Newly Introduced

2 Mechanical Engineering
4. Horizontal arm : In this type of configuration, the probe is carried by the horizontal axis. The
probe assembly can also move up and down along a vertical axis. It can be used for gauging
larger workpieces since it has a large work volume. It is often referred to as a layout.
SY
Fig.
5. Gantr
Gantryy : In this configuration, the support of the workpiece is independent of the X- and Y-axis.
EA
Both these axes are overhead and supported by four vertical columns from the floor. The operator
can walk along with the probe, which is desirable for large workpieces.
Some of the machines may have rotary tables or probe spindles, which will enhance the versatility of the
machines. The work space that is bounded by the limits of travel in all the axes is known as the work envelop.
Laser interferometers are provided for each of the axes if a very precise measurement is necessary.
1.3 Modes of Operation

Modes of operation are quite varied in terms of type of construction and degree of automation. Accordingly,
E
CMMs can be classified into the following three types based on their modes of operation:
1. Manual
2. Semi-automated
AD
3. Computer controlled
The manual CMM has a free-floating probe that the operator moves along the machine’s three axes to
establish contact with part features. The differences in the contact positions are the measurements. A semi-
automatic machine is provided with an electronic digital display for measurement. Many functions such as
setting the datum, change of sign, and conversion of dimensions from one unit to another are done electronically.
A computer-controlled CMM has an on-board computer, which increases versatility, convenience, and
reliability. Such machines are quite similar to CNC machines in their control and operation. Computer assistance
M
is utilized for three major functions. Firstly, a programming software directs the probe to the data collection
points. Secondly, measurement commands enable comparison of the distance traversed to the standard built
into the machine for that axis. Thirdly, computational capability enables processing of the data and generation of
the required results.
1.4 Probe
The probe is the main sensing element in a CMM. Generally, the probe is of ‘contact’ type, that is, it is in
physical contact with the workpiece when the measurements are taken. Contact probes may be either ‘hard’
probes or ‘soft’ probes. However, some CMMs also use a non-contact-type.
www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

Newly Introduced Topics for GATE 2021 | Theory 3
Figure illustrates the main components of a probe assembly. A probe

assembly comprises the probe head, probe, and stylus. The probe is attached
to the machine quill by means of the probe head and may carry one or more
styli. Some of the probes are motorized and provide additional flexibility in
recording coordinates.
The stylus is integral with hard probes and comes in various shapes such as
pointed, conical, and ball end. As a power feed is used to move the probe along
different axes, care should be exercised when contact is made with the workpiece to
ensure that excessive force is not applied on the probe. Fig.
SY
Excessive contact force may distort either the probe itself or the workpiece, resulting in inaccuracy in
measurement. Use of soft probes mitigates this problem to a large extent. Soft probes make use of electronic
technology to ensure application of optimum contact pressure between the probe and the workpiece. Linear
voltage differential transformer heads are generally used in electronic probes. However, ‘touch trigger’ probes,
which use differences in contact resistance to indicate deflection of the probe, are also popular.
1.5 Probe Calibration
EA
A remarkable advantage of a CMM is its ability to achieve a high level of
accuracy even with reversal in the direction of measurement. It does not have the
usual problems such as backlash and hysteresis associated with measuring
instruments. However, the probe may mainly pose a problem due to deflection.
Therefore, it needs to be calibrated against a master standard. Figure illustrates
the use of a slip gauge for calibration of the probe.
Calibration is carried out by touching the probe on either side of the slip
gauge surface. The nominal size of the slip gauge is subtracted from the measured
E
value. The difference is the ‘effective’ probe diameter. It differs from the measured
probe diameter because it contains the deflection and backlash encountered during
measurement. These should nearly remain constant for subsequent measurements.
AD
Fig.
1.6 Operation
This section explains the operation or the measurement process using a CMM. Most modern CMMs
invariably employ computer control. A computer offers a high degree of versatility, convenience, and reliability. A
modern CMM is very similar in operation to a computer numerical control (CNC) machine, because both control
and measurement cycles are under the control of the computer. A user-friendly software provides the required
functional features. The software comprises the following three components:
M
1. Move commands, which direct the probe to the data collection points.
2. Measurement commands, which result in the comparison of the distance traversed to the standard
built into the machine for that axis.
3. Formatting commands, which translate the data into the form desired for display or printout.
1.7 Machine Programming

Most measurement tasks can be carried out using readily available subroutines. The subroutines are
designed based on the frequency with which certain measurement tasks recur in practice. An operator only
needs to find the subroutine in a menu displayed by the computer. The operator then inputs the data collection

points, and using simple keyboard commands the desired results can be obtained. The subroutines are stored
in the memory and can be recalled whenever the need arises. Figure below illustrates a few typical subroutines
that are used in CMMs.
A circle can be defined by specifying three points lying on it. This is shown in Fig. (a). The program
automatically calculates the centre point and the diameter of the best-fit circle. A cylinder is slightly more complex,
requiring five points. The program determines the best-fit cylinder and calculates the diameter, a point on the
axis, and a best-fit axis (Fig. b).
SY
EA
Fig.
E
Situations concerning the relationship between planes are common. Very often, we come across planes
that need to be perfectly parallel or perpendicular to each other. Figure (c) illustrates a situation where the
perpendicularity between two planes is being inspected. Using a minimum of two points on each line, the
AD
program calculates the angle between the two lines. Perpendicularity is defined as the tangent of this angle. In
order to assess the parallelism between two planes (Fig. d), the program calculates the angle between the two
planes. Parallelism is defined as the tangent of this angle.
1.8 Major Applications

The CMM is a sophisticated equipment, which offers tremendous versatility and flexibility in modern
M
manufacturing applications. It uses the fundamental principles of metrology to an extent that is not matched by
any other measurement instrument. However, its use is limited to situations where production is done in small
batches but products are of high value. It is especially useful for components of varied features and complex
geometry. In addition to these factors, a CMM is a good choice in the following situations:
1. A CMM can easily be integrated into an automated inspection system. The computer controls
easy integration in an automated environment such as an FMS or a CIM. The major economic
benefit is the reduction in downtime for machining while waiting for inspection to be completed.
2. A CMM may be interfaced with a CNC machine so that machining is corrected as the workpiece is
inspected. A further extension of this principle may include computer-assisted design and drafting
(CADD).

3. Another major use of CMMs is in reverse engineering. A complete 3D geometric model with all
critical dimensions can be built where such models do not exist. Once the geometric model is
built, it becomes easier to design dies or moulds for manufacturing operations.
2. ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
2.1 Introduction
Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a
SY
component in layers by depositing material. This process can be said as " What You See Is What You Build
(WYSIWYB) Process".
Difference between Rapid Prototyping and Additive Manufacturing

AM, also known as 3D printing, rapid prototyping or freeform fabrication. Although the terms “3D printing”
and “rapid prototyping” are casually used to discuss additive manufacturing, each process is actually a subset
of additive manufacturing.
Additive vs Subtractive Manufacturing

•
•
EA
Additive manufacturing adds material to create an object.
By contrast, when you create an object by traditional means, it is often necessary to remove
material through milling, machining, carving, shaping or other means.
How does additive manufacturing works?

AM technologies grow three dimensional objects one superfine layer at a time. Each successive layer
bonds to the preceding layer of melted or partially melted material. Objects are digitally defined by computer-
E
aided-design (CAD) software that is used to create .stl files that essentially “slice” the object into ultra-thin layers.
This information guides the path of a nozzle or print head as it precisely deposits material upon the preceding
layer. Or, a laser or electron beam selectively melts or partially melts in a bed of powdered material. As materials
AD
cool down or are cured, they fuse together to form a three-dimensional object.
2.2 Generic AM Process

1. CAD 2.STL Convert (STereoLithography)
3. File transfer to machine 4.Machine setup
5. Build 6.Remove
7. Post Processes 8.Application
M
2.3 Data path for AM

Physical Model Auxilliary geometry
Image of the object CAD to STL Conversion Conversion of part geometry Print a 3D object
Design Idea Machine or process parameters
3D-Source 3D-Object

• 3D-CAD Modelling
3D-Modelling • 3D Scan (Reverse Engineering)
• Creation of STL-Data (Triangulation)
• Reparation of files, close holes or open surfaces

Data preparation • Part orientation and support structures
• Create slices from the model, slicing
Manufacturing • Generation of control data
SY
on AM machine • Production of the parts
• Removal of powder, support structures and platform

Post process • Heat treatment
• Surface finish, polishing etc.
2.4 CAD Model into STL Format

EA
E
STL uses triangles to describe the surfaces to be built. Each triangle is described as three points and a
facet normal vector indicating the outward side of the triangle.
AD
2.5 Effects of building using different layer thicknesses

M
2.6 Generation of Geometrical Layer Information on Single Layers

To produce three-dimensional models by layer-oriented additive manufacturing processes, the 3D CAD
solid must be mathematically split into the same layers as those produced physically by the AM machine. This
process is known as "slicing."There are two basic methods of doing this:
1. Triangulation, which leads to the STL format .
2. Direct cutting in the CAD system, which leads to the CL (SLI) format.

2.7 STL Format

STL (STereoLithography) is a file format native to the stereolithography CAD software. It is widely used
for rapid prototyping, 3D printing and computer-aided manufacturing. The main purpose of the STL file format is
to encode the surface geometry of a 3D object. It encodes this information using a simple concept called
“tessellation”.
2.7.1 Tessellation
Tessellation is the process of tiling a surface with one or more geometric shapes such that there are no
overlaps or gaps.Tessellation can involve simple geometric shapes or very complicated (and imaginative) shapes
SY
EA
E
2.8 ASCII STL file format
AD
File starts with mandatory line:

solid <name>
File ends with mandatory line:
endsolid <name>
The file stores information about the covering triangles.
2.9 Binary STL file format

M
If the tesselation involves many small triangles, the ASCII STL file can become huge. This is why a more
compact binary version exists.
2.10 Special rules for the STL Format

• The STL specfication has some special rules for tessellation and for storing information.
• The vertex rule : This rule states that each triangle must share two vertices with its neighbouring
triangles.

SY
• The orientation rule : This rule states that the orientation of the fact ( i.e. which way is "in" the 3D
object and which way is "out" must be specified.
1 Out
2
EA CCW 3
• The triangle sorting rule: The triangle sorting rule recommends that the triangles appear in ascending
z-value order.
• The all positive octant rule: The all positive octant rule says that the coordinates of the triangle
E
vertices must all be positive.
2.11 Layer Manufacturing Processes

AD
Layer manufacturing processes
Powder materials Liquid Materials Solid Materials
Lamination process
Sintering process Sintering process
Bonding of sheets Bonding of sheets
• Selective laser • 3D Printing with adhesive with light
M
Sintering
• Laminated Object • Foil
Manufacturing polymerisation
Extrusion process Liquid polymerisation or

stereolithographic processes
• Fused Deposition
Modelling Photo-masking Laser processes
processes
• Solid Ground Curing • Stereolithography

2.12 Advantages of STL File format

• Provides a simple method of representing 3D CAD data.
• A de facto standard has been used by most CAD systems and RP systems.
• It can provide small and accurate files for data transfer for certain shapes.
2.13 Disadvantages of STL File format

• The STL file is many times larger than the original CAD data file.
• The geometric flaws exist in the STL file.
SY
• The subsequent slicing of large STL files can take many hours.
2.14 Additive Manufacturing Technologies

• Selective laser sintering (SLS) or Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
• Stereolithography (SLA)
• Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
• 3D printing
•
•
•
EA
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) etc.
2.14.1 Selective laser sintering (SLS) & Direct Metal Laser Sintering ( DMLS)
A laser sinters each layer of metal powder so that the metal particles adhere to one another.
DMLS machines produce high-resolution objects with desirable surface features and required
mechanical properties.
E
Laser scanning direction
Laser beam
Pre-placed powder bed (green state)
AD
Sintered powder particles

(brown state)
Laser sintering
M
Unsintered material in previous layers
• Nearly 0.1 mm thick layers.

• The part building takes place inside an enclosed chamber filled with nitrogen gas to minimize
oxidation and degradation of the powdered material.
• The powder in the building platform is maintained at an elevated temperature just below the melting
point and/or glass transition temperature of the powdered material.

• Infrared heaters are used to maintain an elevated temperature around the part being formed.
• A focused CO2 laser beam is moved on the bed in such a way that it thermally fuses the material
to form the slice cross-section.
• Surrounding powders remain loose and serve as support for subsequent layers.
X-Y Scanning
CO2 Laser Mirrors
Laser Beam
IR heater
Counter-Rotation
Powder Leveling Power Bed
Roller
SY
Build
Feed Platform
2.14.2 Three Dimensional (3D) Printing

•
•
EA Cartridged
The 3D printing process is an indirect process in two steps.

After applying a powder layer on the build platform, the powder is agglomerated tanks to a binder
fed through the printer nozzle.
• The operation is repeated until parts are produced, which shall be then removed carefully from the
powder bed, as they are in a <<green>> stage.
E
• The metal part solidication takes place in a second step, during a debinding and sintering operation,
sometimes followed by an infiltration step.
• The 3D printing technology is more productive than laser beam melting and requires no support
structure. Besides it provides a good surface quality by using one of several post processing
AD
techniques.
Power Feeder
Laser Source
Recoater
(Roller or blade)
M
Power
Layers
Building Platform
Part
2.14.3 Fused deposition modeling ( FDM)

FDM uses a heating chamber to liquefy polymer that is fed into the system as a filament.The filament is
pushed into the chamber by a tractor wheel arrangement and it is this pushing that generates the extrusion
pressure.

SY
3
EA
The major strength of FDM is in the range of materials and the effective mechanical properties of resulting
parts made using this technology.Parts made using FDM are amongst the strongest for any polymer based
additive manufacturing process.
2.14.4 Laminated Object Manufacturing ( LOM ) & Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing ( UAM)
• LOM excels at creating objects ideal for visual or aesthetic modeling.
• UAM is a relatively low-temperature, low-energy process used with various metals, including titanium,
stainless steel and aluminum.
E
2.14.5 Stereolithograpghy (SLA)
• Stereolithography (SLA) uses
photopolymerization to print ceramic objects. Scanner system
AD
Stereolithography is also called Laser

Photopolymerization. Laser beam
• The process employs a UV laser selectively Layers of solidified resin
focused into a vat of photopolymer resin.
• The UV-curable resins produce torque-resistant
parts that can withstand extreme temperatures. Liquid resin
• The source supplies the energy that is needed
M
to induce a chemical reaction (curing reaction),

bonding large no of small molecules and forming Platform and piston
a highly cross-linked polymer
• The UV light comes from a laser, which is controlled to scan across the surface according to the
cross-section of the part that corresponds to the layer.
• The laser penetrates into the resin for a short distance that corresponds to the layer thickness.
• The first layer is bonded to a platform, which is placed just below the surface of the resin container.
• The platform lowers by one layer thickness and the scanning is performed for the next layer.
• This process is continued until the part has been completed.

Facts about SLA

• Each layer is 0.076 mm to 0.50 mm thick.
• Starting materials are liquid monomers.
• Polymerization occurs on exposure to UV light produced by laser scanning beam - Scanning
speeds - 0.5 to 2.5 m/s.
Part time build in SLA

Time to complete a single layer
Where Ti = time to complete layer i ; Ai = area of layer i; v = average scanning speed of the laser beam
at the surface; D = diameter of the "spot size", assumed circular; and Td = delay time between
SY
layers to reposition the worktable.
Ai
Ti = + Td
vD
Time to build a part ranges from one hour for small parts of simple geometry up to several dozen hours
for complex parts.
SLA Build Cycle Time
EA
Tc =
n1
∑ Ti
i= 1
Where Tc = STL build cycle time and n1 = number of layers used to approximate the part
2.15 Electron Beam Melting

E
The EBM process utilizes a high-power electron beam that generates the energy needed for high melting
capacity and high productivity. The hot process allows you to produce parts with no residual stress and the
vacuum ensures a clean and controlled environment.
AD
2.16 Selective Laser Melting (SLM) or Direct Metal Laser Melting (DMLM) or
Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF)
Materials are fully melted in the DMLM and EBM processes. With DMLM, a laser completely melts each
layer of metal.Ideal for manufacturing dense, non-porous objects.
Power Feeder
M
Laser Source
Recoater
(Roller or blade)
Power
Layers
Building Platform
Part

A powder layer is first applied on a building platform with a recoater (blade or roller) and a laser beam
selectively melts the layer of powder. Then the platform is lowered by 20 ?m to 100 ?m and a new powder layer
is applied. The laser beam melting operation is repeated. After a few thousand cycles (depending on height of
the part), the built part is removed from the powder bed.
2.17 Different Additive Manufacturing Processes

• Powder Bed Fusion
• Material Extrusion
• Directed Energy Deposition
SY
• Material Jetting
• Binder Jetting
• Sheet Lamination
• Vat Polymerization
2.17.1 Powder Bed Fusion

This technology is used in a variety of AM processes, including direct metal laser sintering (DMLS),
EA
selective laser sintering (SLS), selective heat sintering (SHS), electron beam melting (EBM) and direct metal laser
melting (DMLM).These systems use lasers, electron beams or thermal print heads to melt or partially melt ultra-
fine layers of material in a three-dimensional space.As the process concludes, excess powder is blasted away
from the object.
2.17.2 Material Extrusion

Spooled polymers are extruded, or drawn through a heated nozzle mounted on a movable arm.
The nozzle moves horizontally while the bed moves vertically, allowing the melted material to be built
E
layer after layer. Proper adhesion between layers occurs through precise temperature control or the use of chemical
bonding agents.Material extrusion is one of the most well-known additive manufacturing processes.
1
AD
3
M
2.17.3 Direct Energy Deposition

An electron beam gun or laser mounted on a four- or five-axis arm melts either wire or filament feedstock
or powder.DED is similar to material extrusion, although it can be used with a wider variety of materials, including
polymers, ceramics and metals.
2.17.4 Material Jetting

With material jetting, a print head moves back and forth, much like the head on a 2D inkjet printer.
However, it typically moves on x-, y- and z-axes to create 3D objects. Layers harden as they cool or are cured by
ultraviolet light.

2.17.5 Binder Jetting

The binder jetting process is similar to material jetting, except that the print head lays down alternate
layers of powdered material and a liquid binder.
2.17.6 Sheet Lamination

Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) and ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) are two sheet
lamination methods. LOM uses alternate layers of paper and adhesive, while UAM employs thin metal sheets
conjoined through ultrasonic welding. LOM excels at creating objects ideal for visual or aesthetic modeling. UAM
is a relatively low-temperature, low-energy process used with various metals, including titanium, stainless steel
SY
and aluminum.
2.17 VAT Polymerisation

Vat photopolymerization, an object is created in a vat of a liquid resin photopolymer.A process called
photopolymerization, cures each microfine resin layer using ultraviolet (UV) light precisely directed by mirrors.
2.18 Additive Manufacturing Materials

•
•
•
•
Thermoplastics
Metals
Ceramics
Biochemicals
EA
• Composites
2.19 Benefits of AM technology

E
• Freedom to design and innovate without penalties
• Rapid iteration through design permutations
• Excellent for mass customization
AD
• Elimination of tooling
• Green manufacturing
• Minimal material wastage
• Energy efficient
• Enables personalized manufacturing
2.20 Limits of AM Technology

M
• Unexpected pre- and post-processing requirements

• High process cost
• Lack of industry standards
• Low speed, not suitable for mass production
• Inconsistent Materials
• Limited number of materials
• High equipment cost for high-end manufacturing
• Porosity (99.9% density achieved)

2.21 AM - Applications
• Aerospace
• Medical
• Manufacturing
• Automotive
• Lifestyle
• Oil & Gas
• Food & Beverage
• Consumer Electronics
SY
Summary
3D Printing
Rapid Prototyping Additive Manufacturing (AM)

Rapid Manufacturing Additive Layer Manufacturing (ALM)
EA
Laser Beam Melting (LBM)
Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
Direct Metal Laser Melting (DMLM)
Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Free Form Fabrication (FFF)
Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF)
Laser Metal Deposition (LMD)

Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Laser Cladding
Direct Energy Deposition (DED)
Direct Metal Deposition (DMD)
Powder Fed Fusion
Blinder Jetting
E
3. NC-CNC PROGRAMMING
AD
3.1 Part Programming

A group of commands given to the CNC for operating the machine is called the program.
It consists of:
• Information about part geometry
M
• Motion statements to move the cutting tool

• Cutting speed
• Feed rate
• Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction
3.2 CNC program structure

There are four basic terms used in CNC programming
Character → Word → Block → Program
• Character is the smallest unit of CNC program. It can have Digit/ Letter / Symbol.

• Word is a combination of alpha-numerical characters. This creates a single instruction to the

CNC machine. Each word begins with a capital letter, followed by a numeral. These are used to
represent axes positions, feed rate, speed, preparatory commands, and miscellaneous functions.
• A program block may contain multiple words, sequenced in a logical order of processing.
• The program comprises of multiple lines of instructions, “blocks” which will be executed by the
machine control unit (MCU).
3.3 Fixed Zero v/s Floating Zero

Fixed zero: Origin is always located at some position on M/C table (usually at south west corner/Lower
SY
left-hand) of the tables & all tool location are defined with respect to this zero. Very common with CNC M/
C used now a days.
Floating zero: Operator sets zero point at any convenient position on M/C table. The Coordinate system
is knows as work coordinate system (WCS).
Modal: It is Commands issued in the NC program may stay in effect indefinitely (until they explicitly
cancelled or changed by some other command), or they may be effective for only the one time that they
EA
are issued. Which is referred as Modal commands. Examples: Include feed rate selection and
coolant selection.
Non modal commands: Commands that are effective only when issued and whose effects are lost for
subsequent commands are referred to as non-modal commands
commands. A dwell command, which instructs the
tool to remain in a given configuration for a given amount of time, is an example of a non-modal command.
3.4 Structure of an NC part program

An NC part program is made up of a series of commands that are input into the MCU in a serial manner.
E
The MCU interprets these commands and generates the necessary signals to each of the drive
units of the machine to accomplish the required action. The NC program is required to have a particular
structure that the controller can understand and it must follow a specific syntax. Commands are
AD
inputs into the controller in units called blocks or statements. Each block is made up of one or more
machine commands. In general, several commands are grouped together to accomplish a specific
machining operation, hence the use of a block of information for each operation. Each command gives a
specific element of control data, such as dimension or a feed rate. Each command within a block is also
called a word. The way in which words are arranged within the block is called block format. Three
different block formats are commonly used, (Fixed sequential format, Tab sequential format and Word
address format).
M
3.4.1 Word Sequential Format : Used on virtually all modern controllers.

N50 G00 X50 Y25 Z0 F0
N60 G01 Z-1 F50 M08
N70 Z0 M09
With this type of format, each type of word is assigned as address that is identified by a letter code
within the part program. Thus the letter code specifies the type of word that follows and then its associated
numeric data is given. For example, the code T represents a tool number. Thus a word of the form T01
would represent tool number 1. Theoretically, with this approach, the words in a given block can be
entered in any sequence and the controller should be able to interpret them correctly. With the word

address format only the needed words for a given operation have to be included within the block. The
command to which the particular numeric data applies is identified by the preceding address code.
Word format has the advantage of having more than one particular command in one block something that
would be impossible in the other two formats.
3.4.2 Commonly Used Word Addresses
• N-CODE: Sequence number, used to identify each block with in an NC program and provides a
means by which NC commands may be rapidly located. It is program line number. It is a good
practice to increment each block number by 5 to 10 to allow additional blocks to be inserted if
future changes are required.
SY
• G-CODE: Preparatory Word, used as a communication device to prepare the MCU. The G-code
indicates that a given control function such as G01, linear interpolation, is to be requested.
• X, Y & Z-CODES: Coordinates, these give the coordinate positions of the tool.
• F-CODE: Feed rate, the F code specifies the feed in the machining operation.
• S-CODE: Spindle speed, the S code specifies the cutting speed of the machining process.
• T-CODE: Tool selection, the T code specifies which tool is to be used in a specific operation.
•
•
for an NC machine tool. EA
M-CODE: Miscellaneous function, the M code is used to designate a particular mode of operation
I, J & K-CODES: They specify the centre of arc coordinates from starting.
E
AD
M

3.5 List of G codes
SY
EA
E
AD
3.6 List of M codes

M codes vary from machine to machine depending on the functions available on it. They are decided by
the manufacturer of the machine. The M codes listed below are the common ones.
M

[G00] Rapid traverse: When the tool being positioned at a point preparatory to a cutting motion, to save
time it is moved along a straight line at Rapid traverse, at a fixed traverse rate which is pre-programmed
into the machine’s control system.
Typical rapid traverse rates are 10 to 25 m /min., but can be as high as 80 m/min.
Syntax: N010 [G90/G91] G00 X10 Y10 Z5
SY
[G01] Linear interpolation (feed traverse): The tool moves along a straight line in one or two axis
simultaneously at a programmed linear speed, the feed rate.
Syntax
Syntax: N010[G90/G91] G01 X10 Y10 Z5 F25
EA
E
[G02/G03] Circular interpolation
Format:
N G02/03 X Y__Z__ I__ J__K F__ using the arc center
AD
or
N G02/03 X Y__Z__ R F__ using the arc radius
Arc center: The arc center is specified by addresses I, J and K. I, J and K are the X, Y and Z co-
ordinates of the arc center with reference to the arc start point.
M
G02 moves along a CW arc

G03 moves along a CCW arc

[G90] Absolute Position Command
SY
• When using a G90 absolute position command, each dimension or move is referenced from a fixed
point, known as ABSOLUTE ZERO (part zero).
• Absolute zero is usually set at the corner edge of a part, or at the center of a square or round part,
or an existing bore. ABSOLUTE ZERO is where the dimensions of a part program are defined from.
• Absolute dimensions are referenced from a known point on the part, and can be any point the
operator chooses, such as the upper-left corner, center of a round part, or an existing bore.
Syntax: N.. G90 X.. Y.. Z.. A.. B.. C..
EA X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
OP
E
[G91] Incremental Position Command: This code is modal and changes the way axis motion commands
are interpreted. G91 makes all subsequent commands incremental. Zero point shifts with the new position.
Syntax: N.. G91 X.. Y.. Z.. A.. B.. C..
AD
X
Y
Z X
Y
Z
OP
M
[G17 G18 G19] Plane Selection

G 17: XY plane selection
Syntax: N.. G17
Z
XY
G 17
X Y

G 18: ZX plane selection

Syntax: N.. G18
Z
18
G
ZX
X Y
SY
G 19 : ZY plane selection
Syntax: N.. G19
Z
G
19
YZ
EA
Syntax: N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08
X Y
h)
(inc
G70
Inches
E
1 2
G 70 Inch data input
AD
)
(mm
G71
mm
10 0.2 m 20 30 40
mm
G 71 Metric data input

Syntax: N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04
Machine zero: In any CNC machine the position measuring system (encoder or linear scale) has a
M
starting point for each axis. Usually this point is the origin of the machine coordinate system established
while taking the machine sliders to reference point.
Reference point: In CNC Control the machine point is lost whenever the machine power is switched off.
To establish the machine origin the machine slides are being moved until it touches the present limit
switches in each axis. One known position from the origin is saved for a point on the machine in memory
of the machine tool and is being displayed on the control upon slides touching the limit switches. This
point is called reference point.
Zero offset: This is the distance from machine zero point to work origin point while clamping. One datum
surface is established after facing one end of the job and the distance from this end to machine zero
point in x and z direction are measured and in put in any one settable zero offset.

