exception of few winter months (i.e., November,
December and January). Finally, according to the 15000 km scenario, BEV’s energy consumption is still lower than
the annual PV energy production, although this time, more considerable energy shortage is noted during the winter
months (i.e., November, December, January and February). More precisely, for the first scenario (Fig.7a), the energy
from the PV array not only covers the BEV’s consumption, but also creates a total annual energy excess of 2250 kWh,
which is used to partially supplement the Laboratory’s energy needs. Even during the winter months (i.e., October -
March), the remaining energy ranges between 40 kWh and 170 kWh, while during the summer months, energy surplus
208 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210
6 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Fig. 6. PV annual production combined with each scenario of BEV consumption.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7. (a) Energy balance for the 8000km scenario; (b) Energy balance for the 12000km scenario.

even reaches 350 kWh (July). Therefore, no grid contribution is needed for a BEV that travels almost 8000 km annual-
ly. On the other hand, as Fig.7b indicates, when the BEV reaches 12000 km per year, the results are quite different.
As expected, the energy consumption increases and grid contribution becomes necessary. In this case, grid contribution
is partially needed for November, December and January (ranging between 1% and 11%), during which the PV pro-
duction cannot completely cover the BEV’s consumption. For the remaining months of the year, the PV production
exceeds the BEV’s energy consumption, leading to energy surplus. To this end, February, which gives the lowest
performance as far as solar radiation is concerned, offers 33 kWh that can be stored for later use or cover other
energy needs; while in July the excess of energy reaches 290 kWh.
Finally, Fig.8 reveals that for the 15000 km scenario, the total PV contribution is still adequate and grid contribution
is virtually twice than it is in the 12000 km scenario. Since consumption needs are increased and PV energy pro-
duction is steady, the contribution from grid reaches 29% (i.e., January). The rest of the year, the lowest PV share in
the total energy charging mix is 17% (i.e., October), while the highest reaches 111% (i.e., July). Consequently, the
total annual energy coming from grid is 172 kWh. This means that 20% of the BEV’s annual energy needs is covered
by the grid. However, energy surplus is still present on annual basis (using net-metering).
Table 2 indicates the annual amount of energy that a BEV consumes together with the annual energy surplus for
each scenario. In the first scenario, the energy surplus exceeds the BEV’s consumption due to the fact that during the
whole year the PV production is much greater than the BEV’s consumption. On the other hand, the other two scenarios
present a greater BEV consumption at the expense of remaining energy, with local grid contribution also becoming
necessary. At the same time, one may also obtain the net energy surplus, i.e. the annual energy surplus minus the energy
 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210 209
Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 7

Fig. 8. Energy balance for the 15000km scenario.

Table 2. Annual energy results for each scenario.

1st Scenario 2nd Scenario 3rd Scenario
8000 km/year 12000 km/year 15000 km/year
BEV’s Annual Consumption (kWh) 1392 2088 2610
Annual Energy Surplus (kWh) 2256 1592 1210
Net Energy Surplus (kWh) 2256 1559 1037

imported from the grid. To this end, the existence of energy surplus in all three scenarios reveals that, at the end of
the year, PV production can definitely meet the energy needs of a typical BEV.

4. Conclusions

The importance of the experimental results obtained in the current study lies in the fact that a BEV’s energy con-
sumption and furthermore the PV and grid contribution to the vehicle’s charging process are estimated using extended
experimental data under real-world driving conditions. In addition to this, directions with regards the sizing of a
solar charging station for the supply of a typical BEV annual energy needs are provided. In order to identify the PV
contribution of an urban solar carport for charging a BEV under real-world driving conditions, the solar EV charging
station of the Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory of the UNIWA has been utilized.
Furthermore, a typical, commercial BEV was driven under three different distance scenarios and a total distance of
2000 km was covered. Although the PV carport’s energy performance is influenced by several real world factors
(e.g. dust, orientation, inclination and shadings from surrounded buildings and obstacles) -representing in this way
real PV structure conditions in an urban environment- it has been proven that a solar carport of 3 kWp capacity, with
an installation area of about 20m2, can cover virtually twice (i.e. more than 20000 km) of the average annual kilo-
meters travelled by a typical urban driver (i.e. covering annual distances of about 10000km).
More specifically, when a BEV travels 8000 km per year, a PV carport of 3 kWp, with the aforementioned limiting
factors, not only covers its energy needs but produces an annual energy surplus of 2250 kWh as well. In the case of
12000 km, the PV production can autonomously cover nine out of twelve months of the year, by creating an annual
net energy excess of 1550 kWh, while grid contribution reaches 11%. Finally, when the BEV travels 15000 km per
year, the grid contribution doubles to 20% of the total demanded energy, whilst the annual net energy excess reaches
1000 kWh per year.
According to the experimental data provided, in all three scenarios examined there is an excess of energy that can
be used to further support a BEVs' annual energy needs, either by being stored directly in batteries or indirectly in
the local grid using the net metering procedure. All things concerned, by installing a 1.5 kWp PV carport that occupies
an area of about 10 m2, the annual energy needs of a typical BEV driver can be readily covered by utilizing pure solar
210 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 10 (2018) 203–210
8 Em. Kostopoulos et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

energy. To this end, there are several lines of research arising from the current study, with the following work of the
authors focusing on the correlation between the charging time and the charging level of a BEV, while additional
parameters affecting the PV production such as shading, orientation and inclination and dust are the subject of a future
experimental analysis.