Tool offset: Tool offset is the distance from the tool zero point (the non-present point while slides touch
offset:
reference point limit switch) on the tool turrent to tool tip. It has two values L1 and L2 in x and z direction.
These lengths have to store for each tool used in the program one separate page is allocated to each tool
designated as D1 and D2 etc.
[G28] Return to Reference Point (Machine Home Position): When cutting tool finishes the machine
operation, cutting tool goes far from the work piece due to safety reasons or we can say cutting tool goes
to the last limit of the positive axis (+). It is called the machine home position (G28). Generally, this
command is used for safe loading and unloading of the work piece on the machine.
Codes Explanation
SY
M09 Coolant motor will stop after complete machining.
M05 Spindle motor will stop.
G28 U0 W0 Now cutting tool will go to the home position (G28). This home position
is always far from the work piece.
M30 CNC program will stop and Reset.
G00 X30 Z-41 F0.1 Cutting tool is taking position in X and X-axis before removing the material.
G00 X17 Z-41
G01 X16 F0.25

G01 X13.5 F0.06
EA
Cutting tool is taking position nearest the work piece in X-axis, before
removing the material.
Cutting tool is taking final position before moving and removing the material.
Tool is removing the material and reaches at diameter 13.5 in linear
motion with feed.
G04 X2/G04 P2/G04 U2 Dwell Time (After removing the material tool will stay at the bottom of
the cutting profile for two seconds)
G01 X16 F0.06 Now cutting tool is going back (retract in X-axis) to the previous position.
E
[G32] Thread Cutting Command: The G32 command is used for threading operation. It is a very
simple threading method. In this method CNC programmer can control threading depth of cut in each
pass.
AD
G32X..... Z..... F.....

When the CNC programmer uses the G32 threading command. Threading tool takes fixed (as we need)
depth of cut and this procedure repeats again and again with G32 command until threading tool does not
reach on the root diameter of the thread profile or does not cut the full thread profile/full depth of cut of the
thread.
G32 X36 Z5: In threading operation, tool is taking position in X-axis and Z-axis.
G32 X36 Z-54.5 F2.5: Tool is taking first cut and making (removing the material) thread profile.
M
G00 X46: After the first cut of the thread, tool retracts in X-axis and takes safe
position.
G00 Z5: Now tool retracts in Z-axis and takes a safe position.
Command in Tur
Tur ning Operation
urning
[G50]: We use G50 command to control maximum spindle speed. In CNC turning machine, work piece
diameter is inversely proportional to rpm due to this reason when the cutting tool comes towards to
center spindle rpm exceeds. This exceeded rpm may be the cause of the accident. To control to this
exceeding rpm we used G50 command in CNC program. We can say G50 does not exceed the rpm over
the given rpm in the CNC program.

[G96]: When diameters vary on CNC turning machine during machining G96 command gives the facility
to change the rpm as per diameter but this rpm will be between G50 and G96. Using of G50 and G96
command work piece gets the better surface finish and work piece rpm will be under control.
Benefits of the Constant Surface Speed [G96]: When we apply the constant surface speed on CNC
turning machine. We get the following benefits:
1. Easier programming: We do not calculate rpm for each diameter.
2. We get the constant surface finish.
3. Optimum cutting tool life.
SY
4. Optimum machine cycle time: Faster spindle runs the faster machining (the tool machine).
1
Work piece diameter α Spindle Speed RPM
( )
When we use G50 command in CNC program, in the next line (block), we must apply G92/G96 command
with cutting speed (rpm).
Codes
G50 S1600
GG96 M03 S210
G00 X15 Z50

EA
Explanation
This line is telling spindle will not rotate more than a maximum of 1600 rpm.
Spindle will rotate in clockwise direction (M03) on 210 rpm, it means
210 is minimum spindle speed.
Cutting tool is taking position rapidly in X and Z-axis.
G50 command is used when turning tool is turning on different diameters, during this process, we get the
fine surface finish on each turning diameter.
On the other hand, we can say when the turning tool reaches different diameters: every diameter of the
E
work piece shows different RPM at that particular time. It happened only due to the use of G50 and
G92/G96 commands. That’s why spindle speed varies on different diameters.
If CNC programmer wants only one spindle speed (RPM) on the work piece surface. Then programmer
AD
must use the G97 command. A constant surface speed is used during the drilling, threading, grooving
operation, etc.
[G50] Maximum Spindle Speed (for Control Maximum Spindle Speed): G50 command is used
for controlling the maximum spindle speed of CNC machine. When we used G50 (example: G50
S1600) command in CNC program, it means spindle RPM (revolution per minute) will not exceed
more than 1600 rpm.
M
[G71] Stock Removal Cycle (for External Diameter/Internal Diameter): This command is used to
remove extra material from the external or internal surface of the work piece during turning operation. The
G71 command is very popular between FANUC control users. Using of this command programmer can
make error free CNC program, can save machining time and gets mass production.
G71 U..... R.....
Where,
U = Depth of cut (one side) in X-axis.
R = Tool retraction (tool clearance position in X-axis after every rough cut)

[G70] Finishing Cycle (Finishing Cycle for G71 and G72 Command): In the machining process, first
we do the rough machining operation after the rough machining. CNC programmer takes finishing cut
(final cut) of the work piece. For this final cut programmer apply the G70 code. G70 code is called the
finishing cycle. When we use this cycle as a finishing cycle. Cutting tool cuts very less material and work
piece gets an accurate profile with high accuracy.
G70 P..... Q..... F.....;
Where,
G70 Finishing cycle command
SY
P First programming line number of G71 cycle
Q Last programming line number of G71 cycle
F Feed (millimeter/revolution or millimeter/minute), we can say the cutting speed of the tool
[G54] Work Coordinate System (Work Zero Offset/Work Zero): G54 is called work zero (0, 0) position
of the work piece. It means the value of this center will be (0, 0), where X = 0 and Z = 0.
G55 Work Coordinate System (Work Zero Offset)
EA
Command G55 to G59 is used during mass (bulk) production because that time we need more work zero
offset so that we can take the origin of the maximum work piece. We can take 6 work zero offset for
machining. These commands are used mostly in CNC milling machine. Some time in special condition,
we use more that one work zero offset in CNC turning machine.
E
3.7 Manual Part Programming
AD
Example 3.1 W rite the manual par

partt pr ogramme for the given configuration, T
programme ool size = 0.25
Tool
inch, Feed rate = 6 inch per minute, Cutting speed = 300 rpm, tool start position: 2.0, 2.0, Programming
in inches.
5″
2.5″
M
1″
5″
45°
(All dimensions are in inch)
(4, 4)
(2, 2)

Solution:
Setup the motion of tool
p0 → p1 → p2 → p3 → p4 → p5 → p1 → p0
5″
2.5″
p3 p4 p5
p2
1″
SY
5″
45°
(4, 4)
p1
Set up the Programming Parameters
p2
2.5″
p3
EA
p0 (2, 2)
5″
p4 p5
1″ Programming in inches
Use absolute coordinates
E
Feed in rpm
5″
N010 G20 G90 G94 G97 M04

AD
45°
Spindle speed in rpm
(4, 4) Spindle CCW

p1
p0 (2, 2)
Set up the Machining Conditions

M

5″
2.5″
p3 p4 p5
p2
1″
Machine moves in XY-plane
Use full-circle interpolation
5″ Feed Rate
Spindle Speed
SY
45°
N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08
(4, 4)
p1 Tool number
Flood coolant ON
p0 (2, 2)
Move Tool from p0 to p1 in Straight Line
p2
2.5″
p3
1″
5″
EA
p4 p5
Linear Interpolation
5″ Target Coordinates
E
N030 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
45° (4,4) 45°
(4, 4) p1
AD
p1
p1:
p0 (2, 2) x = 4 – 0.125 = 3.875
y = 4 – 0.125 = 3.698
tan 22.5
Cut profile from p1 to p2

M

5″
2.5″
p3 p4 p5
p2
1″
Target Coordinates
5″
N040 G01 X3.875 Y9.125
or
SY
45°
(4, 4) N040 G01 Y9.125

p1
X-coordinate does not change no need to program it
p0 (2, 2)
Cut profile from p2 to p3
p2
2.5″
p3
1″
5″ EA
p4 p5
Target Coordinates
5″ N050 G01 X5.634 Y9.125

E
y = 9 + 0.125 = 9.125
2 2 2
45° (6.5 – x) + 0.125 = (1 - 0.125)
p3
(x, y) x = 5.634
AD
(4, 4)
(6.5, 9)
p1
p0 (2, 2)
1″
Cut along circle from p3 to p4

M

5″
2.5″
p3 p4 p5
p2
1″
Circular interpolation, CCW motion
5″ Target Coordinates
SY
N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I6.5 J9.0
45°
Coordinates of center of circle
(4, 4) N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I0.866 J–0.125

p1
p0 (2, 2)
Cut from p4 to p5
p2
2.5″
p3
5″ EA
p4 p5
1″
Linear interpolation
E
5″
Target Coordinates (Y is unchanged)

45°
N070 G01 X9.302
AD
(4, 4)
p1
p0 (2, 2)
Cut from p5 to p1
M

5″
2.5″
p3 p4 p5
p2
1″
5″
SY
Target Coordinates (see step 3)
45°
N080 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
(4, 4)
p1
p0 (2, 2)
Return to home position, stop program
p2
2.5″
p3
1″
EA5″
p4 p5
Target Coordinates (see step 3)

5″
E
N090 G01 X2.0 Y2.0 M30
45°
End of data
AD
(4, 4)
p1 N100 M100
p0 (2, 2)
Program stop
Complete programme
N010 G20 G90 G94 G97 M04
M
N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08

N030 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
N040 G01 X3.875 Y9.125
N050 G01 X5.634 Y9.125
N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I0.866 J-0.125
N070 G01 X9.302
N080 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
N090 G01 X2.0 Y2.0 M30

Example 3.2 Write the manual part programme (turning operation) for the given
configuration, Cutting speed = 600 rpm, Tool star
Tool startt position: (50, 50), Pr ogramming in mm.
Programming
[All dimensions are in mm]
φ100 φ50
Z
SY
(0, 0)
B
C
D A
30 50
50
Solution:
EA
Point Co-ordinate (x, z)

φ100 φ50
Z Origin (O) (0, 0)
(0, 0)
'A' (50, 50)
B
E
C 'B' (25, 0)
A 'C' (25, –30)
D
'D' (50, –50)
30 50
50
AD
Part Programme Code Explanation

N00 G90 G21 N00 Absolute co-ordinate system
N05 M12 N05 Clamping workpiece
N10 T0101 N10 Changing No.1 tool and executing its offset
M
N15 G00 X50 Z50 N15 Rapidly positioning to A point

N20 M03 S600 N20 Starting the spindle with 600 r/min
N25 M08 N25 Cooling ON
N30 G01 X25 Z0 F600 N30 Approaching B point with 600mm/min
N40 Z-30 F200 N40 Cutting from B point to C point
N50 X50 Z-50 F150 N50 Cutting from C point to D point
N60 G00 X50 Z50 N60 Rapidly retracting to A point
N70 T0100 N70 Cancelling the tool offset
N80 M05 N80 Stopping the spindle

N90 M09 N90 Cooling OFF

N100 M13 N100 Releasing workpiece
N110 M30 N110 End of program, spindle stopping and Cooling OFF
Example 3.3 Write the manual part programme (CNC milling operation) for the given
Tool startt position: (–100, 86.95), Pr ogramming in mm.
Programming
10
Home position
(–100,86.95) C
SY
10
70
80R D
B 60
50R
30
A E
20 150
Solution:
O
Home position
(–100,86.95)
y
10
C
EA Point Co-ordinate (x, y)
10 O (–100, 86.95)
70
80R D Origin (A) (0, 0)
'B' (–20, 30)
B
E
60 'C' (10, 100)
50R
30 'D' (140, 60)
A(0, 0) E x
20 150 'E' (150, 0)
AD

N05 G90 G21 N5 absolute positioning, metric unit
N10 T01 M06 N10 tool change to T1
N15 G92 X-100 Y86 Z95 N15 define work zero point at A
N20 G00 X0 Y0 S2500 M03 N20 rapid traverse to A, spindle on (2500 RPM, CW)
M
N25 Z12.5 N25 rapid plunge to 12.5 mm above Z0

N30 G01 Z-12.5 F150 N30 feed to Z-12.5, feed rate 150 MMPM
N35 X-20 Y30 N35 cut line AB to B
N40 G02 X10 Y100 R80 N40 cut arc BC to C
N45 G01 X140 Y60 N45 cut line CD to D
N50 G02 X150 Y0 R50 N50 cut arc DE to E
N55 G01 X0 Y0 N55 cut line EA to A
N60 G00 Z12.5 N60 rapid retract to Z12.5
N65 G91 G28 Z0 M05 N65 reference point return in Z direction, spindle off

N70 G91 G28 X0 Y0 N70 reference point return in X and Y directions

N75 M30 N75 end of program
Example 3.4 Write the manual part programme (Drilling operation) for the given
Tool startt position: (0, 0), Programming in mm.
Programming
100 50
50 37.5
SY
50
100
Solution:
y
50
100
EA
(All dimensions are in mm)
50
37.5
x
Point Co-ordinate (x, y)
50
O (0, 0)
E
A B
'A' (50, –50)
100 'B' (150, –50)
'C' (50, –150)
AD
C D 'D' (150, –150)

N1 T16 M06 N1 Tool change (M06) to tool no.16
N2 G90 G54 G00 X50 Y-50 N2 Tool rapidly moves (G00) to first drilling position X50 Y-50 while
M
taking into account Zero-offset no.1 (G54)

N3 S1450 M03 N3 Drill starts rotating clockwise (M03) with 1450 rpm (S1450).
N4 G43 H16 Z100 M08 N4 Drill takes depth Z100 taking into account tool length compensation
(G43 H16), coolant is turned on (M08).
N5 G81 G99 Z-37.5 R10 F9. N5 Drilling cycle (G81) parameters, drill depth (Z) and cutting feed (F)
are given, with this command first drill is made at current position
(X50 Y-50).
N6 X150 N6 As drilling cycle continues it’s work with every axis movement
so next drill is done at X150.

N7 Y-150 N7 Third drilling hole at Y-150

N8 X50 N8 Fourth drill at X50
N9 G80 G00 Z100 M09 N9 Drilling cycle is cancelled (G80), Coolant is turned off (M09).
N10 G53 G49 Z00 M05 N10 Taking Machine-coordinate-system (G53) into account the drill
is taken to Z00 position. Tool length compensation is cancelled
(G49), cutter rotation is stopped (M05).
N11 M30 N11 CNC part-program is ended.
Example 3.5 Write a part program for the given configuration carried out on CNC machine.
SY
Cutting speed = 2000 rpm, Tool star
Tool startt position: (–1, –1), Pr ogramming in inch.
Programming
EA
E
AD
Solution:
Milling and Drilling Programming
M
Program Notes:
• Program in the absolute mode starting at the tool change position at the top left corner of the print.
• The material is aluminum (300 CS), feedrate 10 in/min.
• The cutting tool is a 0.250 in. diameter high speed steel 2-flute end mill.
• Mill the 1 in. square slot.
• Drill the two 0.250 in. diameter holes, 0.250 in. deep.
• Mill the 0.250 in. wide angular slot, 0.125 in. deep.
• Mill the 0.250 in. wide circular groove, 0.125 in. deep.
• After the job is completed, return to the tool change position.

SY
EA
N5 G92 X-1.00 Y1.00 Z1.00 G92 Programmed offset of reference point (tool change position)
E
X-1.00 Tool set at 1.000 to the left of the part.
Y1.00 Tool set at 1.000 above the top edge of the part.
Z1.00 The end of the cutter is 1.000 above the top surface of the part.
AD
N10 G20 G90 G20 Inch data input.

G90 Absolute programming mode.
N15 M06 T01 M06 Tool change command.

T01 Tool no. 1 (.250 diameter, 2-flute end mill).
N20 S2000 M03 S2000 Spindle speed set at 2000 r/min.

M
M03 Spindle on clockwise.
N25 G00 X0 Y0 Z.100 G00 Rapid traverse rate to X0 Y0 at the top left corner of the part.
Z.100 tool rapids down to within .100 of the work surface.
Machining the square groove
N30 X0.375 Y-0.375 Tool rapids to position A.

N35 G01 Z-0.125 F10 G01 Linear interpolation.

Z-0.125 Tool feeds 0.125 below the work surface.
F10 feed rate set at 10 in./min.
N40 X1.625 Y-0.375 X1.625 Top groove cut to the right hand end.
Y-0.375 Measurement did not change because it was set in block N30.
N45 Y-1.625 Y-1.625 Right hand side of the groove cut.
N50 X0.375 X0.375 Bottom groove cut to the left side.
SY
N55 Y-0.375 Y-0.375 Left-hand side of groove cut; this completes the groove.
N60 G00 Z0.100 G00 Rapid traverse mode.

Z0.100 Tool rapids to 0.100 above work surface.
Hole Drilling
N65 G00 X0.875 Y-0.750
N70 G01 Z-0.250 F10
N75 G00 Z0.100
N80 X1.250 Y-1.125

EA
Tool rapids to the top left hole location.
Tool feeds 0.250 into work at 10 in./min. to drill the first hole.
Tool rapids out of hole to 0.100 above work surface.
Tool rapids to second hole location.
N85 G01 Z-0.250 F10 Tool feeds 0.250 into work at 10 in./min. to drill the second hole.
E
N90 G00 Z0.100 Tool rapids out of hole to 0.100 above work surface.
Machining the Angular Slot

AD

N95 X1.125 Y-0.875 Location B, tool rapids to the start of the angular slot.
N100 G01 Z-0.125 F10 G01 Linear interpolation.

Z-0.125 Tool feeds to 0.125 below the work surface.
F10 Feed rate set at 10 in./min.
N105 X1.250 Y-0.750 Angular slot cut to top right corner.

M
N110 G00 Z0.100 Tool rapids to 0.100 above work surface.
Machining the Circular Groove

N115 X0.750 Y-1.000 Location C. tool rapids to start of circular groove.
N120 G01 Z-0.125 F10 Tool feeds to 0.125 below the work surface.
N125 G03 X1.000 Y-1.250 R0.250 G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise
X&Y Location of end of circular groove.
R0.250 Radius of arc is 0.250.

N130 G00 Z.100 Tool rapids to 0.100 above work surface.

N135 X-1.000 Y1.000 Tool rapids back to tool change position.
N140 M05 M05 Spindle turned off.
N145 M30 M30 End of program
3.8 Fanuc Compatible Programming

The programming for the Fanuc compatible control is the one most commonly used in industry. Although
many controls are similar to the Fanuc control, there are some differences. A few of the main differences are:
SY
1. The G28 code is used to set the programmed offset of the reference point.
2. Codes are modal and do not have to be repeated in every sequence line.
3. All dimensions are entered as decimals.
Example 6: Write a part program by using Fanuc control for turning operations being carried out on a
CNC turning center. Cutting speed = 2000 rpm, Tool start position: (x = 1.2, z = 0.1), Programming in inch.
EA
E
Solution:
y
AD
z
x
M
3.9 Turning Programming

N05 G20 G90 G40 G20 Inch data input.
G90 absolute positioning mode
G40 Cancels tool radius compensation.

N10 G95 G96 S2000 M03 G95 Feed rate per revolution.
G96 Constant feed rate.
S2000 Spindle speed set at 2000 r/min.
M03 Spindle ON clockwise.
N15 T0202 Tool number and offsets.
N20 G00 X1.200 Z.100 G00 Rapid traverse mode.
X&Z tool reference or change point.
X1.200 tool point .100 away from the outside diameter.
SY
Z.100 tool point .100 to the right of end of work.
Rough Turning Cycle

N25 G73 U.05 R.05 G73 Rough turning cycle.
U.05 .050 allowance on diameter for finish cut.
N30 G73 P35 Q95 U.025 W.005 F

W.005
EA
R.05
.008
F.008
P35
Q95
W.005
Tool nose radius.
Start block of rough contour cycle.

End block of rough contour cycle.
Shoulder allowance for finish cut.
F.008 Feed rate at .008 per revolution.
N35 G00 X.300 Z.050 G00 Rapid traverse mode.
X.300 Tool point at .300 diameter for start of .100 radius.
E
Z.050 Tool point .050 away from end of the part.
N40 G01 Z0 G01 Linear interpolation (feed).
Z0 Tool point touching end of the work.
AD
N45 G03 X.500 Z-.100 R.100 G03 Circular interpolation (counterclockwise).

X.500 Largest diameter of radius.
Z-100 End of radius on .500 diameter.
R.100 Size of the radius.
N50 G01 Z-.650 G01 Linear interpolation.
Z-.650 Machines .500 diameter to .650 length.
M
N55 X.580 X.580 Tool moves out to the small diameter of .060 x 45O bevel.
N60 X.700 Z-.710 X.700 Large diameter of bevel.
Z-.710 End distance of bevel.
N65 Z-1.150 Z-1.150 The .700 diameter cut to 1.150 length.
N70 X.750 X.750 Cutting tool feeds out to .750 (small end of taper).
N75 X.875 Z-1.800 Cutting taper
X.875 Large end of taper.
Z-1.800 Length that taper is cut.
N80 X.925 X.925 Tool feeds out (faces) to .925 diameter.

N85 Z-2.050 Z-2.050 The .925 diameter is cut to 2.050 length.

N90 X1.050 X1.050 The tool is fed out to .050 past the diameter of the part.
N95 G00 X1.200 Z.100 Tool back to tool reference point
G00 Rapid traverse mode.
X1.200 & Z.100 Reference point positions
Finish Turning
SY
N100 G72 P35 Q95 F.005 G72 Finish turn cycle.
F.005 Feed rate .005 per revolution.
N105 G00 X2.000 Z.500 G00 Rapid traverse mode.
X2.000 & Z.500 Machine home position.
N110 M30 M30 End of program
Example 3.6
EA
Write a CNC manual part program for the given drawing which includes
machining operations. Face cutting, Machining holes, Contouring, Circular pocket and a slot milling.
90
6 × M4 × 0.75
E
φ30
35 65
61
AD
φ38
32.5
R4
R5 15
4
4
Aluminium 6061
M
33
90 × 65 × 13 mm
73 Surface finish 3.2
86
5 3.5 3
12 Scale 1:1

Solution:
Part programme for Face Milling Operation
2.5 mm overlap 32.5 65
Y17.5 Y17.5
φ100
P2 P1
Y0
15 mm SHIFT
SY
5 90
5
X0
X-55.0
• A φ100 mm face mill with 5-6 cutting edges has been selected. In order to provide the best cutting
conditions, the center of the face mill has been shifted by 15 mm, still leaving a 2.5 mm edge
overlap.
•
•
•
•
Y-coordinate (P1 and P2) =
2
EA
X-coordinate of P1 = 90 + 5 + 50 = X145.0 (Part length + Clearance + Cutter radius)
X-coordinate of P2 = 5 + 50 = X-45.0 (Clearance + Cutter radius)
65
− 15 = Y 17.5
T01 - 100 mm Face mill 1 mm off the top face

N1 G21
N2 G17 G40 G80 T01
N3 M06
E
N4 G90 G54 G00 X145.0 Y17.5 S477 M03 T02
N5 G43 Z10.0 H01 M08
N6 Z0
AD
N7 G01 X-55.0 F501.0

N8 G00 Z10.0 M09
N9 G28 Z10.0 M05
N10 M01
Par
Partt programme for Outside Contour: Tool 2 is a φ12 mm center-cutting end mill. It will be used for two
programme
operations - the contour and the pocket. The first activity of Tool 2 is to machine the out side contour.
M

Y61.0
P4 P5
P6 Y57.0
P3
R5
SY
Y-13.0 P11
Y8.0
P12 P10 P7
Y4.0
P9 P8
Y-8.0
P1 P2
X-82.0
X-86.0
X-8.0
X-4.0
X-8.0
Pt
P1
P2
X
X8.0
X4.0
EA Y
Y8.0
Y8.0
Pt
P6
P7
X Y
X86.0 Y57.0
X86.0 Y8.0
Pt
P10
P11
X4.0
X1.0
X Y
Y8.0
Y13.0
P3 X4.0 Y57.0 P8 X82.0 Y4.0 P12 X8.0 Y13.0
P4 X8.0 Y61.0 P9 X8.0 Y4.0 P1 X8.0 Y8.0
P5 X82.0 Y61.0
E
N11 T02
N12 M06
AD
N13 G90 G54 G00 X-8.0 Y-8.0 S1459 M03 (P1)

N14 G43 Z10.0 H02 M08
N15 Z-3.5
N16 G41 G01 X4.0 D52 F175.0 (P2)
N17 Y57.0 (P3)
N18 G02 X8.0 Y61.0 I4.0 J0 (P4)
N19 G01 X82.0 (P5)
M
N20 G02 X86.0 Y57.0 I0 J-4.0 (P6)

N21 G01 Y8.0 (P7)
N22 G02 X82.0 Y4.0 I-4.0 J0 (P8)
N23 G01 X8.0 (P9)
N24 G02 X4.0 Y8.0 I0 J4.0 (P10)
N25 G03 X-1.0 Y13.0 I-5.0 J0 (P11)
N26 G00 X-8.0 (P12)
N27 G40 Y-8.0 (P1)
N28 Z2.0

The important programming features have been used in the above program section:
• Cutter radius offset
• Numbering of offsets
Part programme for Circular Pocket:
• Lead-in line - G41 G01 in effect
• Lead-in line - G03 with 90° sweep
• Full circle to cut the pocket - G03
• Lead-out arc - G03 with 90° Sweep
• Lead-out line - G40 G01 in effect
SY
φ12
X35.0 Y45.5
E
Rp
Ra
Y32.5 A C X48.0 Y32.5
Rt
EA
Ra > Rt < Rp
B
R13
D
X35.0 Y19.5
Rp = Radius of packet X33.0 Ra > Rt < Rp

Rt = Radius of tool Rp = 15 mm
φ30
Ra = Radius of lead arc Rt = 6 mm
Ra = 13 mm
E
N29 X33.0 Y32.5 (A)
N30 G01 Z-5.0 Z100.0
N31 G41 X35.0 Y19.5 D62 F175.0 (B)
AD
N32 G03 X48.0 Y32.5 I0 J13.0 (C)

N33 I-15.0 (D)
N34 X35.0 Y45.5 I-13.0 J0 (E)
N35 G40 G01 X33.0 Y32.5 (A)
N36 G00 Z10.0 M09
N37 G28 Z10.0 M05
N38 M01
M
Par
Partt pr ogramme for Slot Milling: Tool 3 is an ∅8 mm center-cutting end mill. It will be used for roughing
programme
and finishing of the vertical slot.

Y50.0
35
Y15.0
SY
R5
X73.0
N39 T03
N40 M06
N41 G90 G54 G00 X73.0 Y50.0 S2188 M03 T04
N42 G43 Z10.0 H03 M08
N43 Z2.0
N44 G01 Z-3.0 F100.0
N45 Y15.0 F263.0
Part programme for Slot finishing:
EA
Y50.0
E
Rs = 5 mm
Rt = 4 mm
Ra = 4.5 mm
AD
X73.0
Y19.5
35
Ra
Y15.0
Rs Rt
Y15.0
M
Y10.5
X78.0
R5
X68.0
X73.0
X78.0
X73.5
N46 G41 X73.5 Y10.5 D53

N47 G03 X78.0 Y15.0 I0 J4.5
N48 G01 Y50.0
N49 G03 X68.0 I-5.0 J0

N50 G01 Y15.0

N51 G03 X78.0 I5.0 J0
N52 X73.5 Y19.5 I-4.5 J0
N53 G40 G01 X73.0 Y15.0
N54 G00 Z10.0 M09
N55 G28 Z10.0 M05
N56 M01
Part programme for Spot Driling: (T04 - 10 mm spot drill - Chamfer diameter = 4.7)
SY
φ3.2 Tap Drill
φ4 Tap
φ4.7 Chamber
diameter
φ10
φ4 Tap
φ4.7 Chamber diameter
0.35 × 45° 0.35 × 45°
EA Z0
Z-2.35 2.35 Depth
E
B H3 H2
n=2 n=1 B = 60°
n =n+1
n=1 H4 H1 A = 0°
AD
A
n=3 9 n=0
0° R1
R 32.5 φ38
n=4 n=5
YC n = H-1 H5 H6
Formula for XY the coordinates
XC 33 X = cos (n × B + A) × R + XC
Y = sin (n × B + A) × R + YC
General concepts
M
H1(X) = cos(0 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 33 = X52.0 H1(Y) = sin(0 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 32.5 = X32.5

H2(X) = cos(1 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 33 = X42.5 H2(Y) = sin(1 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 32.5 = X48.954
H3(X) = cos(2 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 33 = X23.5 H3(Y) = sin(2 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 32.5 = X48.954
H4(X) = cos(3 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 33 = X14.0 H4(Y) = sin(3 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 32.5 = X32.5
H5(X) = cos(4 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 33 = X23.5 H5(Y) = sin(4 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 32.5 = X16.046
H6(X) = cos(5 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 33 = X42.5 H6(Y) = sin(5 × 60 + 0) × 19 + 32.5 = X16.046
N57 T04
N58 M06

N59 G90 G54 G00 X52.0 Y32.5 S1693 M03 T05

N60 G43 Z10.0 H04 M08
N61 G99 G82 R2.0 Z-2.35 P200 F135.0 (H1)
N62 X42.5 Y48.954 (H2)
N63 X23.5 (H3)
N64 X14.0 Y32.5 (H4)
N65 X23.5 Y16.046 (H5)
N66 X42.4 (H6)
SY
N67 G80 G00 Z10.0 M09
N68 G28 Z10.0 M05
N69 M01
G82 fixed cycle has been used for the spot drill operation.
Partt pr
Par ogramme for Driling: (T05 3.2 mm Tap drill -through)
programme
Z-depth = T + C + P = 12 + 2 + 0.96 = 14.96 = Z-14.96 in the program
EA
D = φ3.2 Drill
Z0
P = 0.3 × D = 0.96 mm
T = 12
E
C = 12
Z-14.96
118°
AD
N70 T05
N71 M06
N72 G90 G54 G00 X52.0 Y32.5 S2487 M03 T06
N73 G43 Z10.0 H05 M08
M
N74 G99 G81 R2.0 Z-14.96 F174.0 (H1)

N75 X42.5 Y48.954 (H2)
N76 X23.5 (H3)
N77 X14.0 Y32.5 (H4)
N78 X23.5 Y16.046 (H5)
N79 X42.4 (H6)
N80 G80 G00 Z10.0 M09
N81 G28 Z10.0 M05
N82 M01

Par
Partt pr ogramme for T
programme apping: (T06 - M4 × 0.75 Tap drill - through)
Tapping:
N83 T06
N84 M06
N85 G90 G54 G00 X52.0 Y32.5 S796 M03 T01
N86 G43 Z10.0 H06 M08
N87 G99 G84 R5.0 Z-14.96 F597.0 (H1)
N88 X42.5 Y48.954 (H2)
N89 X23.5 (H3)
SY
N90 X14.0 Y32.5 (H4)
N91 X23.5 Y16.046 (H5)
N92 X42.4 (H6)
N93 G80 G00 Z10.0 M09
N94 G28 Z10.0 M05
N95 G28 X42.4 Y16.046
N96 G30
4.1
EA
4. COMPRESSIVE FLOW
Compressible and Incompressible Fluids

Fluid mechanics deals with both incompressible and compressible fluids, that is, with liquids and gases
of either constant or variable density. Although there is no such thing in reality as an incompressible fluid, we use
E
this term where the change in density with pressure is so small as to be negligible. This is usually the case with
liquids. We may also consider gases to be incompressible when the pressure variation is small compared with
the absolute pressure. Ordinarily we consider liquids to be incompressible fluids, yet sound waves, which are
really pressure waves, travel through them. This is evidence of the elasticity of liquids. In problems involving
AD
water hammer we must consider the compressibility of the liquid. The flow of air in a ventilating system is a case
where we may treat a gas as incompressible, for the pressure variation is so small that the change in density is
of no importance. But for a gas or steam flowing at high velocity through a long pipeline, the drop in pressure may
be so great that we cannot ignore the change in density. For an airplane flying at speeds below 250 mph (100 m/
s), we may consider the air to be of constant density. But as an object moving through the air approaches the
velocity of sound, which is of the order of 760 mph (1200 km/h) depending on temperature, the pressure and
density of the air adjacent to the body become materially different from those of the air at some distance away,
M
and we must then treat the air as a compressible fluid.

Piston Moving wave front
Velocity of Sound
A sound wave is an infinitensimal pressure wave
and is transmitted rapidly through the fluid medium. The
h + dh
thermodynamic change across such a wave is dV h
c Stationary
p + dp p
comparatively small and the speed of the process fluid
corresponding to the change is fast. Speed of sound (or ρ + dρ ρ
the sonic speed) is defined as the speed at which an

infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a medium.

The pressure wave may be caused by a small disturbance, which creates a slight rise in local pressure.
Let us consider a duct that is filled with a fluid at rest (as shown).
p
V
p + dp
dV
p
SY
x x
Fig. Propagation of a small pressure wave along a duct
A piston flitted in the duct is now moved to the right with a constant incremental velocity dV, creating a
sonic wave. The wave front moves to the right through the fluid at the speed of sound C and separates the
moving fluid adjacent to the piston from the fluid still at rest. The fluid to the left of the wave front experiences an
incremental change in its thermodynamic properties, while the fluid on the right of the wave front maintains its
original thermodynamic properties as shown above.
h + dh
p + dp
EA Control volume traveling
with the wave front
c – dV c
h
p
ρ + dρ ρ
E
Fig. Control volume moving with the small pressure wave along a duct
Now, let us consider a control volume that encloses the wave from and moves with it as shown in figure.
To an observer traveling with wave front, the fluid to the right appears to be moving toward the wave front with a
AD
speed of C and the fluid to the left to be moving away from the wave front with a speed of C - dV. Of course, the
observer sees the control volume that encloses the wave front (and herself or himself) as stationary, and the
observer is witnessing a steady flow process. The mass balance for this single-stream, steady flow process is
expressed as
m right = m left
ρAC = (ρ + dρ)A (C - dV) [Constant area]
By canceling the cross-section area A and neglecting higher order terms, this equation reduces to
M
Cdρ – ρdV = 0
No heat or work crosses the boundaries of the control volume during this steady-flow process, and the
potential energy change can be neglected. Then steady-flow energy balance Ein = Eout becomes
C2 (C − dV )2
h+ = h + dh +
2 2
Which yields, dh – Cdv = 0
where we have neglected the second order term dv2. The amplitude of the ordinary sonic wave is very
small and does not cause any appreciable change in the pressure and temperature of the fluid. Therefore,
the propagation of a sonic wave is not only adiabatic but also very nearly isentropic.

We know the thermodynamic relation

Tds = dh – vdp
dp
= dh −
ρ
dp
This equation reduces to 0 = dh − (dS = 0 for isentropic process)
ρ
dp
dh =
ρ
SY
Considering above equations, we can write the desired expression for the speed of sound as
∂p
C2 = at S = Constant
∂ρ
⎛ ∂p ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ for isentropic process
⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ S
⎛ ∂p ⎞
Similarly, we can write,
EA
C2 = k ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ T
⎛ ∂p ⎞
⎝ ∂ρ⎠ T
⎡ ∂(ρRT ) ⎤
C2 = k ⎜ ⎟ = k ⎢
⎣ ∂ρ ⎦T
⎥ = kRT
for isothermal process
when the fluid is an ideal gas (p = ρRT), above equation can be differentiated to yield
C= γRT
(i) Velocity of sound in incompr essible fluids: As we know, an incompressible fluid cannot experience
incompressible
any change in density.
E
∂p
= Infinity (∝)
∂ρ
The velocity of sound in such a fluid is infinity which means that the pressure pulse emitted anywhere
AD
in the fluid, are felt simultaneously at all other points.

All real fluids are compressible to some extent, with liquids showing less compressibility. For example,
the velocity of sound in water at normal ambient conditions is 1700 m/s which is very high compared
to the fluid velocities which can be produced in a liquid medium.
(ii) Velocity of sound in ter ms of Bulk Modulus of Elasticity: Compressibility of a fluid is quantitatively
terms
expressed as the inverse of the bulk modulus of elasticity K, of the fluid, which is defined as
M
dp
K = −
dv / v
dv
where is the volumetric strain for an infinitesimal pressure change dp.
v
dv dρ
= −
v ρ
The equation for isentropic bulk modulus can be written in terms of the corresponding density change,
⎡ dp ⎤
KS = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ dρ / ρ ⎦S

KS
C =
p
This equation again confirms that the speed of sound is a direct measure of the compressibility of
the medium.
(iii) Velocity of Sound in a Per fect Gas:
Perfect
For an isentropic process, the relation between pressure and specific volume is,
pv γ = Constant, C
Since density is the reciprocal of specific volume, the equation becomes,
SY
p = Cργ
By taking logarithms and then differentiating the equation, we get
lnp = lnC + γlnρ
dp dρ
γ
p = ρ
⎛ dp ⎞ p
⎜⎝ dρ⎠⎟ = γ ρ
EA
Velocity of sound, C =
S
γ
p
ρ
= γRT (for perfect gas)
Thus for a perfect gas, the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the static temperature
of the medium. The speed of sound is linked to the average molecular velocity, which from kinetic
8RT
theory is given by . It is found that the speed of sound is about three quarter of the average
π
E
molecular velocity.
(iv) Velocity of sound taking molecular weight into consideration:
AD
⎛ R ⎞
γ⎜ T
⎝ Mw ⎟⎠
C =
Since the variation of γ between gases is very small, the molecular weight of the gas (medium) takes
a major part in deciding the velocity of sound through the medium. Gases with lower molecular
weight have large sound velocities and vice versa.
Speed of Sound Values for Various Gases
Gas Molar Mass γ Speed of Sound at 0°C (m/s)

M
Air 28.960 1.404 331

Argon (Ar) 39.940 1.667 308
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 44.010 1.300 258
Freon 12 (CCl2F2) 120.900 1.139 146
Helium (He) 4.003 1.667 970
Hydrogen (H2) 2.016 1.407 1270
Xenon (Xe) 131.300 1.667 170

4.2 Mach Number and Its Significance:

The Mach number at a point in a flow field is defined as the ratio of the local velocity V of flow at the
location under consideration to the velocity of sound (C) in the medium at the same location.
V
Mach number, M =
C
Mach number is a dimensionless parameter named after the Austrian physicist Ernt Mach. The definition
of Mach number can also the interpreted as the square root of the ratio between the inertia force due to flow and
the elastic force of fluid,
SY
Inertia force ρAV 2
M = =
Elastic force kSA
Velocity of sound in terms of isentropic bulk modulus can be written as
KS = C 2ρ
ρAV 2 V2 V
M = = =
C2ρA C2 C
EA
Mach number also gives a measure of the relative importance of directed and thermal energies in a flow.
The velocity V measures the directed motion of the gas particles and V 2 measures the kinetic energy of the
directed flow. The sonic velocity of a given gas is proportional to the random velocity of the gas molecules.
Consequently, the Mach number may be regarded as a measure of the ratio of the kinetic energy of the directed
flow to the kinetic energy of random molecular motion which is the thermal energy of the system.
Depending upon the magnitude of the flow Mach number, the steady compressible flow can be subdivided
as incompressible, subsonic etc as follows:
Incompressible flow : M < 0.3
E
Subsonic flow : 0.3 < M < 0.8
Transonic flow : 0.8 < M < 1.2
Supersonic flow : 1.2 < M < 5.0
AD
Hypersonic flow : M > 5.0

M<1
M < 0.8
M
(a)
Shock wave
M<1 M>1
M<1
0.8 < M < 1.0
(b)

Bow shock Shock
M<1 M>1
1.0 < M < 1.2
(c)
SY
M>1
M > 1.2
Oblique
shock
M > 5.0
EA (d)
M>1
(e)
Fig. Different regimes of compressible flow
E
4.2.1 The Mach Cone
Consider a point source of sound that emits a pulse every Δt seconds. Each pulse expands outwards
from its origination point at the speed of sound C, so at any instant t the pulse will be a sphere of radius Ct
AD
centered at the pulse’s origination point. We want to investigate what happens if the point source itself is moving.
There are four possibilities, as shown in figure.
(a) V = 0. The point source is stationary. Fig. (a) shows conditions after 3Δt seconds. The first pulse has
expanded to a sphere of radius C(3Δt), the second to a sphere of radius c(2Δt), and the third to a
sphere of radius C(Δt); a new pulse is about to be emitted. The pulses constitute a set of ever-
expanding concentric spheres.
(b) 0 < V < C. The point source moves to the left at subsonic speed. Fig. (b) shows conditions after 3Δt
M
seconds. The source is shown at times t =0, Δt, 2Δt, and 3Δt. The first pulse has expanded to a
sphere of radius C(3Δt) centered where the source was originally the second to a sphere of radius
C(2Δt) centered where the source was at time Δt, and the third to a sphere of radius C(Δt) centered
where the source was at time 2Δt; a new pulse is about to be emitted. The pulses again constitute a
set of ever-expanding spheres, except now they are not concentric. The pulses are all expanding at
constant speed C. We make two important notes: First, we can see that an observer who is ahead of
the source (or whom the source is approaching) will hear the pulses at a higher frequency rate than
will an observer who is behind the source (this is the Doppler effect that occurs when a vehicle
approaches and passes); second, an observer ahead of the source hears the source before the
source itself reaches the observer.

V (3Δt)
V (2Δt)
C Δt
V (Δt)
C (2Δr)
C (3Δt)
C (3Δr)
C (Δt) C(2Δt)
SY
(a) V = 0: stationary source (b) V < C : Doppler shift
α
C(3Δt)
C (2Δt)
4
3
3
2 1
2
EA1
V (2Δt)
2 1
Locus of wave fronts

(c) V = C (d) V > c: Supersonic motion
E
AD
Outside cone:
unaware of sound Inside cone:
aware of sound
(e) M > 1: the Mach cone

M
V>C
Fig. Propagation of sound waves from a moving source: The Mach cone
(c) V = C. The point source moves to the left at sonic speed. Fig. (c) shows conditions after 3Δt
seconds. The source is shown at times t = 0 (point 1), Δt (point 2), 2Δt (point 3), and 3Δt (point 4).
The first pulse has expanded to sphere 1 of radius C(3Δt) centered at point 1, the second to sphere
2 of radius C(2Δt) centered at point 2, and the third to sphere 3 of radius C (Δt) centered around the
source at point 3. We can see once more that the pulses constitute a set of ever-expanding spheres,
except now they are tangent to one another on the left! The pulses are all expanding at constant
speed C, but the source is also moving at speed c, with the result that the source and all its pulses
are traveling together to the left. We again make two important notes: First, we can see that an

observer who is ahead of the source will not hear the pulses before the source reaches the observer
second, in theory, over time an unlimited number of pulses will accumulate at the front of the source,
leading to a sound wave of unlimited amplitude.
(d) V > C. The point source moves to the left at supersonic speed. Fig. (d) shows condition after 3Δt
seconds. By now it is clear how the spherical waves develop. We can see once more that the pulses
constitute a set of ever-expanding spheres, except now the source is moving so fast it moves ahead
of each sphere that it generates. For supersonic motion, the spheres generate what is called a Mach
cone tangent to each sphere. The region inside the cone is called the zone of action and that outside
the cone the zone of silence, for obvious reasons, as shown in Fig. (e). From geometry, we see from
SY
Fig. (d) that
α = sin−1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1
` sin α = C = 1 ⇒
V M ⎝M ⎠
The angle α is termed the Mach angle.

If the body is at rest and the gas is moving over it at a supersonic velocity, all the disturbances generated
by the body are swept downstream and lie within the Mach cone shown in figure. There will be essentially jumps
wave. EA
in the values of the flow variables when the flow reaches the cone. The cone is therefore termed a conical Mach
Presence of
body not
“felt” here
Flow at
E
Mach number M
M
α
Mach lines
AD
defining
Mach cone
α
Small
⎛1⎞
body α = sin−1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝M ⎠
Fig. Conical Mach Wave

M
4.3 Concept of Stagnation Condition

Stagnation conditions are those that would exist if the flow at any point in a fluid stream was isentropically
brought to rest. (To define the stagnation temperature, it is actually only necessary to require that the flow be
adiabatically brought to rest. To define the stagnation pressure and density, it is necessary, however, to require
that the flow be brought to rest isentropically.)
If the entire flow is essentially isentropic and if the velocity is essentially zero at some point in the flow,
then the stagnation conditions existing at all points in the flow will be those existing at the zero velocity point as
indicated in Fig. (a)

However, even when the flow is non-isentropic, the concept of the stagnation conditions is still useful, the
stagnation conditions at a point then being the conditions that would exist if the local flow were brought to rest
isentropically as indicated in Fig. (b).
Large
reservoir
(velocity effectively
zero) Stagnation conditions
at all points
Isentropic flow
Pressure p 0
T0 , p0 , ρ0
Temperature T 0
SY
Density ρ0
Fig.(a) Stagnation conditions in an isentropic flow
Point
considered y
Boundary
layer flow
(nonisentropic)
EA Velocity
varies
Velocity
profile
Imaginary system
bringing flow to
E
rest isentropically
Pressure p0 Stagnation
Temperature T0 conditions
Density ρ0 at P
AD
Fig. (b) Stagnation conditions at a point in a nonisentropic flow
Let us consider Bernoulli’s equation for obtaining information on the reference isentropic stagnation state
for incompressible flows:
p V2
+ + gz = Constant
ρ
M
2
This equation is valid for a steady, incompressible, frictionless flow along a streamline. It is also valid for
an incompressible isentropic process because it is reversible (frictionless and steady) and adiabatic.
For stagnation state:

p0 2
+0 = p +V [V = 0 at stagnation point, z = constant]
ρ ρ 2
ρV 2
p0 = p +
2

For compressible flows, we will focus on ideal gas behaviour. For a compressible flow we can derive the
isentropic stagnation relations by applying the mass conservation (or continuity) and momentum equations to a
differential control volume and then integrating. Let us imagine the control volume as depicted in figure shown
below.
CV Stream tube
dRx
y
x
1 0
SY
ρ ρ + dρ V=0
dx V x+ dV x p = p0
Vx
A A + dA T = T0
p p + dp
T T + dT
Fig. Compressible flow in an infinitesimal stream tube
a. Continuity Equation = 0(1)
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow.
∂
−
Governing equation : ∂t ∫CV ρdV
2. Uniform flow at each section.

EA +

∫ ρV ·dA = 0
CS
Then
( −ρVx A ) + {(ρ + d ρ )(Vx + dVx ) ( A + dA )} = 0

E
or ρVx A = (ρ + dρ)(Vx + dVx ) (A + dA)
b. Momentum equation = 0(3) = 0(1)
AD
∂
Governing equation: FSx + FBx = ∫ Vx ρdV + ∫ Vx ρV ·dA
∂t CV CS
Assumptions: (3)FB = 0
x
(4) Frictionless flow.
The surface forces acting on the infinitesimal control volume are
FS = dRx + pA – (p + dp) (A + dA)
x
M
The force dRx is applied along the stream tube boundary, figure, where the average pressure is p +
dp /2, and the area component in the x direction is dA. There is no friction. Thus,
⎛ dp ⎞
FS = ⎜ p + ⎟ dA + pA − (p + dp ) (a + dA )
x ⎝ 2 ⎠
dpdA
or FS = pdA + + pA − pA − dp A − pdA − dpdA
x 2
Substituting this result into the momentum equation gives
– dp A = Vx {−ρVx A} + (Vx + dVx ){(ρ + d ρ ) (Vx + dVx ) ( A + dA )}

which may be simplified using equation to obtain

– dp A = (–Vx + Vx + dVx)(ρVx A)
⎛V 2 ⎞
Finally, dp = −ρVxdVx = −ρd ⎜ x ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
dp ⎛ Vx2 ⎞
+⎜ ⎟ = 0 Momentum equation
ρ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Above equation is a relation among properties during the deceleration process. In developing this relation,
SY
we have specified a frictionless deceleration process. Before we can integrate between the initial and final
(stagnation) states, we must specify the relation that exists between pressure, p and density ρ along the process
path.
Since the deceleration process is isentropic, then p and ρ for an ideal gas are related by the expression
p
= Constant
ρk
From
We can write
Then, from momentum equation
EA
Our task now is to integrate above momentum equation subject to this relation. Along the stagnation
streamline there is only a single component of velocity, Vx is the magnitude of the velocity. Hence we can drop the
subscript in
p /ρ k = constant = C,
p = Cρk and ρ = p1/k C –1/k
⎛V 2 ⎞ dp
−d ⎜ ⎟ = = p−1/kC1/kdp
⎝ 2 ⎠ ρ
E
We can integrate this equation between the initial state and the corresponding stagnation state
0
⎛V 2 ⎞ p0
−∫ d ⎜ ⎟ = C 1/ k p −1/ k C 1/ k dp
⎝ 2 ⎠ ∫
AD
V
p
to obtain
V2 1/ k k ⎡ (k −1) / k ⎤ 0
p
1/ k k ⎡ (k −1) / k
− p( ) ⎤⎦
k −1 / k
= C ⎣p ⎦p = C p
2 k −1 k − 1⎣ 0
V2 k (k −1) / k ⎡⎛ p0 ⎞ (k −1) / k ⎤
= C1/ k p ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
2 k −1 ⎣⎢⎝ p ⎠ ⎥⎦
M
Since C1/k = p1/k/ρ

(k −1) / k
V2 k p1/ k (k −1) / k ⎡⎛ p0 ⎞ ⎤
= p ⎢⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
2 k −1 ρ ⎣⎢ ⎝ p ⎠ ⎦⎥
V2 k p ⎡⎛ p0 ⎞ (k −1) / k ⎤
= ⎢ − 1⎥
2 k − 1 ρ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ p ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Since we seek an expression for stagnation pressure, we can rewrite this equation as
(k −1) / k
⎛ p0 ⎞ k −1 ρ V 2
⎜⎝ p ⎟⎠ = 1+
k p 2

k / (k −1)
p0 ⎡ k − 1 ρV 2 ⎤
and = ⎢1 + ⎥
p ⎣ k 2p ⎦
For an ideal gas, p = ρRT, and hence
k / (k −1)
p0 ⎡ k −1 V 2 ⎤
p = ⎢⎣1 + 2 kRT ⎥⎦
Also, for an ideal gas the sonic speed is C = kRT , and thus
SY
k / k −1( )
p0 ⎡ k − 1V 2 ⎤
1+
p = ⎢⎣ 2 c2 ⎦
⎥
p0 k /(k −1)
⎡ k − 1 2⎤
= ⎢1+ M ⎥
p ⎣ 2 ⎦
Momentum equation enable sustocalculate the ocalisentropic stagnation pressure at any point in a flow
field of an ideal gas, provided that we know the static pressure and Mach number at that point.
For an ideal gas, then,

p0 EA
We can readily obtain expressions for other isentropic stagnation properties by applying the relation
⎛ ρ0 ⎞
k
ρ0 ⎛ p0 ⎞
=
p = ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠ and ρ ⎜⎝ p ⎟⎠
1/ k
−1/ k (k −1)/ k
T0 p0 ρ p0 ⎛ p0 ⎞ ⎛p ⎞
= = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ 0⎟
T p ρ0 p ⎝ p ⎠ ⎝ p ⎠
we can summarize the equations for determining local isentropic stagnation properties of an ideal gas as
E
p0 k /(k −1)
⎡ k − 1 2⎤
1+ M ⎥
p = ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦
AD
T0 k −1 2
= 1+ M
T 2
ρ0 1/(k −1)
⎡ k − 1 2⎤
= ⎢1+ M ⎥ Stagnation eq.
ρ ⎣ 2 ⎦
4.3.1 Critical Conditions

Stagnation conditions are extremely useful as reference conditions for thermodynamic properties: this is
M
not true for velocity, since by definition V = 0 at stagnation. A useful reference value for velocity is the critical
speed - the speed V we attain when a flow is either accelerated or decelerated (actually or conceptually)
isentropically until we reach M = 1. Even if there is no point in a given flow field where the Mach number is equal
to unity, such a hypothetical condition still is useful as a reference condition. Using asterisks to denote conditions
at M = 1, then by definition
V * = c*
At critical conditions, equations for isentropic stagnation properties become
p0 k /(k −1)
⎡ k + 1⎤
= ⎢
p* ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

T0 k +1
=
T* 2
ρ0 1/ (k −1)
⎡ k + 1⎤
= ⎢
ρ* ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
The critical speed may be written in terms of either critical temperature, T *, or isentropic stagnation
temperature, T0.
For an ideal gas, c* = kRT * , and thus V * = kRT * . Since, from above equation.
SY
2
T* = T0
k +1
2k
we have V * = c* = RT0
k +1
We shall use both stagnation conditions and critical conditions as reference conditions in the next section
when we consider a variety of compressible flows
4.3.2 Stagnation Enthalpy
to zero velocity from that section.