References

BMW i3, 2015. Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. Available at: http://www.bmw.com/com/en/newvehicles/i/i3/2015/showroom/index.html
(Accessed: 23/4/2018).
Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, (C2ES), 2017. Available at: https://www.c2es.org/ (Accessed: 29/4/2018).
Chrisafis, A., Vaughan, A., 2017. France to ban sales of petrol and diesel cars by 2040. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.
com/business/2017/jul/06/france-ban-petrol-diesel-cars-2040-emmanuel-macron-volvo (Accessed: 29/4/2018).
Euler Hermes Economic Research, 2018. Global Sector Report, Transportation. Available at: http://www.eulerhermes.com/economic-research/
blog/EconomicPublications/Transportation-global-sector-report-feb18.pdf (Accessed: 20/4/2018).
European Commission, 2016. Transport sector economic analysis. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/research-topic/transport-sector-economic-
analysis (Accessed: 10/4/2018).
European Environment Agency, 2016. Explaining road transport emissions, A non-technical guide. Availabe at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/
publications/explaining-road-transport-emissions (Accessed: 25/4/2018).
European Environment Agency, 2017. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport. Available at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/
indicators/transport-emissions-of-greenhouse-gases/transport-emissions-of-greenhouse-gases-10 (Accessed: 19/4/2018).
European Energy Agency, 2017. Range of life-cycle CO2 emissions for different vehicle and fuel types. Available at: https://www.eea.europa.
eu/downloads/545dee1b655e4033bcbf92ff4b58a9a2/1511344930/range-of-life-cycle-co2.pdf (Accessed: 22/4/2018).
Eurostat, 2017. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Main_Page (Accessed: 23/4/2018).
EV Volumes, The electric vehicle world database, 2018. Available at: http://www.ev-volumes.com/ (Accessed: 29/4/2018).
Ewing, J., 2010. Will Plug-In BMWs Turn Enthusiasts On?. The New York Times. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/31/automobiles
/will-plug-in-bmws-turn-enthusiasts-on.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1 (Accessed: 23/4/2018).
Hotten, R., 2015. Volkswagen: The scandal explained. BBC. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/business-34324772 (Accessed: 27/4/2018).
International Energy Agency, 2017. Global EV Outlook 2017, Two million and counting. Available at: https://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf (Accessed: 25/4/2018).
International Energy Agency, 2018. Available at: https://www.iea.org/statistics/ (Accessed: 10/4/2018).
Kaldellis, J.K., Fragos, P., 2011. Ash deposition impact on the energy performance of photovoltaic generators. Journal of Cleaner Production 19,
311-317.
Kaldellis, J.K., Kapsali, M., 2011. Simulating the dust effect on the energy performance of photovoltaic generators based on experimental
measurements. Energy 36, 5154-5161.
Kaldellis, J.K., Spyropoulos, G., Liaros, St., 2015. Supporting Electro-mobility in Smart Cities using solar EV charging stations. 3rd Mediterranean
Green Buildings and Renewable Energy Forum (MEDGREEN 2015), Florence, Italy, 501-513, Springer Intern. Publishing.
Official Journal of the European Communities, 2001. DIRECTIVE 2001/100/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE
COUNCIL of 7 December 2001 amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States on
measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?
uri=OJ:L:2002:016:0032:0034:EN:PDF (Accessed: 17/4/2018).
Pentland, W., 2017. Volvo says it will stop designing combustion-engine only cars by 2019. Forbes. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/
williampentland/ 2017/07/05/volvo-says-it-will-stop-designing-combustion-engine-only-cars-by-2019/#bffb6b81fa38 (Accessed: 29/4/2018).
Quaschning, V., Hanitsch, R., 1996. Numerical simulation of current-voltage characteristics of photovoltaic systems with shaded solar cells. Solar
Energy 56, 513-520.
Ritchie, H., Roser, M., 2018. CO2 and other Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Available at: https://
ourworldindata. org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions (Accessed: 22/4/2018).
Roberts, D., 2017. The world’s largest car market just announced an imminent end to gas and diesel cars. Available at: https://www.vox.com/
energy-and-environment/2017/9/13/16293258/ev-revolution (Accessed: 29/4/2018).
Spyropoulos, G.C., Petridou, K., Liaros, St., Kaldellis, J.K., 2016. Real World Driving Energy Consumption and Air Pollution Implications of
Decarbonizing the Greek Transport Sector. In: 1st International Conference “ENERGY in TRANSPORTATION 2016”.
Wikipedia, 2018. BMW i3. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_i3 (Accessed: 21/4/2018).