EA
The stagnation enthalpy for a flowing fluid at any section is its enthalpy when it is isentropically decelerated
na
t io
n
g
t a r e)
(s
p 0 ssu
e
h pr
Stagnation enthalpy Stagnation state
h0
E
Isentropic line
2
V
AD
h State at
any instant
h
M
s
s = s0
Fig. Definition of stagnation enthalpy

The simple steady flow energy equation (SFEE) involving no heat and work transfer and no change in
elevation between two state points can be used for arriving at the stagnation enthalpy at any section. Accordingly,
between any two sections SFEE is,
V12 V2
h1 + = constant = h2 + 2
2 2

This equation applies to both isentropic and irreversible adiabatic process. Consider the case where the
fluid is decelerated adiabatically to zero velocity from the Initial velocity V1. In that case, V2 = 0 and the
corresponding value of h2 becomes the stagnation or total enthalpy. If h0 denote the stagnation enthalpy of any
stale having a static enthalpy h and velocity V, then,
V2
h0 = h +
2
Thus, the stagnation enthalpy at any location in a flow field is the sum of static enthalpy and kinetic
energy possessed by the fluid at that location. It is illustrated in figure.
SY
4.3.3 Stagnation Temperature
The stagnation temperature T0, of the flowing fluid can be defined as the temperature attained when the
fluid is isentropically decelerated to zero velocity. When the flowing fluid is a perfect gas, then the energy
equation for adiabatic flow can be conveniently modified to get the stagnation temperature. For a perfect gas,
since h = cpT.
V2
EA
cpT0 = cpT +
2
Dividing throughout by cp, we get the relation for stagnation temperature as,
T0 = T +
V2
2cp
T p0
Stagnation Stagnation state
T0
Temperature
E
2
V Isentropic line
= Tv
2cp
AD
T Any state
s
M
s = s0
Fig. Definition of stagnation temperature
Definining (V 2 /2cp ) as the impact temperature or velocity temperature (Tv), the stagnation temperature at
any point in a flow field can be written as the sum of the static temperature and the impact temperature at that
location. It is illustrated in the T-s diagram shown in figure.
T0 = T + Tv
As per alternate definition, the stagnation temperature may be regarded as the static temperature at
which the gas must be held in an infinite reservoir from which it is accelerated isentropically to the value of

velocity and temperature at the particular section of the actual flow. Hence, for any value of velocity and temperature
a corresponding value for stagnation temperature can be computed.
4.3.4 Stagnation Pressure

The stagnation temperature was defined in the previous section as the static temperature in an infinite
reservoir from which the gas is accelerated isentropically to its actual velocity V. The static pressure corresponding
to this temperature is called the stagnation pressure or total pressure, ρ0. Since the process of acceleration is
isentropic and the fluid is a perfect gas, the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature are related by using
the isentropic relation for the perfect gas.
SY
γ /( γ − 1)
p0 ⎛T ⎞
= ⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠
p T
For any flow, the stagnation pressure at any section in the flow field can be calculated by assuming that
the flow is decelerated isentropically from the values of pressure, temperature and velocity of the point in question
to zero velocity.
4.3.5 Stagnation Density
p0
ρ0 = RT
EA
The stagnation density or total density at any location is the density corresponding to the stagnation
temperature and pressure at that location. From the equation of state for perfect gas.
Since the process of deceleration to attain stagnation condition is isentropic, the density ratio can be
related to temperature ratio as
1/( γ −1)
ρ0 ⎛T ⎞
= ⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠
E
ρ T
AD
M

Useful equations
V
Definition of Mach number M : M=
c
∂p ⎞
Speed of sound c : c=
∂ρ⎠⎟ x
Speed of sound c (solid and liquids): c= Ev / ρ
Speed of sound c (ideal gas): c= kRT
⎛ 1⎞
Mach cone angle α : α = sin−1 ⎜ ⎟
SY
⎝ M⎠
k / (k −1)
Isentropic pressure ratio (ideal gas, constant specific heats): p0 ⎡ k − 1 2⎤
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
p ⎣ 2 ⎦
T0 k −1 2
Isentropic temperature ratio (ideal gas, constant specific heats): = 1+ M
T 2
1/ (k − 1)
Isentropic density ratio (ideal gas, constant specific heats): ρ0 ⎡ k −1 2⎤
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
ρ ⎣ 2 ⎦
EA
Critical pressure ratio (ideal gas, constant specific heats):
Critical temperature ratio (ideal gas, constant specific heats):
Critical density ratio (ideal gas, constant specific heats):

ρ0
T*
ρ0
=
=
=
⎡ k + 1⎤
p * ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
T0 k +1
2
⎡ k + 1⎤
k / (k −1)
1/ ( k −1)
ρ * ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
Critical velocity V* (ideal gas, constant specific heats): 2k

V * = c* = RT0
k +1
E
Note:
(i) Notation a and c have been used for velocity of sound.
AD
(ii) Notation γ and k have been used for ratio of specific heats.
NOTE Parandtl Velocity Ellipse

a
Subsonic 1
=
M
Su
Incompressible pe
rs o
n ic
Subsonic
Transonic
1
M
= Supersonic
M
Hy
pe
rso
ni c
V
Fig. Prandtl velocity ellipse
Incompressible : Regime close to the a-axis where M is less than 0.3.

Subsonic : Regime on the right side of incompressible regime, with M between 0.3 and 0.8.
Transonic : Right side of transonic regime with M greater than 1.2.
Hypersonic : Regime close to the V-axis where M is very high (M > 5).

Example 4.1 (i) What is the effect of Mach number on compressibility? Prove for γ = 1.4
1.4..
p0 − p M2 M4
= 1+ + + ...
1 4 40
ρV 2
2
(ii) Show that for sonic flow the deviation between the compressible and incompressible flow
values of the pressure coefficient of a perfect gas ((γγ = 1.4) is about 27.5%.
Solution:
SY
If the flow is assumed incompressible, the value of the pressure coefficient (sometimes referred to as
compressibility factor) obtained by Bernoulli’s equation is unity i.e.
p0 − p
=1
1 2
ρV
2
For compressible flow the value of the pressure coefficient deviates from unity; the magnitude of deviation
increases with the Mach number of flow. For isentropic compressible flow the ratio of the stagnation and
static pressure is given by
As per Binomial expansion:

p0
p
EA⎛ T0 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝T ⎠
γ /( γ −1)
⎡
= ⎢1 +
⎣
γ −1 2⎤
2
M ⎥
⎦
γ /( γ −1)
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + n x + x + x + ...
2! 3!
In this expansion, we can see that
γ −1 γ
E
x= M2 and n =
2 γ −1
p0 γ γ γ (2 − γ ) 6
Therefore, 1+ M2 + M4 + M + ...
p =
AD
2 4 48
p0 − p γ 2 γ 4 γ (2 − γ ) 6
M + M + M + ...
p = 2 4 48
p0 − p M2 2 − γ 4
= 1+ + M + ... ... (i)
⎛γ ⎞ 4 24
p ⎜ M2⎟
⎝2 ⎠
But ρ = pRT and
M
γ 2 γ V2 V2
M = 2
=
2 2a 2RT
⎛γ ⎞ ⎛ V 2 ⎞ ρV 2
Therefore, p ⎜ M 2 ⎟ = ρRT ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ... (ii)
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2RT ⎠
So, combination equations (i) and (ii), we get
p0 − p M2 2 − γ 4
1 2 = 1 + + M + ...
ρV 4 24
2

For γ = 1.4
p0 − p M2 M4
1 2 = 1 + + + ... Hence proved first part (i)
ρV 4 40
2
Above equation gives the percentage deviation of the pressure coefficient from its incompressible flow
value with the Mach number.
Following table gives the error or deviation of the pressure coefficient from its incompressible flow value
with the Mach number:
M Percentage deviation
SY
0.1 0.3
0.2 1.0
0.3 2.3
0.4 4.1
0.5 6.4
0.6 9.3
EA 0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
12.9
17.0
22.0
27.5
Hence proved second part (ii)

Example 4.2 The pressure, temperature and Mach number at the entry of a flow passage
ar
aree 2.45 bar
bar,, 26.5°C and 1.4 rrespectively
espectively
espectively.. If the exit Mach number is 2.5, deter mine for adiabatic flow of
determine
a perfect gas ((γγ = 1.3, R = 0.469 kJ/kgK):
E
(i) Stagnation temperature
(ii) Temperatur e and velocity of gas at exit, and
emperature
(iii) The flow rate per square meter of the inlet cross-section
AD
Solution:
(i) For adiabatic flow,
T01 = T02 = T0
T01 γ −1 2 (1.3 − 1)
1+ M1 = 1 + × (1.4)2 = 1.295
T1 = 2 2
where T1 = 26.5°C = 299.5 K
M
∴ T01 = 1.295 × 299.5 = 388 K
p1 2.45 × 105
(ii) ρ1 = = = 1.745 kg/ m3 [Density at inlet]
RT1 469 × 299.5
m
= ρ 1 V1 [Continuity equation at inlet]
A1
Velocity of sound at inlet, a1 = γRT1

V1 = M1a1 = 1.4 1.3 × 469 × 299.5 = 1.4 × 427.3 = 598.25 m/s
m
= 1.745 × 598.25 = 1043.95 kg/s-m2
A1
T02 γ −1 2 0.3
= 1+ M2 = 1 + × (2.5)2 = 1.938
T2 2 2
T2 T02
T2 = × × T1 [∵ T01 = T02]
T02 T01
SY
1.295
= × 299.5 = 201K
1.938
(iii) a2 = γRT2 = 1.3 × 469 × 201 = 350 m/ s
V2 = M2a2 = 2.5 × 350 = 875 m/s
Example 4.3 Air ((γγ = 1.4, R = 287.43 J/kgK) enters a straight axisymmetric duct at 310 K,
(i) Stagnation temperature

(ii) Maximum velocity
(iii) Mass flow rate, and
EA
3.5 bar and 160 m/s and leaves it at 287 K, 2.1 bar and 268 m/s. The area of cross-section at entry is
500 cm2. Assuming adiabatic flow determine:
(iv) Area of cross-section at exit
Solution:
E
γ 1.4
(i) cp = R= × 287.43 = 1006 J/kgK
γ −1 0.4
V12 (160)2
T01 = T1 + = 310 + = 322.7 K
AD
2cp 2 × 1006
Since the flow is adiabatic the stagnation temperature must remain constant. This can be verified by
calculating T02 at exit.
V22 268 × 268
T02 = T2 + = 287 + = 322.7 K = T01
2cp 2 × 1006
(ii) Vmax = 2cpT0 = 2 × 1006 × 322.7 = 805.77 m/s

M
p1 3.5 × 105
(iii) ρ1 = = = 3.928 m/s
RT1 287.43 × 310
p2 2.1 × 105
ρ2 = = = 2.546 kg/ m3
RT2 287.43 × 287
From continuity equation, m = ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 = 3.928 × 0.05 × 160 = 31.424 kg/s
ρ1T1 3.928 160
(iv) A2 = A1 = × × 500 = 460.54 cm2
ρ2T2 2.546 268

Example 4.4 Air flows down a variable area duct. Measurements indicate that the pressure
is 80 kPa, the temperature is 5°C, and the velocity is 150 m/s at a certain section of the duct. Estimate,
incompressible
assuming incompr flow,, the velocity and pr
essible flow pressur
essure
essur e at a second section of the duct at which the
duct area is half that of the section where the measurements were made. Comment on the validity of the
incompressible flow assumption in this situation.
Solution:
Because the flow is assumed to be incompressible,
i.e., because the density is assumed to remain constant,
SY
the continuity equation gives p = 80 kPa
V1A1 = V2A2 T = 5°C A2 = 0.5 A1
Hence, using the supplied information: V = 150 m/s
150 × A1 = V2(A1/2)
Therefore, V2 = 300 m/s
Assuming that the effects of friction on the flow are negligible, 2
the pressure change can be found using Bernoulli’s equation,
which gives
p1 + ρ
2
EA
V12 V2
= p2 + ρ 2
2
⎡V 2 V 2 ⎤
This can be rearranged to give, p2 = ρ ⎢ 1 − 2 ⎥ + p1
⎣2 2 ⎦
1
... (i)
The density ρ, is evaluated using the initial conditions, i.e., using p1/ρ = RT1, which, since air flow is
being considered, gives
80 × 103
E
ρ= = 1.003 kg/m3
(287 × 278 )
Substituting this back into Equation (i) then gives
AD
⎡ 1502 3002 ⎤
p2 = 1.003 ⎢ − ⎥ + 80 × 10 = 4.62 × 104 Pa = 46.2 kPa
3
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
To check the validity of the assumption that the flow is incompressible, it is noted that if the flow can be
assumed to be incompressible, the temperature changes in the flow will normally be negligible so the
temperature at the exit will also be approximately 5°C. The equation of state therefore gives at the exit:
p2 46.2 × 103
ρ2 = = 3
RT2 (287) × (278) = 0.579 kg/m
M
Since this indicates that the density changes by more than 40%, the incompressible flow assumption is
not justified.
Example 4.5 In tests of a protective material, we wish to photograph a bullet as it impacts a

jacket made of the material. A camera is set up a perpendicular distance h = 5 m fr om the bullet trajector
from y.
trajectory
Determine the perpendicular distance d from the target plane at which the camera must be placed such
that the sound of the bullet will trigger the camera at the impact time. The bullet speed
is measured to be 550 m/s, the delay time of the camera is 0.005 s. Assume ambient temperature as
228 K.

Solution:
Bullet trajectory
h=5m
SY
The correct value of d is that for which the bullet hits the target 0.005 s before the Mach wave reaches the
camera. We must first find the Mach number of the bullet, then we can find the Mach angle; we can use
basic trigonometry to find d.
we have T = 288 K
c= kRT = 1.4 × 287 × 288 = 340 m/s
Then we can find the Mach number,
we can next find the Mach angle,

EA
M=
V 550
=
c 340
= 1.62
−1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
α = sin ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜
−1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎟ = 38.2°
⎝M ⎠ ⎝ 1.62 ⎠
The distance x traveled by the bullet while the Mach wave reaches the camera is then
h 5
x= = = 6.35 m
E
tan (α ) tan (38.2° )
d = 9.10 m
AD
Example 4.6 Air flows steadily through the duct shown from 350 kPa (abs) 60°C and 183
m/s at the inlet state to M = 1.3 at the outlet, where local isentropic stagnation conditions are known to be
385 kPa (abs) and 350 K. Compute the local isentropic stagnation pressure and temperature at the inlet
and the static pressure and temperature at the duct outlet. Locate the inlet and outlet static state points
T-s
on a T-s diagram, and indicate the stagnation pr processes.
ocesses.
M
Flow
Inlet Outlet

Solution:
p 1 = 350 kPa (abs) p 02 = 385 kPa (abs)
T 1 = 60°C Flow T 02 = 350 K

V1 = 180 m/s M 2 = 1.3
1 2
To evaluate local isentropic stagnation conditions at section (1), we have to calculate Mach number at
SY
V1
section (1), M1 =
C1
For an ideal gas, C1 = γRT1 = 1.4 × 287 × (273 + 60) = 366 m/ s
V1 183
and M1 = = = 0.5
C1 366
Local isentropic stagnation properties can be evaluated as follows:
EA
p01
⎡
⎡
= p1 ⎢1+
⎣
T01 = T1 ⎢1 +
⎣
γ − 1 2⎤
2
M
2 1 ⎥⎦
γ − 1 2⎤
p02
γ /(γ −1)
= 350 ⎡⎣1+ 0.2 × (0.5)2 ⎤⎦
M1 ⎥ = 333 ⎡⎣1 + 0.2 × (0.5)2 ⎤⎦ = 350 K

⎦
385
3.5
= 415 kPa (abs)
p2 = γ /( γ − 1)
= 3.5 = 139 kPa (abs)
⎡ γ −1 2⎤ ⎡1 + 0.2 × (1.3)2 ⎤
⎢⎣1 + M1⎥ ⎣ ⎦
2 ⎦
E
T02 350
T2 = = = 262 K
γ − 1 2 1 + 0.2 × 1.32
1+ M2
2
To locate the states (i) and (ii) at T-s diagram, we need to find the change in entropy (s2 – s1).
AD
T2 p 262 139
s2 – s1 = cp ln − R ln 2 = 1.005 × ln − 0.287 × ln
T1 p1 333 350
= 0.024036 kJ/kgK (i.e. increase)
Hence in this flow, we have an increase m entropy due to friction heat being added etc. We also found
that T2 < T1 and that p2 < p1. We can now sketch for T-s diagram.
T p0 p0
1 2
M
T 0 = T0 2
1
Isentropic
processes
T1
p = p1 State 1
p = p2
T2
State 2

Example 4.7 A speed indicator of an airplane which is calibrated without taking the effect
of compressibility has registered a speed of 800 km/h at 6000 m altitude. Determine the true speed of the
airplane. Also, calculate the stagnation temperatur
temperature e and pr essur
pressur
essuree at the nose of the Pitot tube. Take
Take
T = – 25°C and p = 0.654 bar at 6000 m altitude.
Solution:
Data: V = 800 km/h; T = 248 K; p = 0.654 × 105 N/m2
800 × 1000
Indicated velocity, V1 = = 222.22 m/s
3600
SY
p 0.654 × 105
Density at 6000 m, ρ= = = 0.9188 kg/m3
RT 287 × 248
1 2
For an incompressible fluid, p0 – p= ρV
2
1 2 5 1 2
Stagnation pressure, p0 = p + ρV = 0.654 × 10 + × 0.9188 × 222.22
2 2
Stagnation temperature,
T0
EA
= 0.88086 × 105 N/m2
⎛ p0 ⎞
T0 = T ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p ⎠
γ−1/ γ
= 248(0.88056/0.654)0.287 = 270 K
Flight Mach number, M can be calculated from the stagnation temperature ratio,
= 1+
γ −1 2
M
T 2
270 0.4 2
or = 1+ M
248
E
2
M = 0.667
Velocity of sound, a= γRT = 1.4 × 287 × 248 = 315.67 m/s
AD
True air speed, V = M × a = 0.667 × 315.67 = 210.55 m/s = 758 km/h
4.4 Isentropic Flow with Variable Area

4.4.1 Mach Number Variation
V2
Adiabatic energy equation: h0 = h + = constant
M
2
By differentiation, we get
dh + Vdv = 0
For isentropic flow, this equation can be written as
dp
+ Vdv = 0 [ρ is considered as flow is compressible]
ρ
dp = –ρVdv ... (i)
From continuity equation, mass flow rate is given by

m = ρAV = Constant
dp dA dV
+ +
ρ A V =0 [Upon differentiation]
⎡ dp dA ⎤
dv = V ⎢ ρ + A ⎥ ... (ii)
⎣ ⎦
Above equations (i) and (ii) can be combined to yield
2 ⎡ dp dA ⎤
dp = ρV ⎢ ρ + A ⎥
⎣ ⎦
SY
dA dp ⎡ dp 2 ⎤
= ⎢1 − d ρ V ⎥
A ρV 2 ⎣ ⎦
dp ∂p ⎤ 2
For an isentropic process, = ∂ρ ⎥ = C
dρ ⎦S
dA dp ⎡ V 2 ⎤ dp ⎡
1 − M 2 ⎤⎦
It can also be written as

dp
ρV
A
=
2 =
EA
dA
A
2
=
⎢1 − 2 ⎥ =
ρV ⎣ C ⎦ ρV 2 ⎣
1
⎡1 − M 2 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
... (iii)
dA 1
dV − =
= A ⎡1 − M 2 ⎤ ... (iv)
V ⎣ ⎦
E
dA dV ⎡ 2 ⎤
= = ⎣M − 1⎦ ... (v) [Remember]
A V
We can note from above that for an isentropic flow there can be no friction. Equations (iii) and (iv) confirm
AD
that for the above case, from a momentum point of view we expect an increase in pressure to cause a
decrease in speed, and vice versa. Above equations give us very interesting insights into how the
pressure and velocity change as we change the are of the flow. The figures shown below defines the
shape of nozzles, diffusers by the use of above equations.
M<1
M
M>1
Velocity increasing Velocity increasing

pressure decreasing pressure decreasing
(a) Subsonic nozzle (b) Supersonic nozzle

Fig. Shape of subsonic and supersonic diffuser

M<1 M>1
M=1
SY
Fig. Converging diverging diffuser
M>1
M<1
Velocity decreasing Velocity decreasing

pressure increasing pressure increasing
(a) Subsonic diffuser

EA
Fig. Shape of subsonic and supersonic diffuser
(b) Supersonic diffuser
E
M>1 M<1
AD
M=1
Fig. Converging diverging diffuser
4.4.2 Stagnation and Critical states

For an isentropic flow with area change, the equations that relate T0, p0 and ρ0 to the local Mach number
M
and the corresponding static properties,

⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞
T0 = T ⎜ 1 + M ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
γ /(γ −1)
⎛ γ − 1 2⎞
p0 = p ⎜⎝ 1+ M ⎟⎠
2
1/(γ −1)
⎛ γ − 1 2⎞
ρ0 = ρ ⎜⎝ 1+ M ⎟⎠
2
Above three equations of state can be used to predict the value of static properties, T, p and ρ at any

section in the flow passage if the flow Mach number at the section is known. The general shape of the curves of
property ratios for simple area change are plotted in figure shown below. Even though this figure is not useful for
numerical purpose, it serves as a convenient illustration showing the behavior of various property expressions in
isentropic flow. As the Mach number increases, the pressure, temperature and density ratios decrease.
1.0
T /T 0
M*, A/A*, F/F*

ρ/ρ0
SY
Flow parameters, p/p 0, ρ/ρ0
p/ p0
A /A *
F /F *
0
M*
EA M=1
0
Mach number
Fig. Isentropic property relation for perfect gas
By imposing unity Mach number in the above eqs. The flow parameters at the critical state is obtained.
E
T* 2
=
T0 γ +1
γ / γ−1
⎛ 2 ⎞
AD
p*
= ⎜ ⎟
p0 ⎝ γ + 1⎠
1/ γ−1
p* ⎛ 2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
p0 ⎝ γ + 1⎠
For air, with γ = 1.4, the property ratios at the critical section are T */ T0 = 0.8333, p */p0 = 0.5283 and
ρ*/ρ0 = 0.6339.
The dimensionless ratio representing the critical properties may be obtained by combining all the equations.
M
T* ⎛ 2 γ −1 2 ⎞
= ⎜ + M ⎟
T ⎝ γ +1 γ +1 ⎠
γ / ( γ−1)
p* ⎛ 2 γ −1 2 ⎞
= ⎜ + M ⎟
p ⎝ γ +1 γ +1 ⎠
1/ ( γ−1)
p* ⎛ 2 γ −1 2 ⎞
= ⎜ + M ⎟
p ⎝ γ +1 γ +1 ⎠

4.4.3 Area Relation

Although a particular flow may never attain sonic conditions, we will still find the critical conditions useful
as reference conditions. In the previous sections, we have related local properties (p, ρ, T and V) to
stagnation properties (p0, ρ0 and T0) via Mach number M and critical properties (p*, ρ*, T* and V*) to
stagnation properties (p0, ρ0 and T0). Now, we will derive a relation between areas A and A*.
Let us start with continuity equation:
ρAV = Constant ρ*A*V*
A ρ*V * ρ* C * 1 ρ* T *
Then, = = =
SY
A* ρ V ρ MC M ρ T
A 1 ρ * ρ0 T * T0
=
A* M ρ0 ρ T / T0
1
⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1 ⎡ γ −1 2⎤
1/2
⎢1+ M ⎥ 1 + M
A 1⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎢ 2 ⎥
or,
A *
EA
=
M
⎡
1
1
⎡ γ + 1⎤ γ −1
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
+
⎢
⎢
⎣
⎛ 1
γ − 1 2 ⎤ ⎜⎝ γ −1
M ⎥
γ +
2
1⎞
+ ⎟
2⎠
1 ⎥
⎥
⎦
A 1 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦
or, = ⎛ 1 1⎞
A* M +
⎡ γ + 1⎤ ⎜⎝ γ −1 2 ⎠⎟
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
E
γ +1
⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ 2( γ −1) γ +1
1 ⎢1 + 2 M ⎥ 1⎡ 2 γ − 1 2 ⎤ 2( γ −1)
AD
⎢ = +
γ +1 ⎥
M
M ⎢⎣ γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎥⎦
=
M⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
This equation is very important because the critical area A* (defined whether or not a given flow ever
attains sonic conditions) is used to normalize area A. As show below, we can observe that for the each
A
Mach number M, we obtain a unique area ratio. Each ratio (except 1) has two possible Mach number
A*
M
one subsonic the other subsonic. The shape shown below looks like a converging-diverging (C-D) section
for accelerating from a subsonic to a supersonic flow (with as necessarily M = 1 only at the throat), but in
practice this is not the shape to which such a passage will be built. For example, the diverging section
usually will have a much less severe angle of divergence to reduce the chance of flow separation. In
figure shown below, the Mach number increases linearly, but this is not necessary,

Acceleration
Area ratio, A/A*

Deceleration
1.0
SY
Subsonic Supersonic
M<1 M>1
0 1.0
Mach Number, M
Fig. Variation of area ratio with Mach number
NOTE (i)
, , and
T p ρ
A
A*
EA
For solving numericals we have to use table of values for the property ratios
T0 p0 ρ0
for a limited range of Mach numbers. Usually, tabulated values are
supplied along with exam. questions.

A
(ii) Deviation of in terms of Mach number may directly be asked in competitive exams.
A*
E
4.4.4 Mass Flux in Terms of Mach Number
The Mach number M is the most convenient variable to determine the remaining parameters, such as
pressure ratio, temperature ratio, etc. at any section in an isentropic flow. A convenient formula for the mass flow
per unit area in terms of Mach number is derived in this section.
AD
Let us consider a one-dimensional isentropic flow through a passage of varying cross-sectional area. The
continuity equation at any section in the passage is used for deriving the equation for mass flux (mass flow per
unit area of the section) in terms of flow Mach number at the section. By modifying the continuity equation using
the perfect gas equation and the definitions of velocity of sound and Mach number, we get,
m pV γpv γpV γp V γ p
= ρV = RT = γRT = = ·= · ·M
A γRT · γRT γRT a R T
M
where p and T represent the static pressure and temperature at the section. In order to write the equation
in terms of the known reference conditions (stagnation pressure p0 and stagnation temperature T0), multiply and
divide the right hand side of the equation by p0 T0 .
m γ p T0 p0
= · · ·M
A R p0 T T0
The stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature relation as derived earlier can be introduced into the
equation to get the result in terms of the flow Mach number and the reference parameters.
The equation shows that, for a given local Mach number, the mass flux is proportional to the stagnation

pressure and inversely proportional to the square root of stagnation temperature. Mass flow per unit area (m
/ A)
will be maximum at the section where the flow area is minimum. In order to find the condition for maximum mass
flux, differentiate the equation for mass flux above with respect to Mach number and equate to zero. As per our
earlier discussion, we expect to get unity Much number at the minimum area section.
d ⎛ m ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =0
dM ⎝ A ⎠
d ⎡ ⎛ (1+ γ ) / 2(1− γ ) ⎤
γ −1 2⎞
⎢M ⎜ 1 + M ⎟ ⎥ =0
dM ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
SY
(1+ γ )
(1+ γ )/2(1− γ ) 1+ γ ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞ 2(1− γ ) −1 γ − 1
⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞
⎜ 1+ M ⎟ + M· ⎜ 1+ M ⎟ 2M = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 (1− γ ) ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Dividing throughout by the first term and simplifying, we get,
M 2 (1 + γ ) ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞−1 = 0
1− ⎜1+ M ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
M2 (1+ γ )
2 + ( γ − 1)M2
=1
EA
Cross multiplying the equation and solving, the value of M required to get maximum mass flux is obtained.
M 2 (1 + γ) = 2 + (γ – 1)M 2
M 2 + γM 2 = 2 + γM 2 – M 2
M2 = 1
M=±1
Since M can only be positive, M = 1 represents the condition for maximum mass flow per unit area, that
E
is at the minimum flow area section (critical section), Mach number is unity. The maximum mass flux, is arrived by
substituting M = 1 in the equation for mass flux.
⎛m⎞ (1+ γ )/2(1− γ )
m γ p0 ⎛ γ + 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = = · ...(i)
R T0 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
AD
⎝ A ⎠max A*
Thus, for a given gas, the maximum flow per unit area depends only on the stagnation (reservoir) conditions,
p0 and T0, of the flow. For a given value of stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature and for a given
passage, we can see that the maximum flow which tan be passed through is fixed. For any gas, the maximum
flow rate depends on the gas constant R and the ratio of specific heats γ of the gas. The maximum flow is
relatively large for gases of high molecular weight and relatively small for low molecular weight. Also, doubling
the pressure level doubles the maximum flow rate, whereas doubling the temperature reduces the maximum flow
M
by about 29 percent. If flowing fluid is air with γ = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kgK, then,
m T
· 0 = 0.0404 ...(ii)
A * p0
4.4.5 Mass flow rate in terms of Pressure Ratio:

From continuity equation, the mass flow rate
m = ρAV
p0 p
For isentropic flow, =
γ
ρ0 ργ

1/ γ
⎛ p⎞
ρ = ρ0 ⎜ ⎟ ... (i)
⎝ p0 ⎠
V2
From the energy equation, h0 = h +
2
V 2 = 2cp (T0 – T) (for constant stagnation temperature)
2γR
V2 = (T − T )
γ −1 0
SY
⎧ γ −1 ⎫
γ ⎪ ⎛ p⎞ γ ⎪
V= 2 RT0 ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ... (ii)
γ −1 ⎪ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
Substituting equations (i) and (ii) into continuity equation,
⎧ γ −1 ⎫
1/ γ
⎛ ⎞ γ ⎪ ⎛ p⎞ γ ⎪
m = Aρ0 P 2 RT0 ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎜⎝ P ⎟⎠
Now,
EA
ρ0 =
p0
RT0
0
AP0 γ ⎛ p⎞
γ −1 ⎪ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎪
⎩
2/ γ ⎧
⎭
γ −1 ⎫
⎪ ⎛ p⎞ γ ⎪
Therefore, m = 2 ⎨1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
RT0 γ − 1 ⎜⎝ p0 ⎟⎠ ⎪ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
This expression can be reduced to the conventional non-dimensional form by re-arranging the terms.
E
2/γ ( γ +1) / γ
m T0 R 2 ⎡⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p⎞ ⎤
⎢ −⎜ ⎟ ⎥
AP0 γ
= γ − 1 ⎢⎜⎝ p0 ⎟⎠ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
AD
The value of pressure ratio for maximum mass flow rate can be obtained by differentiating the variable
quantity on the right hand side and equating the expression to zero.
p
Let, z=
p0
d ⎡ 2/ γ
(z) − z (γ +1/ γ ) ⎤ = 0
dp ⎣ ⎦
M
γ
⎛ p⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ γ −1
=⎜
⎝ γ + 1⎠⎟
zmax = ⎜ ⎟
⎝p ⎠ 0 max
It may be noted that this expression is same as for the critical state in isentropic flow (M = 1). Therefore
for maximum mass flow conditions,
γ
⎛ p⎞ p * ⎛ 2 ⎞ γ −1
⎜⎝ p ⎟⎠ = =
0 max p0 ⎜⎝ γ + 1⎟⎠

⎡ γ +1 γ +1⎤
m max T0 R 2 ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2(γ −1) ⎛ 2 ⎞ γ −1⎥
−⎜
A * P0 γ
= γ − 1⎢ ⎜⎝ γ + 1⎟⎠ ⎝ γ + 1⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
This expression can also be written in slightly different form,
γ +1 ⎡ γ +1 ⎤
m max T0 R ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2(γ −1) 2 ⎢⎛ 2 ⎞ γ −1 ⎥
× − 1⎥
= ⎜⎝ γ + 1⎟⎠ γ − 1⎢ ⎜⎝ γ + 1⎟⎠
A * P0 γ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
SY
γ +1
m max T0 R ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2(γ −1) 2 ⎛γ +1 ⎞
= ⎜ × ⎜ − 1⎟
A * P0 γ ⎝ γ + 1⎠⎟ γ − 1⎝ 2 ⎠
γ +1
m max T0 R ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2(γ −1)
= ⎜ [Non-dimensional form of maximum mass flux]
A * P0 γ ⎝ γ + 1⎠⎟
for air,
m max T0
A * P0
EA
R = 287 J/kgK, γ = 1.4
= 0.0404
4.4.6 Mass Flow Rate in terms of Area Ratio

The continuity equation can be written as
m = ρAV = ρ*A*V*
E
m A*
= ρV = ρ * V *
A A
AD
p*
Now, ρ* =
RT *
and V * = C*(or a*) = γRT *
m p* A* p* γ A*
Therefore, = γRT * =
A RT * A T * R A
M
Substituting equations, for T* and p*,

γ /( γ −1)
m ⎛ 2 ⎞ γ + 1 P0 γ A*
= ⎜ ⎟
A ⎝ γ + 1⎠ 2 T0 R A
The non-dimensional form of the mass flow parameter is obtained by simplifying and rearranging
γ /( γ −1)
m T0 R ⎛ 2 ⎞ A*
= ⎜
AP0 γ ⎝ γ + 1⎟⎠ A

The value of the maximum mass flow parameter similar to equation derived in previous two sections
A*
can be obtained by substituting = 1 in above equation.
A
4.4.7 Pressure Distribution and Choking in a Nozzle

Let us first consider a convey urgent nozzle as shown in Fig. (a) which also shows the pressure ratio p/
p0 along the length of the nozzle. The inlet condition of the fluid is the stagnation state at p0, T0, which is
assumed to be constant. The pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle is denoted by pE and the back pressure is
pB which can be varied by the valve. As the back pressure pB is decreased, the mass flow rate m and the exit
SY
plane pressure pE / p0 vary, as shown in Fig. (b)
p0
T0 pE
V=0
pB
Valve
EA
p/p 0
1.0 1
pE = pB
2
3 ME = 1
4
pE > pB
Fig. (a) Compressible flow through a converging nozzle
1
4 3 1.0
Choked
limit
2
p E/p0
E
2
m
Critical 3
4
ratio
AD
1
0 p/p0 1.0 0 1.0
p B /p 0
pB/p 0
Fig. (b) Mass flow rate and exit pressure as a function of back pressure in a converging nozzle
When pB/p0 = 1, there is no flow, and pE /p0 = 1, as designated by point 1. If the back pressure pB is now
decreased to a value as designated by point 2. such that pB/p0 is greater than the critical pressure ratio: the
M
mass flow rate has a certain value and pE = pB. The exit Mach number ME is less than 1. Next the back pressure
pB is lowered to the critical pressure, denoted by point 3. The exit Mach number ME is now: unity: and pE = pB.
When pB is decreased below the critical pressure, indicated by point 4, there is no increase in the mass flow rate:,
and pE remains constant at a value equal to critical pressure and ME = 1. The drop in pressure from pE to pB
occurs outside the nozzle exit. This is the choking limit which means that for given stagnation conditions the
nozzle is passing the maximum possible mass flow.
Let us next consider a convergent-divergent nozzle as shown in Fig (c). Point 1 designates the condition
when pB = p0 and there is no flow. When pB is lowered to the pressure denoted by point 2, so that pB /p0 is
less than 1 but greater than the critical pressure ratio, the velocity increases in the convergent section: but
M < 1 at the throat. The divergent section acts as a subsonic diffuser in which the pressure increases and

velocity decreases. Point 3 indicates the back pressure at which M = 1 at the throat but the diverging section
acts as a subsonic diffuser in which the pressure increases and velocity decreases. Point 4 indicates one other
back pressure for which the flow is isentropic throughout and the diverging section acts as a supersonic nozzle
with a continuous decrease in pressure and a continuous increase in velocity and pE4 = pB 4. This condition of
supersonic flow past the throat with the isentropic conditions is called the design pressure ratio of the nozzle. If
the pressure is lowered to 5, no further decrease in exit pressure occurs and the drop in pressure from pE to pB
occurs outside the nozzle.
SY
T
p0 0 pB
V=0
pE
Throat
1.0 1
2
3
p/ p 0
EA x
Shocks
a
4
5
Region of
shocks
Fig. (c) Compressible flow through convergent divergent nozzle

Between the back pressures designated by points 3 and 4, flow is not isentropic in the diverging part
and it is accompanied by a highly irreversible phenomenon, known as shocks. Shocks occur only when the flow
E
is supersonic and after the shock the flow becomes subsonic, when the rest of the diverging portion acts as a
diffuser. Properties vary discontinuously across the shock. When the back pressure is as indicated by point b
Fig. (c), the flow throughout the nozzle is isentropic, with pressure continuously decreasing and velocity increasing,
but a shock appears just at the exit of the nozzle. When the back pressure is increased from b to a, the shock
AD
moves upstream: as indicated. When the back pressure is further increased: the shock moves further upstream
and disappears at the nozzle throat where the back pressure corresponds to 3. Since flow throughout is subsonic:
no shock is possible.
4.5 Normal Shocks

We mentioned normal shocks in the previous section in the context of flow through a nozzle. In practice,
these irreversible discontinuities can occur in any supersonic flow field, in either internal flow or external flow.
M
Knowledge of property changes across shocks and of shock behavior is important in understanding the design
of supersonic diffusers, e.g., for inlets on high performance aircraft, and supersonic wind tunnels.
Accordingly, now we have to analyze the normal shock process. Before applying the basic equations to
normal shocks, it is important to form a clear physical picture of the shock itself. Although it is physically
impossible to have discontinuities in fluid properties, the normal shock is nearly discontinuous. The thickness of
a shock is about 0.2 µm or roughly 4 times the mean free path of the gas molecules . Large changes in pressure,
temperature, and other properties occur across this small distance. These considerations justify treating the
normal shock as an abrupt discontinuity; we are interested in changes occurring across the shock rather than in
the details of its structure.

Consider the short control volume surrounding a normal shock standing in a passage of arbitrary shape
shown in figure. Our starting point in analyzing this normal shock is the set of basic equations describing one-
dimensional motion that may be affected by several phenomena: area change, friction, and heat transfer. These
are as follows:
ρ1V1A1 = ρ2V2A2 = ρVA = m = constant ...Continuity equation
2 − mV
Rx + p1A1 – p2A2 = mV 1
δQ V2 V2
+ h1 + 1 = h2 + 2 ...Momentum equation
dm 2 2
1 Q ⎞
⎛
SY
m (s2 − s1) ≥ ∫ T ⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ dA ...Second law of thermodynamics
CS
p = ρRT
Δh = h2 – h1 = cp ΔT = cp (T2 − T1 )
Δs = s2 – s1 = cp lnT2 /T1 − R ln p2 /p1
Property relation for an ideal gas with constant specific heats
Flow
EA T1
p1
V1
CV
T2
p2
V2
y
1 2
E
Fig. Control volume used for analysis of normal shock
Basic Equations for a Normal Shock

We can now simplify above basic equations for 1-D motion for flow of an ideal gas with constant specific
AD
heats through a normal shock. The most important simplifying feature is that the width of the control volume is
infinitesimal (in reality about 0.2 µm as we indicated), so A1 A2 A , the force due to the walls Rx 0 (because
the control volume wall surface area is infinitesimal), and the heat exchange with the walls δQ/dm = 0, for the
same reason. Hence, for this flow our equations become
ρ1V1 = ρ2V2 = m /A = constant
p1A – p2A = mV 2 − mV
1
M
p1 + ρ1V12 = p2 + ρ2V22
V12 V2
h0 = h1 + = h2 + 2 = h02
1 2 2
s 2 > s1
p = ρ RT
Δh = h2 – h1 = cpΔT = cp(T2 – T1)
T2 p
Δs = s2 – s1 = cp ln − R ln 2
T1 p1
We can certainly use these equations for analyzing normal shocks, but we will usually find it more useful

to develop normal shock functions based on M1, the upstream Mach number. A normal shock can occur only
when the incoming flow is supersonic. Fluid flows will generally gradually adjust to downstream conditions (e.g.,
an obstacle in the flow) as the pressure field redirects the flow (e.g., around the object). However, if the flow is
moving at such a speed that the pressure field cannot propagate upstream (when the flow speed, V, is greater
than the local speed of sound, c, or in other words M > 1), then the fluid has to “violently” adjust to the downstream
conditions. The shock that a supersonic flow may encounter is like a hammer blow that each fluid particle
experiences; the pressure suddenly increases through the shock (as mentioned, over a distance < 2 µm), so
that, at the instant a particle is passing through the shock, there is a very large negative pressure gradient. This
pressure gradient causes a dramatic reduction in speed, V, and hence a rapid rise in temperature, T, as kinetic
energy is converted to internal thermal energy. We may wonder what happens to the density because both the
SY
temperature and pressure rise through the shock, leading to opposing changes in density; it turns out that the
density, ρ, increases through the shock. Because the shock is adiabatic but highly irreversible, entropy, s,
increases through the shock. Finally, we see that as speed, V, decreases and the speed of sound, c, increases
(because temperature, T, increases) through the normal shock, the Mach number, M, decreases; in fact, we will
see later that it always becomes subsonic. Results based on above analysis are shown graphically as well as in
tabular form as follows:
T s2 – s1
EA p0
1
2
p0
2
p2
T2
T0 = T02
1
1 2
Shock Flow
1
E
p1 T1
s
Fig. Schematic of normal-shock process on the T-s plane
AD
Summary of property changes across a normal shock
Property Effect Obtained from :

Stagnation temperature T 0 = Constant Energy equation
Entropy s↑ Second law
Stagnation pressure p0 ↓ T-s diagram
Temperature T↑ T-s diagram
M
Velocity V↓ Energy equation and effect on T

Density ρ↑ Continuity equation, and effect on V
Pressure p↑ Momentum equation, and effect on V
Mach number M↓ M = V/c, and effects on V and T
4.6 Fanno and Rayleigh Interpretation of Normal Shock

A normal shock is a phenomenon in which fluid properties experience large changes over a very short
distance and time under equilibrium conditions. It is not easy to see what is happening in such a dynamic

process. However, we can gain some insight by considering two processes in which flow properties are gradually
changing: during a process involving friction and during a heat transfer process. Hence basic equations in
previous section can be understood to some degree by considering Fanno-line (friction) and Rayleigh-line (heat
transfer) curves. T
In a T-s diagram, the Fanno line curve shows all
possible states for a one-dimensional flow that is being
M=1
changed only by friction (there is no area change and no heat M<1
Fanno line 2
transfer). The second law of thermodynamics requires that in
this case entropy must increase, so that, as seen in figure, if
M=1
SY
the flow starts out subsonic, friction causes the flow to
accelerate until it becomes sonic; a flow that starts out <1
M Shock
supersonic decelerates until it is sonic. It is counterintuitive Rayleigh line
that friction can accelerate a flow, but it can happen if the
pressure is falling sufficiently rapidly. In subsequent section,
we will discuss what happens if friction continues after we 1
reach sonic conditions. All such friction flows must move in 1
M>
the direction of increasing entropy.
EA
The Rayleigh line shows all possible states for a one-
dimensional flow that is experiencing only heat transfer (no
area changes or friction). Heat addition corresponds to an
increase in both entropy and temperature (except for a small
M
>
1
Fig. Intersection of Fanno line and Rayleigh line

as a solution of the normal-shock equations.
s
region near M=1), and both sub-and supersonic flows approach sonic conditions; a cooling process leads to
reductions in temperature and entropy.
The normal shock is obtained from a superposition of the two curves, as shown above. States 1 and 2 are
E
the beginning and end states of a flow that (following the Fanno line) has only friction present (no area changes or
heat transfer); they are also the beginning and end states of a flow that (following the Rayleigh curve) has only
heat transfer (no area changes or friction). This raises the question of how we can have a flow with simultaneously
AD
only friction and only heat transfer! The answer is that we mathematically can follow the Fanno line from 1 to 2 ,
although not in reality. We could actually have a flow in which we had friction from state 1 to where M =1, but from
M =1 to state 2 we would have to have “negative friction” (recall that friction requires us to increase the entropy).
Hence, from state 1 to state 2 , we have a fictitious process in which we have friction, then negative
friction, ending in no net friction. A similar process applies to the Rayleigh line. To get from state 1 to state 2 , we
would heat the flow and then cool it, with no net heat transfer. The conclusion we come to is that states 1 and 2
represent a change in a flow for which there is no heat transfer, no friction, and no area change; moreover, it is
M
“violent” because the flow changes from state 1 to state 2 without following a process curve; so entropy must
increase. Note that figure shows some trends we have mentioned: The flow must go from super- to subsonic, and
entropy and temperature must increase through a shock.
4.7 Normal-Shock Flow functions for 1-D flow of an Ideal gas

Basic equations mentioned in previous section can be used to analyses flows that experience a normal
shock. As in isentropic flow, it is often more convenient to use Mach number based equations, in this
case based on the incoming Mach number, M1. This involves three steps:

⎛ T p ⎞
First: We have to obtain property ratios ⎜ e.g. 2 and 2 ⎟ in terms of M1 and M2.
⎝ T1 p1 ⎠
Section: Developing a relation between M1 and M2.
Thir d: To obtain expressions for property ratios in terms of upstream Mach number, M1.
Third:
The temperature ratio can be expressed as
T2 T2 T02 T01
T1 = T02 T01 T1
Since stagnation temperature is constant across the shock, we have
SY
γ −1 2
T2 1− M1
= 2 ... (i)
T1 γ −1 2
1− M2
2
A velocity ratio may be obtained by using.
⎡ γ −1 2⎤
V2 M2C2 M2 T2 M2 ⎢1 + 2 M1 ⎥
= = = ⎢ ⎥ ... (iii)
V1
EAM1C1 M1 T1
⎡
M1 ⎢1 + γ − 1M2 ⎥
⎣⎢
γ −1 2⎤
2
A ratio of densities may be obtained from the continuity equation
ρ 1 V1 = ρ 2 V2
1/ 2
2⎥
⎦
[Constant area duct]
ρ2 V1 M1 ⎢1+ 2 M2 ⎥
So that ρ1 = V = M ⎢ ⎥ ... (iii)
2 2 ⎢ 1+ γ − 1M2 ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
1
2
E
Finally, we have the momentum equation,
p1 + ρ1V12 = p2 + ρ2V22
p
Substituting, ρ = , and factoring out pressures, gives
AD
RT
⎡ V12 ⎤ ⎡ V22 ⎤
p1 ⎢1+ ⎥ = p2 ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣⎢ RT1 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ RT2 ⎦⎥
V2 V2
Since, = γ = γM2
RT RT
p1[1 + γM12] = p2 [1 + γM22]
M
p2 1 + γM12
Finally, = ... (iv)
p1 1 + γM 22
To valve for M2 in terms of M1, we must obtain another expression for one the property ratios. From the
ideal gas equation of state, the temperature ratio may be written as
T2 p2 ρR p p
= × 1 = 2 × 1
T1 ρ2R p1 ρ1 ρ2
From equations (iii) and (iv), we get

1/2
⎡ γ −1 2⎤
T2 ⎡1 + γM12 ⎤ M 2 ⎢ 1 + 2 M1 ⎥
T1 = ⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ... (v)
⎣⎢1 + γM2 ⎦⎥ M1 ⎢ 1 + γ − 1M22 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
T2
Equations (i) and (v) are two equations for . We can combine them and solve for M2 in terms M1.
T1
Combining and cencelling gives:
SY
⎡ γ −1 2⎤
⎢1+ 2 M1 ⎥ M ⎡1 + γM12 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = 2⎢ ⎥
γ −1 2 M1 ⎢⎣1 + γM22 ⎦⎥
⎢1+ M2 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Squaring both side, we obtain
γ −1 2
1+
1+
2
2
M1
γ −1 2
M2 EA
M2 ⎡1 + 2γM12 + γ 2M14 ⎤
= 22 ⎢ ⎥
M1 ⎢⎣1 + 2γM22 + γ 2M24 ⎥⎦
Above equation may be solved explicitly for M22. Two solution are obtained:
M22 = M12 [Trivial condition]
2
M12 +
γ −1
and M22 = ... (vi)
2γ
E
M2 − 1
γ −1 1
First solution is trivial and the second expresses the unique dependence of M2 on M1.
Now, having a relationship between M2 and M1, we can solve for property ratios across a shock. Once M1
AD
is known, we can find M2 from equation (vi)

Now, let us calculate the ratio of stagnation pressures as follows:
γ
⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
p02 p p2 p1 p2 ⎢1 + 2 M 2 ⎥
= 02 × × = ⎢ ⎥ ... (vii)
p01 p2 p1 p01 p1 ⎢1 + γ − 1M 2 ⎥
1
⎣ 2 ⎦
M
Combining equations (iv) and (vi), we get

p2 1 + γM12 1 + γM12
= =
p1 1 + γM22 ⎡ 2 2 ⎤
⎢ M1 + γ − 1 ⎥
1+ γ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ − 2 γ M 2 − 1⎥
⎢⎣ γ − 1 1
⎥⎦

⎡ 2γ ⎤
(1 + γM12 ) ⎢ M12 − 1⎥
p2 1 + γM12 ⎣ γ − 1 ⎦
= =
p1 2γ 2 2γ 2 2γ 2
+ γM1 M − 1+ M
γ −1 γ −1 1 γ −1 1
1+
2γ
+ γM12 − 1
γ −1
Simplifying and rearranging denominator:
⎡ 2γ ⎤
(1 + γM12 ) ⎢ M12 − 1⎥
p2 ⎣γ −1 ⎦
SY
=
p1 ⎛ γ + 1⎞ ⎛ γ + 1 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ γ − 1⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ γ − 1 γM1 ⎟⎠
⎛ γ + 1⎞ ⎛ 2 γ ⎞ 2γ γ −1
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ M12 − 1⎟ = M12 − ... (viii)
⎝ γ − 1⎠ ⎝ γ − 1 ⎠ γ +1 γ +1
This expression shows that for a shock (M1 > 1) there is always a pressure rise across it. Values of the
For M1 = 1,
⎛ p2 ⎞
⎛ p2 ⎞
EA
pressure ratio ⎜ p ⎟ corresponding to M1 < 1 are absurd.
⎝ 1⎠
⎜⎝ p ⎟⎠ = 1
1
⎛ p2 ⎞
and for M1 = ∞, ⎜⎝ p ⎟⎠ = ∞
1
E
Now, combining equations (vii) and (viii), we get
γ
⎡ γ + 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
p02 ⎢ M1 ⎥
AD
2 1
= ⎢ ×
γ −1 2⎥ 1/ γ −1 ... (ix)
p01 ⎢1 + ⎡ 2γ γ − 1⎤
M1 ⎥ M 2
−
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎢ 1
γ + 1⎥⎦
⎣γ + 1
Strength of Shock Wave: Strength of shock wave is a parameter which defines the strength of a shock
way which often being used in shock wave analysis.
This is given by
p2 − p1
M
p2
= −1
p1 p1
2γ 2 γ − 1 2γ 2
= M − − 1= M −1
γ +1 1 γ +1 γ +1 1

NOTE (i) Strength of shock wave depends on incoming Mach number and higher the Mach number,
strongest (more violent) the shock.
(ii) Shock strength can also be expressed as
2γ ⎛ ρ2 ⎞
−1
p2 − p1 γ + 1⎜⎝ ρ1 ⎟⎠
= (in terms of density ratio)
p1 2 ⎛ρ ⎞
− ⎜ 2 − 1⎟
γ − 1 ⎝ ρ1 ⎠
ρ2
SY
(iii) For weak shocks i.e. for smaller values of the density ratio .
ρ1
⎛ρ ⎞
Shock strength ∝ ⎜ 2 − 1⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠
(iv) Shock strength ∝ (M12 – 1)
4.8 Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Friction
EA
Gas flow in constant-area ducts is commonly encountered in a variety of engineering applications. In this
section we consider flows in which wall friction is responsible for changes in fluid properties. As for isentropic flow
with area variation and the normal shock , our starting point in analyzing flows with friction is the set of basic
equations , describing one-dimensional motion that is affected by several phenomena: area change, friction, heat
transfer, and normal shocks. These are
ρ1V1A1 = ρ2V2A2 = ρVA = m = constant
2 − mV
Rx + p1A1 – p2A2 = mV 1
E
δQ V2 V2
+ h1 + 1 = h2 + 2
dm 2 2
1 ⎛ Q ⎞
AD
m (s2 − s1) ≥ ∫ T ⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ dA
CS
p = ρ RT
Δh = h2 – h1 = cpΔT = cp(T2 – T1)
T2 p
Δ s = s2 – s1 = cp ln − R ln 2
T1 p1
M
We have to simplify these equations for flow in a constant-area duct with friction. We have to consider
about the heat generated by friction . There are two obvious cases we can consider: In the first we assume that
the flow is adiabatic, so any heat generated remains in the fluid; in the second we assume that the flow remains
isothermal, so the fluid either gives off heat or absorbs heat as necessary. While some flows may be neither
adiabatic nor isothermal, many real-world flows are. Flow in a relatively short duct will be approximately adiabatic;
flow in a very long duct (e.g., an uninsulated natural gas pipeline) will be approximately isothermal (the pipeline
will be at the ambient temperature). Let us consider Adiabatic Flow first.

Basic Equations for Adiabatic Flow

We can simplify above basic equations for frictional adiabatic flow in a constant-area duct of an ideal gas
with constant specific heats, as shown in figure.
CV
T1 T2
p1 p2
Flow y
ρ1 ρ2
V1 Rx V2
SY
x
1 2
Fig. Control volume used for integral analysis of frictional adiabatic flow
m
ρ 1 V1 = ρ 2 V2 = ρ V = G = = Constant
A
2 − mV
Rx + p1A – p2A = mV 1
h0 = h1 +
1
s2 > s 1
p = ρRT
EA V12
2
V2
= h2 + 2 = h0 = h0
2 2
Δh = h2 – h1 = cpΔT = cp(T2 – T1)

T2 p
Δs = s2 – s1 = cp ln − R ln 2
T1 p1
Adiabatic Flow: The Fanno Line

E
If we were to attempt the calculations described above, as the flow progresses down the duct (i.e., for
increasing values of Rx), we would develop a relationship between T and s shown qualitatively in figure for two
possibilities: a flow that was initially subsonic (starting at some point 1 ), and flow that was initially supersonic
AD
(starting at some point 1' ). The locus of all possible downstream states is referred to as the Fanno line. Detailed
calculations show some interesting features of Fanno-line flow. At the point of maximum entropy, the Mach
number is unity. On the upper branch of the curve, the Mach number is always less than unity, and it increases
monotonically as we proceed to the right along the curve. At every point on the lower portion of the curve, the
Mach number is greater than unity; the Mach number decreases monotonically as we move to the right along the
curve.
For any initial state on a Fanno line, each point on the Fanno line represents a mathematically possible
M
downstream state. In figure we generated the curves by repeatedly solving above equations for increasing
values of the friction force, Rx; the total friction force increases as we progress down the duct because we are
including more and more surface area. Note the arrows in figure, indicating that, as required by entropy equations,
the entropy must increase for this flow. In fact it is because we do have friction (an irreversibility) present in an
adiabatic flow that this must happen.

T
M<1 1
M=1
M>1
s
SY
Fig. Schematic T-s diagram for frictional adiabatic (Fanno-line) flow in a constant area duct
p 01 = p p0 = p
0 1′ 2 0
2′
T
T0 = constant
M<1 1
2
M=1
EA
M>1
1
2
Fig. Schematic of Fanno-line flow in T-s plane, showing

E
reduction in local isentropic stagnation pressure caused by friction
Referring again to figure, we see that for an initially subsonic flow (state 1), the effect of friction is to
increase the Mach number toward unity. For a flow that is initially supersonic (state 1'), the effect of friction is to
AD
decrease the Mach number toward unity.

In developing the simplified form of the first law for Fanno-line flow, we found that stagnation enthalpy
remains constant. Consequently, when the fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, stagnation temperature
must also remain constant. Friction causes the local isentropic stagnation pressure to decrease for all Fanno-line
flows, as shown in figure. Since entropy must increase in the direction of flow, the flow process must proceed to
the right on the T-s diagram. In figure, a path from state 1 to state 2 is shown on the subsonic portion of the curve.
The corresponding local isentropic stagnation pressures, p01 and p02 , clearly show that p02 > p01. An identical result is
M
obtained for flow on the supersonic branch of the curve from state 1' to state 2‘ .Thus p0 decreases for any Fanno-line
flow.

Summary of Effects of friction on properties in fanno-line flow
Property Subsonic M < 1 Supersonic M > 1 Obtained from :
Stagnation temperature T0 = Constant T 0 = Constant Energy equation

Entropy s↑ s↑ T ds equation
Stagnation pressure p0 ↓ p0 ↓ T 0 = constant;s↑
Temperature T↓ T↑
Shape of Fanno line
Velocity V↑ V↓ Energy equation, and trend of T
Mach number M↑ M↓ Trends of V , T and definition of M
SY
Density ρ↓ ρ↑ Continuity equation and effect on V
Pressure p↓ p↑ Equation of state, and effects on ρ, T
4.8.1 Some Important relations for Fanno flow :

⎛ k + 1⎞
T ⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ 2 ⎠
T* ⎛ k −1 2 ⎞
V
V*
=
⎝
EA
⎜ 1+
=⎢
2
M ⎟
ρ ⎢ k −1 2 ⎥
⎣⎢
1+
2
⎠
⎡ ⎛ k + 1⎞ 2 ⎤
ρ * ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
M ⎥
M
⎥
⎦⎥
1/2
1/2
⎡ ⎛ k + 1⎞ ⎤
p 1 ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
= ⎢ ⎥
E
p* M ⎢ 1 + k − 1M 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
(k +1)/2(k −1)
p0 1 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ k − 1 2 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜⎝ k + 1⎟⎠ ⎜ 1 + 2 M ⎟ ⎥
AD
p0* M ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
4.9 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Heat Exchange

To explore the effects of heat exchange on a compressible flow, we apply the basic equations to steady,
one-dimensional, frictionless flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats through the finite control volume
shown in figure.
CV
M
p1 p2
Flow y
ρ1 ρ2
V1 V2
x
1 2
δQ
dm
Fig. Control volume used for integral analysis of frictionless flow with heat exchange

Basic Equations for Flow with Heat Exchange

We can write continuity equation, momentum equation, an energy equation, the second law of
thermodynamics, and useful property relations for an ideal gas with constant specific heats as follows:
m
ρ1V1 = ρ2V2 = ρVA = G = = constant
A
p1A – p2A = mV 2 − mV 1
δQ ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞
= ⎜ h2 + 2 ⎟ − ⎜ h1 + 1 ⎟ = h02 − h01
dm ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
SY
1 ⎛ Q ⎞
m (s2 − s1) ≥ ∫ T ⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ dA
CS
p = ρRT
Δ h = h2 – h1 = cpΔT = cp(T2 – T1)
T2 p
Δ s = s2 – s1 = cp ln − R ln 2
T1 p1
4.9.1 The Rayleigh Line

EA
If we use above basic equations to compute property values as a given flow proceeds with a prescribed
heat exchange rate, we obtain a curve shown qualitatively in the T-s plane in figure. The locus of all possible
downstream states is called the Rayleigh line. The calculations show some interesting features of Rayleigh-line
flow. At the point of maximum temperature (point a of figure), the Mach number for an ideal gas is 1/ k .
At the point of maximum entropy (point b of figure), M =1. On the upper branch of the curve, Mach
number is always less than unity, and it increases monotonically as we proceed to the right along the curve. At
E
every point on the lower portion of the curve, Mach number is greater than unity, and it decreases monotonically
as we move to the right along the curve. Regardless of the initial Mach number, with heat addition the flow state
proceeds to the right, and with heat rejection the flow state proceeds to the left along the Rayleigh line. For any
AD
initial state in a Rayleigh-line flow, any other point on the Rayleigh line represents a mathematically possible
downstream state.
1
T M=
a k
M<1 b M=1
i ng
M
at
He
ng
oli M>1
Co
in g
at
He ng
oli
Co
s
Fig. Schematic T-s diagram for frictionless flow in a
constant area duct with heat exchange (Rayleigh-line flow)

The effects of heat exchange on properties in steady, frictionless. Compressible flow of an ideal gas are
summarized in table below, the basis of each indicated trend is discussed in the next few paragraphs.
The direction of entropy change is always determined by the heat exchange; entropy increases with
heating and decreases with cooling. Similarly, the first law, shows that heating increases the stagnation enthalpy
and cooling decreases it; since Δh0 = cpΔ T0, the effect on stagnation temperature L-s the same.
The effect of heating and cooling on temperature may be deduced from the shape of the Rayleigh line in
figure. We see that except for the region 1/ k <M< 1 (for air, 1/ k = 0.85), heating causes T to increase, and
cooling causes T to decrease. However, we also sec the unexpected result that for 1/ k < M < 1, heat addition
SY
causes the stream temperature to decrease, and heat rejection causes the stream temperature to increase!
For subsonic flow, the Mach number increases monotonically with heating, until M = 1 is reached. For
given inlet conditions, all possible downstream states lie on a single Rayleigh line. Therefore, the point M = 1
determines the maximum possible heat addition without choking. If the flow is initially supersonic, heating will
reduce the Mach number. Again, the maximum possible heat addition without choking is that which reduces the
Mach number to M = 1.0.
Summary of Effects of heat exchanger on fluid properties
Property
Entropy
Stagnation temperature
M<1
T0 ↑
s↑
⎛
Heating
1 ⎞
EA
M>1
s↑
T0 ↑
M<1
s↓
T0 ↓
⎛
Cooling
1 ⎞
M>1
s↓
T0 ↓
Obtained from
Tds equation
First law, and Δh 0 = c pΔT 0
Temperature T ↑ ⎜M < ⎟ T↑ T ↓ ⎜M < ⎟ T↓ Shape of Rayleigh line

⎝ k⎠ ⎝ k⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
T↓ ⎜ < M < 1⎟ T↑ ⎜ < M < 1⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ k ⎠
Mach number Trend on Rayleigh line
E
M↑ M↓ M↓ M↑
Pressure p↓ p↑ p↑ p↓ Trend on Rayleigh line
Velocity V↑ V↓ V↓ V↑ Momentum equation, and effect on p
Density ρ↓ ρ↑ ρ↑ ρ↑ Continuity equation, and effect on V
AD
Stagnation pressure p0 ↓ p0 ↓ p0 ↑ p0 ↑
p0
T p0 T 4
2 T0
T0 3
2 p0
3
p0 T0
1 M=1 3 M=1
T01 2
p2
M
1 s 4 – s3
p1 p2 – s1
p4 4
Rayleigh line
Rayleigh line
p3
3
(a) Subsonic flow s (b) Supersonic flow s
Fig. Reduction in stagnation pressure due to heat addition for two flow cases

The effect of heat exchange on static pressure is obtained from the shapes of the Rayleigh line and of
constant-pressure lines on the T-s plane (as shown in figure). For M < 1 pressure falls with heating, and for M >
I, pressure increases, as shown by the shapes of the constant-pressure lines. Once the pressure variation has
been found, the effect on velocity may be found from the momentum equation,
2 − mV
p1A – p2A = mV 1
⎞
⎛m
or p+⎜ ⎟V = constant
⎝A⎠
Thus, since m /A is a positive constant, trends in p and V must be opposite. From the continuity equation,
SY
the trend in ρ is opposite to that in V.
Local isentropic stagnation pressure always decreases with heating. This is illustrated schematically
(Fig. (a)). A reduction in stagnation pressure has obvious practical implications for heating processes, such as
combustion chambers. Adding the same amount of energy per unit mass (same change in T0) causes a larger
change in p0 for supersonic flow; because heating occurs at a lower temperature in supersonic flow, the entropy
increase is larger.
p
p*
T
T*
= EA
For convenience we collect together the equations
1+ k
1 + kM 2
⎡ ⎛ 1+ k ⎞⎤
= ⎢M ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 1 + kM ⎠ ⎦
2
ρ* V M 2 (1 + k )
= =
ρ V* 1 + kM 2
E
⎛ k −1 2 ⎞
2 (k + 1)M 2 ⎜ 1 + M ⎟
T0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
=
T0 * (1 + kM 2 )2
AD
k /(k −1)
p0 1+ k ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ k − 1 2 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ ⎜⎝ k + 1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 + 2 M ⎟⎠ ⎥
p0 * 1 + kM 2 ⎣ ⎦
Example 4.8 At a section in an isentropic flow passage air is having a temperature and
pressure of 27°C and one bar respectively and is flowing with a velocity of 300 m/s. What will be the
pressure and temperature of the fluid in the reservoir from where the flow has started? Use the following
Table:
M
M T/T0 p/p0 ρ/ρ0 A/A*

0.80 0.88652 0.65602 0.74000 1.03823
0.82 0.88146 0.64300 0.72947 1.03046
0.84 0.87633 0.63000 0.71891 1.02370
0.86 0.87114 0.61703 0.70831 1.01787
Solution:
In an isentropic flow, condition of fluid in the reservoir will be the stagnation condition. The stagnation
state can be calculated directly using the energy equation and isentropic relations or using the equations
for stagnation property ratios in terms of Mach number. Alternatively, we can use isentropic flow tables

for a perfect gas as supplied in this question, in which the numerical value of the property ratios in a
steady one-dimensional isentropic flow are tabulated as a function of local Mach number for a given
value of specific heat ratio, γ can be employed for getting the stagnation state. As given T = 27°C = 300 K,
γ = 1.4, R = 287 J/kgK, V = 300 m/s
V V 300
Mach number, M = C = γRT
=
1.4 × 287 × 300
= 0.864
T0 γ −1 2 1.4 − 1
= 1+ M = 1+ × (0.864)2 = 1.1493
T 2 2
SY
T
or, = 0.87
T0
γ 1.4
p0 ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞ γ −1 ⎡ 1.4 − 1 ⎤ 1.4 −1
p = ⎜⎝ 1 + 2 M ⎟⎠ = ⎢1 + × (0.864)2 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
p
= 1.6275 or = 0.6144
p0
Value of
T
T0
EA
and can also be calculated by interpolation with the help of table given in question.
Stagnation pressure, p0 = 1.6275 × 1 = 1.6275 bar
Stagnation temperature, T0 =
T
=
300
= 344.83 K
0.87 0.87
Example 4.9 Air flows isentropically through a duct. At a particular section in the passage,
E
the cross-sectional area is 400 mm2 and M = 0.4. At another section the area is 300 mm2. What is the
Mach number at the second section? What would be the area of the section where M = 1?
Solution:
AD
Given data: M1 = 0.4, A1 = 4 × 10–4 m2, A2 = 3 × 10–4 m2

M1
A1
M=1
M2
A2
A*
Let us refer above figure. The area ratio between any two sections can be written as the ratio of the critical
M
area ratios between the two sections (since A* is constant for a given isentropic flow)
A2 A2 / A ( A / A *)M = M2
=
A1 = A1A * ( A / A *)M = 0.4 ... (i)
(γ +1)
A 1⎛ 2 γ − 1 2 ⎞ 2(γ −1)
We know that, = + M
A* M ⎝ γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎟⎠
⎜
2.4
⎛ A⎞ 1 ⎛ 2 0.4 2 ⎞ 2 × 0.4
⎜⎝ ⎟
A * ⎠ M = 0.4 = 0.4 ⎜⎝ 2.4 + 2.4 0.4 ⎟⎠ = 2.5 (0.8333 + 0.02666)3 = 1.59

Substituting this value in equation (i), we get

300 (A / A*)M = M2
=
400 1.59
⎛ A ⎞
⎜⎝
A * ⎟⎠ M = M = 1.1925
2
γ +1
⎛ A ⎞ 1⎛ 2 γ − 1 2 ⎞ 2(γ −1)
⎜⎝
A * ⎟⎠ M = M2 = 1.1925 = M ⎜⎝ γ + 1 + γ + 1M ⎠⎟
SY
2.4
1 ⎛ 2 0.4 2 ⎞ 2 ×0.4
1.1925 = ⎜ + M ⎟
0.4 ⎝ 2.4 2.4 ⎠
1.1925M = (0.8333 + 0.1667)3
1 × 0.6044 M 0.33 = 0.8333 + 0.1667 M 2
with hit and trial method, M = 0.595
⎛ A ⎞
⎜⎝
EA
So, Mach number corresponding to A/A* = 1.1925 is
M2 = 0.595
We have to find out area of critical section, A* where M = 1 can be obtained from A/A* at the first section,
A1
A * ⎟⎠ M = 0.4 = A * = 1.59
A1 400
A* = = = 251.57 mm2
1.59 1.59
E
NOTE (i) With known value of M, we can easily find A/A*
(ii) Finding the value of M with given value of A/A* is bit complicated.
AD
(iii) Gas tables are must for such kind of questions.

(iv) Gas tables are supplied in competitive examination question.
Example 4.10 A converging nozzle, with a throat area of 0.001 m2, is operated with air at a
back pressure of 591 kPa (abs). The nozzle is fed from a large plenum chamber where the absolute
stagnation pressure and temperature are 1.0 MPa and 60°C. Determine:
(i) exit Mach number
M
(ii) mass flow rate

Solution:
The first step is to chekc for choking. The pressure ratio is
pb 5.91× 105
p0 = = 0.591 > 0.528
1.0 × 106
so the flow is not choked. Thus pb = pe, and the flow is isentropic, as sketched on the T-s diagram.

pb= 591 kPa (abs)

p 0 = 1.0 MPa (abs)
T 0 = 333 K
pe
p0
SY
T0
pe
Te
T*
s
Since, p0 = constant, Me may be found from the pressure ratio,
1+
p0
pe
k −1 2
= ⎢⎣EA
⎡ k −1 2⎤
1+
Solving form Me, since pe = pb, we obtain
⎛ p0 ⎞
Me = ⎜ ⎟
M
2 e ⎥⎦
k / (k −1)
(k −1)/k
2 ⎝ pb ⎠
1/2
⎧⎪ ⎡⎛ p ⎞(k −1)/k ⎤ 2 ⎫⎪
Me = ⎨ ⎢⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
E
and
⎩⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ pb ⎠ ⎥⎦ k − 1⎭⎪
1/2
⎧⎪ ⎡⎛ 6 ⎞0.286 ⎤ 2 ⎫⎪
= ⎨ ⎢⎜ 1.0 − 10 ⎟ − ⎥ ⎬ = 0.90
AD
1
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢⎝ 5.91× 105 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 1.4 − 1⎪⎭
The mass flow rate is m = ρeVeAe = ρeMece Ae
We need Te to find ρe and ce . Since T0 = constant,
T0 k −1 2
1+ Me
Te = 2
T0
=
(273 + 60)K = 287K
M
or Te =
k − 1 2 1 + 0.2 (0.9 )2
1+ Me
2
1/2
⎡ Nm kg·m ⎤
ce = kRTe = ⎢1.4 × 287 × 287K × ⎥ = 340 m/s
⎣ kgK N·s 2 ⎦
pe N kgK 1
and ρe = = 5.91× 105 2 × × = 7.18 kg/m3
RTe m Nm 287K
kg m
Finally, m = ρeMeceAe = 7.18 3
× 0.9 × 340 × 0.001m2
m s
= 2.20 kg/s

Example 4.11 Air at Mach number 1.5, pressure 300 kN/m2 and temperature 288 K is brought
to sonic velocity in a frictionless constant area duct through which heat transfer occurs. Determine the
final pressure, final temperature and heat added during the process.
Use the following Rayleigh flow table values:
M T/T* p/ p* T0/T*0 p 0/p*0 M
0.48 0.762942 0.590179 0.914310 1.111963 1.48
0.50 0.752504 0.578313 0.909276 1.121545 1.50
SY
0.52 0.742152 0.566765 0.904238 1.131534 0.52
0.54 0.731894 0.555525 0.899205 1.141932 0.54
Solution:
Data: M1 = 1.5; p1 = 300 kN/m2 ; T1 = 288 K, V2 = a2
Using isentropic table (γ = 1.4) values, corresponding to M1 = 1.5, the stagnation temperature at the inlet
section T01 can be calculated.
1
EA
T1 /T01 = (T1 /T01)M = 1.5 = 0.6896
T01 = 288/0.6896 = 418 K
Q *
p*
p1
T*
T1
V 2 = a*
V1
E
M2 = 1
M1
AD
Figure : Rayleigh flow upto critical section

Since the velocity of flow at the exit section is sonic, the exit Mach number is unity and the properties at
this section are the critical properties. Hence the flow properties at exit can be directly obtained from the
property ratios available in the Rayleigh flow tables
p1 p1 ⎛ p ⎞
= = 0.578
p * ⎜⎝ p * ⎟⎠M = 1.5
=
M
p2
p2 = p * = 300/0.578 = 519.03 kN/m2

T1/T2 = T01 / T0* = (T0 / T0*)M = 1.5 = 0.909
T02 = T0* = 418/0.909 = 459.84K
Heat added/kg of air, Q = cp(T02 – T01) = 1.005(459.84 – 418) = 42.05 kJ/kg

5. SHEAR-CENTER
5.1 Shear-Center Concept

• The lateral loads acting on a beam produce shear forces as well as bending moments.
• In order to determine the shear stresses in beams when the loads act in a plane of symmetry and
presented the derivation of the shear formula for calculating those stresses for certain shapes of
beams.
SY
• Now consider the shear stresses in beams when the lateral loads act in a plane that is not a plane of
symmetry.
• You will see that the loads must be applied at a particular point in the cross section, called the shear
center, if the beam is to bend without twisting.
Consider a cantilever beam of singly symmetric cross section supporting a load P at the free end Fig. (a).
A beam having the cross section shown in Fig.(b) is called an unbalanced I-beam. Beams of I-shape,
whether balanced or unbalanced, are usually loaded in the plane of symmetry (the x-z plane), but in this
EA
case, the line of action of the force P is perpendicular to that plane. Since the origin of coordinates is
taken at the centroid C of the cross section, and since the z axis is an axis of symmetry of the cross
section, both the y and z axes are principal centroidal axes.
y
y
z
S C
E
z
M0
P
P x
AD
(a) (b)
Fig. : Cantilever beam with singly symmetric cross section: (a) beam with load and (b) intermediate cross section of
beam showing stress resultants P and M0, centroid C, and shear center S
Assume that under the action of the load P the beam bends with the x-z plane as the neutral plane, which
means that the x-y plane is the plane of bending. Under these conditions, two stress resultants exist at
intermediate cross sections of the beam Fig.(b) a bending moment M0 acting about the z-axis and
having its moment vector in the negative direction of the z-axis and a shear force of magnitude P acting
M
in the negative y direction. For a given beam and loading, both M0 and P are known quantities.
The normal stresses acting on the cross section have a resultant that is the bending moment M0, and the
shear stresses have a resultant that is the shear force (equal to P). If the material follows Hooke’s law, the
normal stresses vary linearly with the distance from the neutral axis (the z axis) and can be calculated
from the flexure formula. Since the shear stresses acting on a cross section are determined from the
normal stresses solely from equilibrium considerations, it follows that the distribution of shear stresses
over the cross section is also determined.The resultant of these shear stresses is a vertical force equal
in magnitude to the force P and having its line of action through some point S lying on the z axis (Fig.(b)).
This point is known as the shear center (also called the center of flexure) of the cross section.

Summary
• Assuming that the z axis is the neutral axis, not only the distribution of the normal stresses but also
the distribution of the shear stresses and the position of the resultant shear force can be determined.
• Therefore, now recognize that a load P applied at the end of the beam (Fig.(a)) must act through a
particular point (the shear center) if bending is to occur with the z axis as the neutral axis.
• If the load is applied at some other point on the z axis (say, at point A in Fig.), it can be replaced by
a statically equivalent system consisting of a force P acting at the shear center and a torque T.
• The force acting at the shear center produces bending about the z axis, and the torque produces
SY
torsion.
y
S C A
z
T
P P
•
EA
Fig. : Singly symmetric beam with load P applied at point A
A lateral load acting on a beam will produce bending without twisting only if it acts through the shear
center.
The shear center (like the centroid) lies on any axis of symmetry; therefore, the shear center S and
the centroid C coincide for a doubly symmetric cross section (Fig.(a)).
A load P acting through the centroid produces bending about the y and z axes without torsion, and
the corresponding bending stresses can be found for doubly symmetric beams.
• If a beam has a singly symmetric cross section (Fig.(b)), both the centroid and the shear center lie
E
on the axis of symmetry.
• A load P acting through the shear center can be resolved into components in the y and z-directions.
• The component in the y-direction produces bending in the x-y plane with the z-axis as the neutral
axis, and the component in the z-direction produces bending (without torsion) in the x-z plane with
AD
the y axis as the neutral axis.

• The bending stresses produced by these components can be superposed to obtain the stresses
caused by the original load.
y y
S
M
z C, S z C P
(a) (b)
Fig. : (a) Doubly symmetric beam with a load P acting through the centroid (and shear center) and
(b) singly symmetric beam with a load P acting through the shear center

• Finally, if a beam has an unsymmetric crcross section, the bending analysis proceeds as follows
oss section
(provided the load acts through the shear center).
• First, locate the centroid C of the cross section and determine the orientation of the principal centroidal
axes y and z.
• Then resolve the load into components (acting at the shear center) in the y and z directions and
determine the bending moments My and Mz about the principal axes.
• Lastly, calculate the bending stresses for unsymmetric beams.
y
SY
z C
•
EA
cross
P
Fig. : Unsymmetric beam with a load P acting through the shear center S
Beams of thin-walled open cr sections, such as wide-flange beams, channels, angles, T-
oss sections
beams, and Z-sections, are a special case. Not only are they in common use for structural purposes,
they also are very weak in torsion.
• It is especially important to locate their shear centers. Cross sections of this type are considered in
the following three sections.
E
5.2 Shear Stresses in Beams of Thin-Walled Open Cross Sections
The distribution of shear stresses in rectangular beams, circular beams, and in the webs of beams with
flanges was described and where the shear formula for calculating the stresses was derived:
AD
VQ
τ =
Ib
where,
V = Represents the shear force acting on the cross section,
I = Moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area (with respect to the neutral axis),
b = Width of the beam at the location where the shear stress is to be determined, and
Q = First moment of the cross-sectional area outside of the location where the stress is being found.
M
Fig. : Thin-walled open cross section (wide-flange beam or I-beam, channel beam, angle section,
Z-section, and T-beam)

Beams of this type are distinguished by two features:

1. The wall thickness is small compared to the height and width of the cross section.
2. Tthe cross section is open, as in the case of an I-beam or channel beam, rather than closed, as in
the case of a hollow box beam.
Beams of this type are also called structural sections or profile sections. To determine the shear stresses
in thin-walled beams of open cross section, use the same techniques as those used when deriving the shear
formula. To keep the derivation as general as possible, consider a beam having its cross-sectional centerline mm
of arbitrary shape (as shown in figure). The y and z-axes are principal centroidal axes of the cross section, and
the load P acts parallel to the y-axis through the shear center S . Therefore, bending will occur in the x-y plane with
SY
the z-axis as the neutral axis.
Under these conditions, the normal stress at any point in the beam from the flexure formula is
Mz y
σx =
Iz
where,
Mz = Bending moment about the z-axis
EA
y = Coordinate of the point under consideration.
Now consider a volume element abcd cut out between two cross sections at a distance d x apart . Note
that the element begins at the edge of the cross section and has a length s measured along the centerline mm.
y
y
s ab
E
d S a
c F1
m b
z t
x dx
AD
z C
S
x F2
dx m d →→
τ c
P P
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. : Shear stresses in a beam of thinwalled open cross section, where the y and z axes are principal centroidal axes
To determine the shear stresses, isolate the element as shown in Fig. The resultant of the normal stresses
acting on face ad is the force F1, and the resultant on face bc is the force F1. Since the normal stresses acting on
M
face ad are larger than those acting on face bc (because the bending moment is larger), the force F1 will be larger
than F2. Therefore, shear stresses τ must act along face cd in order for the element to be in equilibrium. These
shear stresses act parallel to the top and bottom surfaces of the element and must be accompanied by
complementary shear stresses acting on the cross-sectional faces ad and bc, as shown in the figure. To evaluate
these shear stresses, sum forces in the x-direction for element abcd thus,
τtdx + F2 – F1 = 0 or τtdx = F1 – F2
where,
t = Thickness of the cross section at face cd of the element.
t = Thickness of the cross section at distance s from the free edge.

An expression for the force F1 by using
s Mz1 s
F1 = ∫0 σ x dA = I z ∫0
ydA
where,
dA = Element of area on side ad of the volume element abcd,
y = Coordinate to the element dA, and
Mz1 = Bending moment at the cross section.
For the force F2
SY
s Mz 2 s
F2 = ∫0 σ x dA = − Iz ∫0 ydA
Substituting these expressions for F1 and F2 into gives
⎛ M z 2 − M z1 ⎞ 1 s
τ = ⎜⎝ dx
⎟⎠
I zt ∫0 yd A
where,
(Mz 2 − Mz1)
dx
cross section.
=
dM
dx
EA
= Rate of change bending moment and is equal to the shear force acting on the
dM Mz 2 − Mz1
= = Vy
dx dx
E
The shear force Vy is parallel to the y-axis and positive in the negative direction of the y-axis, that is,
positive in the direction of the force P.
AD
Vy s
I zt ∫0
τ = yd A
This equation gives the shear stresses at any point in the cross section at distances from the free edge.
The integral on the right-hand side represents the first moment with respect to the z-axis (the neutral axis) of the
area of the cross section from s = 0 to s = s. Denote this first moment by Qz and write the equation for the shear
stresses τ in the simpler form
M
Vy Qz
τ =
I zt
The shear stresses are directed along the centerline of the cross section and act parallel to the edges of
the section. It is tacitly assumed that these stresses have constant intensity across the thickness t of the wall,
which is a valid assumption when the thickness is small.
NOTE : The wall thickness need not be constant but may vary as a function of the distance s.
The shear flow at any point in the cross section, equal to the product of the shear stress and the
thickness at that point, is

Vy Qz
f = τ ×t =
Iz
• Vy and Iz are constants, the shear flow is directly proportional to Qz.

• At the top and bottom edges of the cross section, Qz is zero; hence, the shear flow is also zero.
• The shear flow varies continuously between these end points and reaches its maximum value where
Qz is maximum, which is at the neutral axis.
• Now suppose that the beam shown in figure is bent by loads that act parallel to the z axis and
through the shear center.
SY
• Then the beam bends in the x-z plane and the y-axis becomes the neutral axis. In this case, repeat
the same type of analysis and arrive at the following equations for the shear stresses and shear flow.
Vy Qz
τ =
I zt
Vy Qy
f = τ ×t =
Iy
Where,
EA
Vz = Shear force parallel to the z-axis.
Qy = First moment with respect to the y-axis.
Summary
• Expressions were derived for the shear stresses in beams of thinwalled open cross sections with the
stipulations that the shear force must act through the shear center and must be parallel to one of the
principal centroidal axes.
E
• If the shear force is inclined to the y and z axes (but still acts through the shear center), it can be
resolved into components parallel to the principal axes.
• Then two separate analyses can be made, and the results can be superimposed. To illustrate the
use of the shear-stress equations, the shear stresses in a wide-flange beam are considered in the
AD
next section.
• The shear-stress equations are used to locate the shear centers of several thin-walled beams with
open cross sections.
5.3 Shear Stresses in Wide-Flange Beams

A beam is loaded by a force P acting in the plane of the web, that is, through the shear center, which
M
coincides with the centroid of the cross section. The cross-sectional dimensions are shown in Fig., note that b is
the flange width, h is the height between centerlines of the flanges, tf is the flange thickness, and tw is the web
thickness.
5.3.1 Shear Stresses in the Upper Flange

• First consider the shear stresses at section bb in the right-hand part of the upper flange (Fig.).
Since the distance s has its origin at the edge of the section (point a), the cross-sectional area
between point a and section bb is stf. Also, the distance from the centroid of this area to the
neutral axis is h/2.
• Therefore, its first moment Qz is equal to stf h/2. Thus, the shear stress τf in the flange at section bb.

Vy Qz P (stf h / 2 ) shP
τf = = =
I zt I zt f 2 Iz
y
y b
s
c a
B b h
A tf
d d 2
SY
z r
z C
h
tw
tf 2
x b b
2 2
(a) P
(b)
F1
EA τ1
τ2
b A
τmax
a
E
dx
s
b F2 τ2
(c)
τ1 (d)
AD
Fig. : Shear stresses in a wide-flange beam

• The direction of this stress can be determined by examining the forces acting on element A, which
is cut out of the flange between point a and section bb.
• The element is drawn to a larger scale in fig. in order to show clearly the forces and stresses acting
on it.
• Note that the tensile force F1 is larger than the force F2, because the bending moment is larger on the
M
rear face of the element than it is on the front face.

• It follows that the shear stress on the left-hand face of element A must act toward you if the element
is to be in equilibrium. From this observation, it follows that the shear stresses on the front face of
element A must act toward the left.
• Returning now to the magnitude and direction of the shear stress at section bb, which may be
located anywhere between point a and the junction of the top flange and the web, are now known.
Thus, the shear stresses throughout the right-hand part of the flange are horizontal, act to the left,
and have a magnitude given by equation.
• As seen from that equation, the shear stresses increase linearly with the distance s.

• The variation of the stresses in the upper flange is shown graphically in fig. observe that the stresses
b.
vary from zero at point a (where s = 0) to a maximum value τ1 at s = :
2
bhP
τ1 =
4Iz
The corresponding shear flow is
bhtf P
SY
f1 = τ1tf = 4Iz
The shear stress and shear flow have been calculated at the junction of the centerlines of the flange and
web, using only centerline dimensions of the cross section in the calculations.
5.3.2 Shear Stresses in the Web

Considering a horizontal cut at the top of the web (at the junction of the flange and web) results in the
The associated shear flow is

EA
first moment about the neutral axis to be Qz = btf h/2, so that the corresponding shear stress is
τt =
bhtf P
2 I ztw
bhtf P
f2 = τ2tw =
2Iz
• Now the shear flow f2 is equal to twice the shear flow f1, which is expected, since the shear flows in
E
the two halves of the upper flange combine to produce the shear flow at the top of the web.
• The shear stresses in the web act downward and increase in magnitude until the neutral axis is
reached.
AD
• At section dd, located at distance r from the neutral axis , the shear stress τw in the web is
calculated as:
⎛ h / 2 + r ⎞ btf h tw ⎛ h ⎞
2
btf h ⎛ h ⎞
Qz = + ⎜ − r ⎟ (tw ) ⎜ ⎟ = + ⎜ − r2⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝
2 4 ⎠
⎛ btf h h 2 ⎞ P
τw = ⎜ + − r2⎟
⎝ tw 4 ⎠ 2Iz
M
h
when, r = , this equation reduces to equation, and when r = 0, it gives the maximum shear stress
2
⎛ btf h ⎞ Ph
τmax = ⎜ t + 4 ⎟ 2 I
⎝ w ⎠ z
The shear stresses in the web vary parabolically, as shown in figure although the variation is not large.
The ratio of τmax to τ2 is
τmax ht
= 1+ w
τ2 4btf

τmax
For instance, if h = 2b and tf = 2 tw, the ratio is = 1.25 .
τ2
5.3.3 Shear Stresses in the Lower Flange

As the final step in the analysis, consider the shear stresses in the lower flange using the same methods
as those used for the top flange. The result is that the magnitudes of the stresses are the same as in the top
flange, but the directions are as shown in figure.
Summary
SY
• The shear stresses on the cross section “flow” inward from the outermost edges of the top flange,
then down through the web, and finally outward to the edges of the bottom flange. Because this flow
is always continuous in any structural section, it serves as a convenient method for determining the
directions of the stresses.
• For instance, if the shear force acts downward on the beam of figure, it follows that the shear flow in
the web must also be downward.
• Knowing the direction of the shear flow in the web gives the directions of the shear flows in the
• EA
flanges because of the required continuity in the flow.
Using this simple technique to get the directions of the shear stresses is easier than visualizing the
directions of the forces acting on elements such as A cut out from the beam.
The resultant of all the shear stresses acting on the cross section is clearly a vertical force, because the
horizontal stresses in the flanges produce no resultant. The shear stresses in the web have a resultant R, which
can be found by integrating the shear stresses over the height of the web, as
h /2
R = ∫ ρdA = 2∫0 τtw dr
E
Substituting from gives
h / 2 ⎛ bt f h
h2 ⎞ 2
2 ⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ btf h ⎞ h tw P
R = 2 tw ∫0 ⎜⎝ t + 4 − r ⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ 2 I ⎟⎠ dr = ⎝⎜ t + 6 ⎠⎟ 2 I
AD
w z w z
The moment of inertia Iz can be calculated as (using centerline dimensions)
twh3 btf h2
Iz = +
12 2
• The first term is the moment of inertia of the web and the second term is the moment of inertia of the
flanges.
M
• Substitute this expression for Iz in to get R = P, which demonstrates that the resultant of the shear
stresses acting on the cross section is equal to the load.
• Furthermore, the line of action of the resultant is in the plane of the web, so the resultant passes
through the shear center.
5.4 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open Sections

• It is used to locate the shear centers of several shapes of beams.
• Only beams with singly symmetric or unsymmetric cross sections are considered, because the
shear center of a doubly symmetric cross section is known to be located at the centroid.

• The procedure for locating the shear center consists of two principal steps: first, evaluate the shear
stresses acting on the cross section when bending occurs about one of the principal axes, and
second, determine the resultant of those stresses.
• The shear center is located on the line of action of the resultant. Consider bending about both
principal axes to determine the position of the shear center. Use only centerline dimensions when
deriving formulas and making calculations.
• This procedure is satisfactory if the beam is thin-walled, that is, if the thickness of the beam is small
compared to the other dimensions of the cross section.
SY
5.5 Channel Section
The first beam to be analyzed is a singly symmetric channel section (Fig. (a)). To find the position of the
shear center on the z-axis, assume that the beam is bent about the z-axis as the neutral axis, and then determine
the line of action of the resultant shear force Vy acting parallel to the y-axis. The shear center is located where the
line of action of Vy intersects the z-axis.
NOTE : The origin of axes is at the centroid C, so that both the y and z-axes are principal centroidal axes.
•
•
EA
The shear stresses in a channel vary linearly in the flanges and parabolically in the web (Fig. (b)).
The resultant of those stresses can be found if the maximum stress τ1 in the flange, the stress τ2 at
the top of the web, and the maximum stress τmax in the web are known.
y
τ1
y y
tf τ2 F1
tw h
E
2
τmax S S
z C z e C z C
h F2 e
tf 2
AD
Vy
b τ2 F1
τ1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. : Shear center S of a channel section

• To find the stress τ1 in the flange, use with Qz equal to the first moment of the flange area about
M
the z axis:
bt f h
Qz =
2
where, b = flange width, tf = flange thickness, and h = height of the beam.
NOTE : The dimensions b and h are measured along the centerline of the section.
Thus, the stress τ1 in the flange is

Vy Qz bhVy
τ1 = =
I ztf 2 Iz

where Iz = moment of inertia about the z axis.

The stress τ2 at the top of the web is obtained in a similar manner but with the thickness equal to the web
thickness instead of the flange thickness
Vy Qz btf hVy
τ2 = =
I ztf 2 tw I z
Also, at the neutral axis the first moment of area is
btf h htw ⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ htw ⎞ h

Qz = + ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ bt + ⎟
SY
2 2 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ f 4 ⎠2
Therefore, the maximum stress is
Vy Qz ⎛ bt h ⎞ hVy
τmax = =⎜ f + ⎟
I zt w ⎝ tw 4 ⎠ 2 I z
The stresses τ1 and τ2 in the lower half of the beam are equal to the corresponding stresses in the upper
EA
half. The horizontal shear force F1 in either flange can be found from the triangular stress diagrams. Each force is
equal to the area of the stress triangle multiplied by the thickness of the flange
⎛ τ1b ⎞
F1 = ⎜⎝
2 ⎠
⎟(f)
t =
hb2tfVy
4Iz
The vertical force F2 in the web must be equal to the shear force Vy, since the forces in the flanges have
no vertical components. As a check, verify that F2 = Vy by considering the parabolic stress diagram of fig.(b).
The diagram is made up of two parts a rectangle of area τ2h and a parabolic segment of area
E
2
3
( τmax − τ2 ) h
Thus, the shear force F2, which is equal to the area of the stress diagram times the web thickness tw, is
AD
2
F2 = τ 2htw +
3
( τmax − τ2 ) htw
Substitute the expressions for τ2 and τmax and into the preceding equation to get
⎛ tw h 3 bh 2tf ⎞ Vy
F2 = ⎜⎝ + ⎟
12 2 ⎠ Iz
M
Finally, the expression for the moment of inertia is
twh3 bh2tf
Iz = +
12 2
F2 = Vy
• The three forces acting on the cross section have a resultant Vy that intersects the z axis at the shear
center S.
• Hence, the moment of the three forces about any point in the cross section must be equal to the
moment of the force Vy about that same point.

• This moment relationship provides an equation from which the position of the shear center may be
found.
In that case, the moment of the three forces is F1h – F2e, where e is the distance from the centerline of the
web to the shear center, and the moment of the resultant force Vy is zero. Equating these moments gives
F1h – F2e = 0
Substitue for F1 from equation and for F2 from and then solve for e to get
b2h2tf
e =
4 Iz
SY
When the expression for Iz equation is substituted becomes
3b2tf
e =
htw + 6btf
• The position of the shear center of a channel section has been determined.
• A channel beam undergoes bending without twisting whenever it is loaded by forces acting through
the shear center.
• If the loads act parallel to the y-axis but through some point other than the shear center (for example,
•
EA
if the loads act in the plane of the web), they can be replaced by a statically equivalent force system
consisting of loads through the shear center and twisting couples.
This leads to a combination of bending and torsion of the beam. If the loads act along the z axis, the
result is simple bending about the y-axis.
If the loads act in skew directions through the shear center, they can be replaced by statically
equivalent loads acting parallel to the y and z axes.
5.6 Angle Section

E
Considered is an equal-leg angle section, in which each leg of the angle has length b and thickness t.
The z axis is an axis of symmetry and the origin of coordinates is at the centroid C; therefore, both the y and z
axes are principal centroidal axes.
AD
y y y y
a
b
b t
s
b F
τmax
M
z S
z C z C z C
τmax
F
Vy
b
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. : Shear center of an equal-leg angle section

Assume the section is subjected to a shear force Vy acting parallel to the y-axis. Then use equation to
find the corresponding shear stresses in the legs of the angle. For this purpose, find the first moment of the
cross-sectional area between point a at the outer edge of the beam and section bb located at distance s from
point a. The area is equal to st and its centroidal distance from the neutral axis is
b −s/2
2
Thus, the first moment of the area is
⎛ b − s / 2⎞
SY
Qz = st ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠
Substitute into equation to get the following expression for the shear stress at distance s from the edge
of the cross section
VyQZ Vys ⎛ s⎞
τ = = ⎜⎝ b − ⎟⎠
I zt Iz 2 2
EA
The moment of inertia Iz can be obtained from standard result
⎛ tb 3 ⎞ tb3
Iz = 2 IBB = 2 ⎜
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
=
3
Substitute this expression for Iz into to get
3Vy s ⎛ s⎞
τ = 3 ⎜⎝ b − ⎟⎠
2
E
bt 2
• This equation gives the shear stress at any point along the leg of the angle.
• The stress varies quadratically with s.
• The maximum value of the shear stress occurs at the intersection of the legs of the angle and is
AD
obtained from equation by substituting s = b
3Vy
τmax =
2bt 2
• The shear force F in each leg is equal to the area of the parabolic stress diagram times the thickness
t of the legs
M
2 V
F = ( τmaxb ) (t ) = y
3 2
• Since the horizontal components of the forces F cancel each other, only the vertical components
F V
remain. Each vertical component is equal to or y , so the resultant vertical force is equal to
2 2
the shear force Vy, as expected.
• Since the resultant force passes through the intersection point of the lines of action of the two forces
F, the shear center S is located at the junction of the two legs of the angle.

5.6.1 Sections Consisting of Two Intersecting Narrow Rectangles

• The shear stresses and the forces in the legs were evaluated to illustrate the general methodology
for analyzing thin-walled open sections.
• However, if the sole objective had been to locate the shear center, it would not have been necessary
to evaluate the stresses and forces.
• Since the shear stresses are parallel to the centerlines of the legs, their resultants are two forces F.
• The resultant of those two forces is a single force that passes through their point of intersection.
Consequently, this point is the shear center.
• Thus, the shear center of an equal-leg angle section can be found by a simple line of reasoning
SY
(without making any calculations).
• The same line of reasoning is valid for all cross sections consisting of two thin, intersecting rectangle.
• In each case, the resultants of the shear stresses are forces that intersect at the junction of the
rectangles. Therefore, the shear center S is located at that point.
S
EA
S
S
Fig. : Shear centers of sections consisting of two intersecting narrow rectangles
5.7 Z-Section
Now determine the location of the shear center of a Z-section having thin walls. The section has no axes
of symmetry but is symmetric about the centroid C. The y and z axes are principal axes through the centroid.
E
• Assuming that a shear force Vy acts parallel to the y axis and causes bending about the z axis as
the neutral axis.
• From symmetry, the forces F1 in the two flanges must be equal to each other.
AD
• The resultant of the three forces acting on the cross section (F1 in the flanges and F2 in the web) must
be equal to the shear force Vy.
• The forces F1 have a resultant 2F1 acting through the centroid and parallel to the flanges.
• This force intersects the force F2 at the centroid C; therefore, it follows that the line of action of the
shear force Vy must be through the centroid.
• If the beam is subjected to a shear force Vz parallel to the z axis, the shear force acts through the
centroid.
M
• Since the shear center is located at the intersection of the lines of action of the two shear forces, the
shear center of the Z-section coincides with the centroid.
• This conclusion applies to any Z-section that is symmetric about the centroid, that is, any Z-section
having identical flanges (same width and same thickness).
• Note, however, that the thickness of the web does not have to be the same as the thickness of the
flanges.
• The locations of the shear centers of many other structural shapes are given in the problems at the
end of this chapter.

y y
F1
z z C
C
2F1
F2
Vy
SY
F1
(a) (b)
Fig. : Shear center of a thin-walled Z-section)
Example 5.1 A thin-walled semicircular cross section of radius r and thickness t is shown
y EA
in figure. Determine the distance e from the center O of the semicircle to the shear center S.
2r
t
b
y
dφ
dA
π τ b
θ
S S
z O z O
C e C e
E
r
Vy
AD
(a) (b)
Solution:
The shear center is located somewhere on the axis of symmetry (the z axis). To determine the exact
position, assume that the beam is bent by a shear force Vy acting parallel to the y-axis and
producing bending about the z-axis as the neutral axis.
M
Consider a section bb defined by the distance s measured along the centerline of the cross section
from point a. The central angle subtended between point a and section bb is denoted θ. Therefore,
the distance s equals rθ, where r is the radius of the centerline and θ is measured in radians.
To evaluate the first moment of the cross-sectional area between point a and section bb, identify an
element of area dA (shown shaded in the figure) and integrate as
θ
∫ ydA = ∫0 (r cos φ) (tr dφ) = r t sinθ
2
Qz = ...(i)
in which φ is the angle to the element of area and t is the thickness of the section. Thus, the shear
stress t at section bb is

Vy Qz Vy r 2 sin θ
τ= = ...(ii)
I zt Iz
πr 3t
Substituting, I z = gives
2
2Vy sin θ
τ=
πrt
When φ = 0 or θ = π, this expression gives τ = 0, as expected. When φ = π/2, it gives the maximum
SY
shear stress.
At the location of shear center, the resultant of the shear stresses must be the vertical force Vy.
Therefore, the moment M0 of the shear stresses about the center O must equal the moment of the
force Vy about that same point
M0 = Vye ...(iii)
To evaluate M0, begin by noting that the shear stress τ acting on the element of area dA is
τ=
EA
2Vy sin φ
πrt
as found from equation. The corresponding force is τdA, and the moment of this force is
dM0 = r ( τdA ) =
2Vy sin φ dA
πt
Since dA = trdφ, thsi expression becomes
2r Vy sin φ dA
E
dM0 =
π
Therefore, the moment produced by the shear stresses is
π 2rVy sin φ d φ 4rVy

AD
M0 = ∫ dM0 = ∫0 π
=
π
...(iv)
If follows from equation (iii) that the distance e to the shear centre is
M0 4r
e = V = π ≈ 1.27 r
y
• This result shows that the shear center S is located outside of the semicircular section.
M
• The distance from the center O of the semicircle to the centroid C of the cross section is 2r/π, which
is one-half of the distance e.
• Thus, the centroid is located midway between the shear center and the center of the semicircle.

6. Industrial Engineering
6.1 Lean manufacturing

Lean manufacturing is the systematic elimination of waste. Lean operations supply the customer with
exactly what the customer wants, when the customer wants it, without waste, through continuous improvement.
Lean operations are driven by workflow initiated by the "pull" of the customer's order.
Lean manufacturing is a Japanese method focused on 3M's. These Ms are:
SY
6.1.1 Muda
The Japanese word for waste, Muda specifically focuses on activities to be eliminated. Waste is broadly
defined as anything that adds cost to the product without adding value to it. Muda (or waste) can be classified
into the seven categories:
1. Overproduction : Producing more than the customer orders or producing before it is demanded is
waste.
once is waste.
EA
2. Queues : Idle time, storage, and waiting are wastes as they add no value.
3. Transportation : Moving material between plants or between work centers and handling it more than
4. Inventory : Unnecessary raw material, work-in-process (WIP), finished goods, and excess operating
supplies add no value and are wastes.
5. Motion : Movement of equipment or people that adds no value is waste.
6. Overprocessing : Work performed on the product that adds no value is waste.
7. Defective product : Returns, warranty claims, rework, and scrap are wastes.
E
6.2 The 5 S's of Lean
In implementing lean manufacturing, 5 S's are frequently used to assist in the organization of manufacturing,
AD
these are:
1. Sort/segregate : Keep what is needed and remove everything else from the work area. Identify
nonvalue items and remove them. Getting rid of these items makes space available thus improves
workflow.
2. Simplify/straighten : Arrange and use method analysis to improve workflow and reduce unnecessary
motion. Consider long-run and short-run ergonomic issues. Label and display for easy use only what
is needed in the immediate work area.
M
3. Shine/sweep : Clean daily; eliminate all forms of dirt, contamination, and clutter from the work area.
4. Standardize : Remove variations from the process by developing standard operating procedures
and checklists; Standardize equipment and tooling so that cross-training time and costs are reduced.
Train and retrain the work team so that when deviations occur, they are ready to perform operations.
5. Sustain/self-discipline : Review periodically to recognize efforts and motivate to sustain progress.
Use visuals wherever possible to communicate and sustain progress. Two additional S’s that are
essential to establish and maintain a Lean workplace :
Safety : Build good safety practices into the preceding five activities.
Suppor t/maintenance : Reduce variability, unplanned downtime, and costs. Integrate daily tasks
Support/maintenance
with preventive maintenance.

6.3 Lean and Just-in-Time

Just-in-time (JIT), with its focus on rapid throughput and reduced inventory, is a powerful component of
Lean. With the inclusion of JIT in Lean, materials arrive where they are needed and only when they are needed.
When units do not arrive just as needed, a "problem" has been identified. This is the reason this aspect of Lean
is so powerful- it focuses attention on problems . By driving out waste and delay, JIT reduces inventory, cuts
variability and waste, and improves throughput. Every moment material is held, an activity that adds value
should be occurring.
JIT TECHNIQUES :
SY
Suppliers Few vendors; supportive supplier relationships; quality
deliveries on time, directly to work areas
Layout Work cells; group technology; flexible machinery; organized

workplace; reduced space for inventory
Inventory Small lot sizes; low setup time; specialized parts bins
Scheduling: Zero deviation from schedules; level schedules; suppliers

informed of schedules; kanban techniques
Preventive maintenance
Quality production
Employee empowerment
EA
Scheduled; daily routine; operator involvement
Statistical process control; quality suppliers; quality within the

firm
Empowered and cross-trained employees; training support;

few job classifications to ensure flexibility of employees
Commitment Support of management, employees, and suppliers

E
WHICH WINS ORDERS BY :
Rapid throughput free assets WHICH RESULTS IN :
Quality improvement reduces waste Faster response to the customer
AD
Cost reduction adds pricing flexibility at lower cost and higher quality –
Variability reduction A Competitive Advantage
Rework reduction
6.4 Lean Layout

Lean layouts reduce the movement of material on a factory floor (or paper in an office) does not add
M
value. Consequently, managers want flexible layouts that reduce the movement of both people and material.
Lean layouts place material directly in the location where needed.
Strategy for lean layout :
• Distance Reduction : Reducing distance is a major contribution of work cells, work centers, and
focused factories. These days work cells are arranged in a U shape (based on group technology
codes), containing several machines performing different operations. Group technology codes help
identify components with similar characteristics so they can be grouped into families. Once families
are identified, work cells are built for them. The cells produce one good unit at a time, and ideally,
they produce the units only after a customer orders them.

• Increased Flexibility: Modern work areas are designed so they can be easily rearranged to adapt
to changes in volume and product changes. Almost nothing is bolted down. This concept of layout
flexibility applies to both factory and office environments. Layout flexibility aids the changes that
result from product and process improvements.
• Impact on Employees : When layouts provide for sequential operations, feedback, including quality
issues, can be immediate, allowing employees working together to tell each other about problems
and opportunities for improvement. When workers produce units one at a time, they test each
product or component at each subsequent production stage. Work processes with self-testing
poka-yoke functions detect defects automatically. Before Lean, defective products were replaced
SY
from inventory. Because surplus inventory is not kept in Lean facilities, there are no such buffers.
Employees learn that getting it right the first time is critical. Indeed, Lean layouts allow cross-trained
employees to bring flexibility and efficiency to the work area, reducing defects.
• Reduced Space and Inventory : Because Lean layouts reduce travel distance, they also reduce
inventory. When there is little space, inventory travels less and must be moved in very small lots or
even single units. Units are always moving because there is no storage.
6.5 Lean Inventory
• Reduce Inventor
Inventoryy and V
EA
Lean inventory is the minimum inventory necessary to keep a perfect system running. With Lean inventory,
the exact amount of goods arrives at the moment when it is needed, not before or after.
Strategy for lean scheduling:
ariability : Variability is any deviation from the optimum process that
Variability
delivers a perfect product on time, every time. The less variability in a system, the less waste in the
system. Most variability is caused by tolerating waste or by poor management.
• Reduce Lot Sizes : Lean also reduces waste by cutting the investment in inventory. Reducing the
E
size of batches can be a major help in reducing inventory and inventory costs
6.6 Lean Scheduling

AD
Effective schedules, communicated to those within the organization as well as to outside suppliers,
support Lean. Better scheduling also improves the ability to meet customer orders, drives down inventory by
allowing smaller lot sizes, and reduces work-in- process.
Strategy for lean scheduling:
• Level Schedules : Level schedules process frequent small batches rather than a few large batches.
The operations manager's task is to make and move small lots so that the level schedule is economical.
• Kanban : One way to achieve small lot sizes is to move inventory through the shop only as needed
M
rather than pushing it on to the next workstation whether or not the personnel there are ready for it.
As noted earlier, when inventory is moved only as needed, it is referred to as a pull system, and the
ideal lot size is one. The Japanese call this system Kanban . Kanbans allow arrivals at a work center
to match (or nearly match) the processing time. Kanban is a Japanese word for card . In their effort
to reduce inventory, the Japanese use systems that "pull" inventory through work centers. They
often use a "card" to signal the need for another container of material-hence the name Kanban. The
card is the authorization for the next container of material to be produced. Typically, a Kanban signal
exists for each container of items to be obtained. An order for the container is then initiated by each
Kanban and "pulled" from the producing department or supplier. A sequence of Kanbans "pulls" the
material through the plan.

Determining the Number of Kanban Cards or Containers :

Number of kanbans (containers) = Demand during lead time + Safety stock Size of container
6.7 Lean Quality

There is no Lean without quality. And Lean's "pull" production, smaller batch sizes, and low inventory all
enhance quality by exposing bad quality. Savings occur because scrap, rework, inventory investment, and poor
product are no longer buried in inventory. This means fewer bad units are produced, whereas inventory hides bad
quality, Lean exposes it.
SY
6.8 Lean Organizations
Lean organizations understand the customer and the customer's expectations. Moreover, Lean
organizations have functional areas that communicate and collaborate to verify that customer expectations are
not only understood, but also met efficiently.
Six attributes of Lean organizations : Respect and develop employees by improving job design, providing
constant training, instilling commitment, and building teamwork.
•
•
•
EA
Empower employees with jobs that are made challenging by pushing responsibility to the lowest
level possible.
Develop worker flexibility through cross-training and reducing job classifications.
Build processes that destroy variability by helping employees produce a perfect product every
time.
• Develop collaborative partnerships with suppliers , helping them not only to understand the needs
of the ultimate customer, but also to accept responsibility for satisfying those needs.
• Eliminate waste by performing only value-added activities. Material handling, inspection, inventory,
E
travel time, wasted space, and rework are targets, as they do not add value.
AD
7. Applications of Friction
7.1 Wedge
7.1.1 Terminology
1. Load (W) : It is the load lifted or the resistance overcome by the machine. It has the unit of force
M
(N or kN).
2. Effort (P ) : It is force required by a machine to lift the load or to overcome the resistance. Its unit
is N or kN.
3. Mechanical Advantage (MA) : It is defined as the ratio of the load lifted to the effort applied,
W
MA =
P
Thus, MA is a number by which a machine multiplies the effort. Most of the machines are used to
lift a large load by applying a comparatively small effort, making MA greater than one.

4. Input : The work done by the effort is known as input to the machine. It is equal to the product of effort
P and the distance x through which it moves. Thus, the input to a machine is P × x. Its unit is J or kJ.
5. Output : It is the useful work done by the machine, which is same as the work done on the load. It
is given by the product of load W lifted and the distance y through which it moves. Thus, the
output of a machine is W × y. Its unit is J or kJ.
6. Velocity Ratio (VR) : It is the ratio of the velocity of effort P to that of load W. However, as the effort
moves by a distance x and the load moves by a distance y in the same time t, the velocity ratio is
given as
x
SY
Velocity of the effort t x
VR = = =
Velocity of the load y y
t
The VR of a machine depends only on its geometrical features. It is a constant for a given
machine, irrespective of any extra efforts required due to friction. However, MA of a machine
changes with change in friction.
7. η ) : It is the ratio of the output to the input. It is a measure of how much of the work
Efficiency ((η
EA
done on the machine is converted into useful work. The efficiency of a machine is also given by the
ratio of its MA to VR, as shown below :
η=
Input Work
=
P×x
=
W
Output Work W × y P MA
x
=
VR
y
The efficiency of a machine in practice is always less than 100%, as some energy is lost due to
friction in the form of heat, sound, etc. This implies that for a machine, its MA is always less than
E
its VR.
NOTE Some machines may have mechanical advantage less than one. Such machines need an
AD
effort more than the load lifted. These machines are used to provide greater convenience of
doing a task, e.g., a pair of tongs.
Wedge is a triangular shaped tool (like inclined plane), used to separate two objects (as in carpentry), to
lift an object, or to hold an object in place. The effort P is applied normal to its vertical face to lift or to adjust the
load W as shown in Figure (a). Normally, a wedge has one inclined plane as shown in Figure (b). A double wedge
M
consists of two inclined planes joined together with their sloping surfaces outward as shown in Figure (c). The
velocity ratio of a wedge is given by the ratio of length of wedge to its thickness, or by the inverse of slope of the
wedge. Although a short wedge with a wide angle may do a job faster, but it requires more force than a long
wedge with a narrow angle.
The mechanical advantage of a wedge can be increased by decreasing its angle. MA of both the single
and double wedges is the same for the same angle of wedge, but the velocity ratio is different for the
two, as given eblow.
l 1
VR of single wedge = =
h tan α
(P moves by a distance l, W is lifted by a distance h)

l l 1
VR of double wedge = = =
h ⎧ ⎛ α⎞⎫ ⎛ α⎞
2 ⎨l ⋅ tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ 2tan⎜ ⎟
⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎭ ⎝ 2⎠
(P moves by a distance l, W is lifted by a distance h)
Block
SY
W
W
W α/2 Ph
α
P h P
Wedge α W
l l
(a) A wedge used to lift a load (b) Single wedge (c) Double wedge
P
EA
sin(180° − 2φ − α)
=
Fig. Wedge
The analysis of a wedge is discussed in Chapter 7. Equations (7.6) and (7.7) are compared to get the
effort P to lift the load W as follows :
W
sin(90° + 2φ + α)
⇒ P=W
sin(180° − 2φ − α)
sin(90° + 2φ + α)
E
sin(2φ + α)
⇒ P=W
cos(2φ + α)
⇒ P = W tan(2φ + α)
AD
Remember : The more acute or narrow the angle of a wedge, the greater is the ratio of its length to its width,
and thus the greater is its mechanical advantage.
Example 7.1 What is the effort required to lift a 1200-N block using a single wedge of 15°
angle. The coefficient of friction on all surfaces in contact is 0.12. Also calculate the mechanical advantage,
the velocity ratio and the efficiency and check whether the system is reversible or irreversible. Determine
M
the maximum angle of the wedge upto which the system remains irreversible.
Solution:
Given : W = 1200 N, α = 15°, µ = 0.12
φ = tan–1 µ = tan–1 0.12 = 6.84°
Effort required, P = W tan(2φ + α) = 1200 tan(2 × 6.84° + 15°) = 656.44 N
W 1200
Mechanical advanage, MA = = = 1.83
P 656.44
1 1
Velocity ratio, VR = = = 3.73
tan α tan15°

MA 1.83
Efficiency, η= = = 0.49 = 49%
VR 3.73
Since η is less than 50%, the wedge is irreversible
irreversible.
The efficiency of the wedge is given as
W W
MA {W tan(2 φ + α)} (1 − tan2φ tan α)
η= = P = = tan α
VR VR 1 (tan2φ + tan α)
tan α
Since, tan 2φ = tan(2 × 6.84°) = 0.2434, we can write
SY
(1− tan2φ tan α) tanα(1− 0.2434tanα)
η = tan α = ...(i)
(tan2φ + tanα) (0.2434 + tanα)
Using eq. (i), we can determine efficiency η for different values of α varying from 0° to 90°. It is seen that
as the angle α increases, the efficiency η first increases, reaches a maximum value and then decreases.
The curve cuts the 50% efficiency line twice.
To find the critical angle at which the system changes from being irreversible to reversible.
By putting, η = 0.5 in eqn. (i) to get
⇒
EA
0.5 =
tanα(1− 0.2434tanα)
(0.2434 + tanα)
0.1217 + 0.5 tan α = tan α – 0.2434 tan2 α
⇒ 0.2434 tan α – 0.5 tan α + 0.1217 = 0
2
The above quadratic equation is solved to get two critical angles as

tan α1 = 0.283 ⇒ α1 = 15.8°
tan α2 = 1.772 ⇒ α2 = 60.6°
The wedge is irreversible (η ≤ 0.5) for the following ranges :
E
0 < α ≤ 15.8° and 60.6° ≤ α < 90°
Let us determine which of the above ranges is preferable. For this, we find the effort required for the two
critical values of angle α,
AD
P1 = W tan(2φ + α1) = W tan(2 × 6.84° + 15.8°)

= 1200 × 0.5639 = 678.37 N
and P2 = W tan(2φ + α2) = W tan(2 × 6.84° + 60.6°)
= 1200 × 3.553 = 4263.4 N
Obviously, the first range 0 < α ≤ 15.8° is preferable as it requires much less effort to lift the load at the
same efficiency.
M
NOTE : In GATE, question can be framed using any bit of the above question. Students are advised to
remember key formation to save time.
7.2 Screw Jack

A screw jack is used to lift heavy loads by applying smaller efforts. A screw jack or simply a jack is
commonly used to lift vehicles for changing wheels. It consists of a base in the shape of hollow frustum
of a cone, a nut at the top of the frustum, a threaded screw with a collar, and a lever attached to the collar,
as shown in Figure (a) below. The pitch of the threads of the screw and that of the nut is same, so that the
screw can mesh with the nut.

W
W
l
Collar l
Lever M=F×l
Screw
F
P F
Screw d
Nut O
p
Lever α
P
d
SY
Base
α φR
(a) Construction (b) Top view of screw jack (c) Forces acting on screw
Fig. Screw Jack
For lifting or lowering the load, the lever is rotated. If l is the length of lever and p is the pitch of threads
of screw, then in one rotation the effort moves by a distance 2πl and the load is lifted by a distance p.
Thus, the velocity ratio may be expressed as
EA VR =
Distance moved by effort 2πl
Distance moved by load
=
p
This shows that the velocity ratio of a screw jack can be increased by decreasing the pitch of the screw.
The effort applied at the end of the lever is F, which is transferred as its equivalent effort P at the mean
d
radius of screw , where d is the mean diameter of the screw. Taking moments of the forces about the
2
centre of the screw, we get
d
E
ΣMO = 0 ⇒ F ×l −P × =0
2
2F l
⇒ P=
d
AD
The screw jack works on the principle of the inclined plane. The development of forces on a square
threaded screw is shown. Each thread of a screw is assumed as one inclined plane of horizontal length
πd as shown below. If n threads of a screw and nut are in contact with each other, the load W is distributed
uniformly among these n threads. And, so does the force P. Thus, the load and the effort shared by each
thread are given,
W P
Respectively, as W ′ = and P ′ = .
n n
M
The screw jack lifts the load by developing friction F and normal reaction N at the thread surfaces in
contact.The resultant R of these two forces acts at an angle φ (angle of friction) with normal reaction. It is
clear that the load W ′ acting directly on the inclined plane of the thread of screw.
The angle α, called helix angle
angle, is the angle of inclination of a thread with the horizontal. In one completed
rotation of the lever, the horizontal distance covered by P ′ is πd, while the load W ′ is lifted by a distance
p. So, the helix angle α is given by
p
tan α =
πd

NOTE • threads, the mean diameter d is related to the pitch p of the

For commonly used square threads
p
threads as follows. The height of each thread is . For a square thread, its depth t is
2
p
same as its height, i.e., t = . Therefore, if do is the outer diameter, we have the mean
2
diameter,
⎛t t⎞ p
d = do − ⎜ + ⎟ = do − t = do −
⎝ 2 2⎠ 2
SY
W′
P′
do F = µN p
W α
t α R
N
W′ p πd
Threads
P′
α
Screw
EA N
F
Nut
P′
(b) Lifting the load
α R
W′
F = µN
N
p
φ R
α
t/2 t/2 πd
d
E
(a) Distribution of forces among threads (c) Lowering the load
1. Effort Required to Lift the Load : The normal reaction N acts perpendicular to the inclined plane
of screw. The net reaction R is the resultant of the normal reaction N and the frictional force µN. The
AD
angle between the lines of action of W ′ and resultant reaction R is (α + φ).

Applying equations of equilibrium along and perpendicular to the direction fo W ′, we get
W ′ = R cos(α + φ) and P ′ = R sin(α + φ)
Dividing the two equations, we get
P′
= tan(α + φ)
W′
M
P/n
⇒ = tan(α + φ)
W/n
⇒ P = W tan( α + φ)
tan(α
2F l
⇒ = W tan(α + φ)
d
Wd
⇒ F=tan( α + φ)
2l
This gives the effort F required at the end of the lever to lift the load W. Thus, the moment required
to lift the load W,

Wd
M = F×l = tan(α + φ)
2
2. Effort Required to Lower the Load : The frictional force reverses its direction and the resultant R
shifts to the other side of normal reaction. The angle between the line of action of W ′ and R
becomes (φ – α). Following the same procedure as above, we get
Wd
F= tan(φ − α)
2l
NOTE : If α ≥ φ, F becomes negative or zero; this means that the system becomes reversible.
SY
3. Efficiency of Screw Jack : The effort required to lift the load at the mean radius of screw jack is
given as P = W tan(α + φ). For an ideal screw jack, the friction is zero (i.e., φ = 0), thus the ideal
effort is given as P = W tan α. Thus, the efficiency of the screw jack is given by
η=
Ideal effort W tanα tan α
= =
Actual effort W tan(α + φ) tan(α + φ)
4. Maximum Efficiency of Screw Jack : The condition for maximum efficiency can be obtained by
⇒
dη
dα
EA
differentiating η with respect to α and putting the derivative equal to zero,
=
d ⎡ tan α ⎤
d α ⎢⎣ tan(α + φ) ⎥⎦
sec2 α tan(α + φ) − sec2 (α + φ)tan α

=0
=0
tan2 (α + φ)
⇒ sec2 α tan(α + φ) = sec2(α + φ)tan α
1 sin(α + φ) 1 sin α
⇒ ⋅ ⋅
E
=
2
cos α cos(α + φ) cos (α + φ)
2 cos α
⇒ sin(α + φ)cos(α + φ) = sin α cos α
⇒ sin 2(α + φ) = sin 2α
⇒ 2(α + φ) = π – 2α
AD
π φ φ
⇒ α= − = 45° −
4 2 2
Substituting this value of α in the expression of efficiency, we get maximum efficiency,
⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫
⎨1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎭
2
⎛ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎞ ⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫
tan ⎜ 45° − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎨1 + tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨1− tan⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎬
M
tanα ⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎠ ⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭
ηmax = = = =
tan(α + φ) ⎛ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎞ ⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫ ⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫
2
tan ⎜ 45° + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎨1 + tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ ⎨1+ tan⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎠ ⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎭ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎭
⎩
⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫
⎨1 − tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎭

2
⎛ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎞
⎜ cos ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ − sin ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 2
⎜ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎟ ⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫
⎜⎝ cos ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎨cos ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ − sin⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎬
2 2 ⎭
= ⎩
2
= 2 2
⎛ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎞ ⎧ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎫
⎜ cos ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ + sin ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎟ ⎨cos ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
+ sin ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎬
2 ⎭
⎜ ⎟ ⎩
⎜ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎟
⎜⎝ cos ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠
2
⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
SY
cos2 ⎜ ⎟ + sin2 ⎜ ⎟ − 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
=
⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
cos2 ⎜ ⎟ + sin2 ⎜ ⎟ + 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
1− sin φ
ηmax =
1+ sinφ
Hence, the maximum efficiency of a screw jack is given as
Example 7.2
η max =
EA
1- sinφ
1+ sinφ
The maximum efficiency depends only on the angle of friction and it decreases with increase in φ.
The screw of a screw jack has a mean diameter of 100 mm and a pitch of 130
mm. Calculate the force F that must be applied at the end of 600 mm lever to raise a load of 700 N.
Determine its efficiency if the coefficient of friction between the nut and screw is 0.25. Is the screw jack
self-locking? If it is, calculate the torque necessary to lower the load. If not, what amount of torque needs
E
to be applied to keep the load from descendign?
Solution:
Given : d = 100 mm, p = 130 mm, l = 600 mm, W = 700 N, µ = 0.25
AD
The helix angle α of screw is given by

p 130
tan α = = = 0.41
πd π × 100
⇒ a = tan–1 0.41 = 22.29°
The angle of friction is given as
φ = tan–1 µ = tan–1 0.25 = 14.04°
The force F required to raise the load,
M
Wd 700 × 100
F= tan(α + φ) = tan(22.29° + 14.04°) = 42.89 N
2l 2 × 600
The efficiency of the screw jack,
tan α tan22.29° 0.41
η= = = = 0.554 = 55.4%
tan(α + φ) tan(22.29° + 14.04°) 0.74
Since η > 50%, the screw jack is reversible
reversible.
The tangential force required at the mean radius to prevent the load from descending
P = W tan(α – φ) = 700 tan(22.29° – 14.04°) = 101.5 N
The torque due to this tangential force,

d 100
τ= P× = 101.5 × = 5075 Nmm = 5.075 Nm
2 2
Example 7.3 An effort of 500 N is applied through a distance of 15 m to raise a load of 11

kN by a distance of 60 cm. Calculate the mechanical advantage, the velocity ratio, the ef ficiency
ficiency,, the
efficiency
ideal load and ideal effort, the effort lost in friction and frictional resistance.
Solution:
Given : P = 500 N, D = 15 m = 15000 mm
SY
W = 11 kN = 11000 N, d = 60 cm = 600 mm
W 11000
Mechanical advantage, MA = = = 22
P 500
D 15000
Velocity ratio, VR = = = 25
d 600
MA 22
Efficiency of the machine, η= = = 0.88 = 88%
VR 25
Ideal effort,
Ideal load,
Effort lost in friction,
Frictional resistance
EA
Pideal =
W 11000
VR
=
25
= 440 N
Wideal = P × VR = 500 × 25 = 12500 N

c = P – Pideal = 500 – 440 = 60 N
= Wideal – W = 12500 – 11000 = 1500 N
Example 7.4 A screw jack has a pitch of 6 mm. The mean diameter of the threads is 60 mm.
The coefficient of friction for all surfaces is 0.06. What turning moment is necessary to raise a load of 7
E
kN?
Solution:
Given : p = 6 mm, d = 60 mm, W = 7 kN, µ = 0.06 = tan φ
AD
p 6
tan α == = 0.032
πd π × 60
Turning moment required to raise the load,
Wd
M = F×l = tan(α + φ) × l
2l
Wd tan α + tanφ
= ×
2 1− tan α tan φ
M
7000 × 60 0.032 + 0.06

= ×
2 1 − 0.032 × 0.06
= 19357.2 Nmm ≈ 19.36 MNm
7.3 Motion of Vehicles on Frictional Road

When a fast-moving vehicle on road takes a turn, it has a tendency to topple outward, and sometimes
even topples. We now consider different cases to ensure that such accidents do not occur.

7.3.1 Motion of a Cyclist on a Circular Level Road

Consider the motion of a cyclist of weight W on a circular path of radius r, with a uniform speed v. Since
the cyclist is moving on a circular path, the developed normal (centripetal) acceleration is given as
an =
v2
r
B
θ
y
G man
SY
an
θ h
W
C
x
A
r F
1.
EA
Fig. Cyclist moving on a circular path
R
The Angle of Leaning : An inertial force (centrifugal force) man is applied to bring the cyclist in
dynamic equilibrium, where m is the mass of cyclist. The cyclist has to lean inward to maintain
equilibrium. Let the height of his centre of gravity G be h and the angle of leaning with vertical be
θ. For equilibrium, the sum of moment about the point A must be zero,
ΣM|A = 0 :W(h tan θ) – (man)h = 0
E
⎛W ⎞ ⎛v 2 ⎞
⇒ Wh tan θ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ h
⎝g⎠⎝ r ⎠
AD
v2
⇒ tan θ =
rg
⎛v2 ⎞
⇒ θ = tan−1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rg ⎠
2. Maximum Speed to Avoid Skidding : From the FBD, we have
ΣFy = 0 : R–W= 0 ⇒ R=W
M
ΣFx = 0 : man – F = 0 ⇒ F = man

Skidding can be avoided if the frictional force F developed is sufficient to balance the centrifugal
force. Maximum value of the frictional force,
Fmax = µR = µW
W ⎛v2 ⎞
∴ Fmax ≥ man or µW ≥
g ⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠
⇒ v2 ≤ µgr ⇒ vmax = μgr

7.3.2 Motion of a Vehicle on a Level Circular Road

Consider a vehicle moving with a uniform speed v on a level circular road of radius r. Let h be the height
of its centre of gravity G from the ground and 2b be the distance between its two wheels A and B. Let RA
and RB be the reactions, and FA and FB be the frictional forces between the tyres and ground.
y
r
an G man
C
SY
W
A B x
FA FB
2b
RA
RB
Fig. Vehicle moving on level circular road
1. Magnitude of the Reactions : We apply inertial force man to bring the vehicle in dynamic equilibrium.
Thus,
ΣFy = 0
⇒
⇒
ΣM|A = 0
⇒
EA
RA + RB – W = 0
RA + RB = W
RB(2b) – W(b) – (man)h = 0

... (i)
⎛W v2 ⎞
⇒ 2bRB − bW − ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ h = 0
⎝g r ⎠
⎛ v 2h ⎞
E
W
⇒ RB = ⎜ 1 + grb ⎟
2 ⎝ ⎠
W ⎛ v 2h ⎞ W ⎛ v 2h ⎞
From eq. (i), RA = W – RB = W − 1+ = ⎜1 −
2 ⎜⎝ grb ⎟⎠ 2 ⎝ grb ⎟⎠
AD
2. Maximum Speed to Avoid Overturning : Overturning would take place, if the wheel A is lifted off
the ground when the reaction RA tends to become zero. Therefore, to avoid overturning, we must
have
W ⎛ v 2h ⎞ v 2h
RA ≥ 0 ⇒ ⎜ 1 − grb ⎟ ≥ 0 ⇒ ≤1
2 ⎝ ⎠ grb
M
Hence, the maximum permissible speed,

grb
vmax =
h
3. Maximum Speed to Avoid Skidding : If the speed v of the vehicle increases, the centrifugal force
(inertial force) also increases. If it becomes more than the total frictional force (FA + FB) on the tyres
of the vehicle, it will skid away from the centre C. Therefore, to avoid skidding, we must have
man ≤ (FA + FB)
⎛W ⎞ ⎛v2 ⎞
⇒ ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ ⎜ r ⎟ ≥ µ(RA + RB)
⎝ ⎠

⎛W ⎞ ⎛v2 ⎞
⇒ ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ ⎜ r ⎟ ≥ µW
⎝ ⎠
⇒ vmax = μgr
Remember Myth: The centrifugal force is the reaction of centripetal force.

Fact: No. Centripetal force is a real force and is needed to keep the body moving on the
curved path. On the other hand, centrifugal force is a fictitious inertial force arising due to
change in the direction of motion.
SY
7.3.3 Motion of a Vehicle on Banked Circular Path
In order to reduce the possibility of overturning of vehicles while moving on a curved road, the road is
slightly slanted by making the outer edge higher than the inner edge, as shown in Fig. 15.10(a). This is called
banking of the road
road. Required slanting angle q depends on the speed of the vehicle. We shall consider following
two cases.
n y
EA y
man
G x
x W
E
an
G man
t W
B es
Flang e
θ
AD
A θ
θ R
R
θ b
(a) Vehicle moving on (b) Locomotive moving on

banked circular road banked circular rail track
1. AV ehicle Moving on a Banked Cir

Vehicle cular Road : Consider a car taking a left turn on a banked
Circular
circular road of radius r, with a speed V. We shall find the required angle θ of banking of the road
M
to avoid overturning, given that no sideways friction acts on its wheels. Let R be the net reaction
from the road. We apply inertial force man on the car to bring it in dynamic equilibrium. Thus,
ΣFx = 0 ⇒ man – R sin θ = 0
⎛W ⎞ ⎛V 2 ⎞
⇒ ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ ⎜ r ⎟ − R sin θ = 0
⎝ ⎠
WV 2
⇒ R sin θ = ...(i)
rg
ΣFy = 0 ⇒ R cos θ – W = 0
⇒ R cos θ = W ...(ii)

Dividing eq. (i) by eq. (ii), we get

V2
tan θ =
rg
⎛V 2 ⎞
⇒ θ = tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ ...(iii)
⎝ rg ⎠
Or, the optimum speed of the car to negotiate the curved path is given as
V= gr tanθ
SY
Note that lateral friction between tyres and the road assists road banking in preventing outward
skidding of vehicles on curves.
2. A Locomotive Moving on a Banked Rail T rack : Consider that a locomotive moving with a speed
Track
V on a rail track takes a left turn in a circular path of radius r. In order that the flanges on its wheels
do not experience any sideways thrust from the rails, the outer rail is raised by a height e compared
to the inner rail. This height e is called superelevation
superelevation.
The optimum speed V and the angle θ of inclination (due to superelevation e) are related by
EA
Equation (iii). We can determine the amount of superelevation e needed for a given speed V and
radius r of curved track. Let b be the distance between the rail-centers (or width of track). It is
obvious that the superelevation e is given as
From equation (iii), we have

e = b sin θ ≈ b tan θ (for small angle θ)
bV 2
e=
rg
E
NOTE If a car negotiates the curved path with optimum speed V, it (and also the passengers inside)
will neither experience a centrifugal force, nor will its tyres experience a sideways frictional
force. While on the curved path, the car will move as if it is running on a level road. However,
AD
(i) If the speed of the car is less than the optimum speed V, it will have tendency to slide
inward due to gravitational force. The frictional force on the tyres will work outwards.
(ii) If the speed of the car is greater than the optimum speed V, it will experience a net
outward force, and the tyres will experience frictional force inward. If the speed is too
high, it may even overturn.
Do you know? The flange is the projected inner edge or rim of the wheel that keeps it in place on a rail.
M
Example 7.5 A vehicle weighting 15000 N is to negotiate a circular corner of 120 m radius
on a level road with a speed of 36 km/h. The height of its CG above the road is 1 m and the distance
between its wheels is 1.5 m. Find the reactions at the wheels. At what maximum speed can it move to turn
the corner without fear of overturning?
Solution:
Given: r = 120 m, v = 36 km/h = 10 m/s, h = 1 m, 2b = 1.5 m, W = 15000 N
We apply inertial force man to bring the vehicle in dynamic equilibrium. Thus,

ΣFy = 0 ⇒ RA + RB – W = 0
⇒ RA + RB = 15000 ... (i)
ΣM|A = 0 ⇒RB(2b) – W(b) – (man)h = 0
⎛W v2 ⎞
⇒ 2bRB − bW − ⎜ ⎟h = 0
⎝g r ⎠
1.5 ⎛ 15000 × 102 ⎞

⇒ 1.5RB − × 15000 − ⎜ ⎟ ×1 = 0
2 ⎝ 9.81 × 120 ⎠
⇒ RB = 8349.5 N
SY
From eqn. (i), RA = W – RB = 15000 – 8349.5 = 6650.5 N
The maximum speed to avoid overturning on the level road,
grb 9.81 × 120 1.5
vmax = = ×
h 1 2
= 29.71 m/s = 107 km/h
Example 7.6 A rrear

ear
EA
-wheel-drive car of mass M is rrunning
ear-wheel-drive
h
G
unning on a horizontal rroad.
a
oad. Find the
maximum acceleration the car can attain if the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is µ.
d2 d1
Solution:
E
Since the car has a rear-wheel drive, the frictional force F acts on the rear wheels. Let the maximum
acceleration that the car can attain be a, which is due to the frictional force F. Let R1 and R2 be the
reaction forces from the road on the front and rear wheels, respectively. The maximum frictional force is
AD
given as F = µR2. We apply the inertial force Ma to bring the car in dynamic equilibrium.
Ma G
a
h
Mg A
F B d2 d1
R2 R1
Thus,
M
Ma
ΣFx = 0⇒ F – Ma = 0 ⇒ µR2 – Ma = 0 ⇒ R2 = ...(i)
μ
ΣM|A = 0⇒ Mg × d1 + Ma × h – R2 × (d1 + d2) = 0
Mgd1 Mah
⇒ R2 = + ...(ii)
(d1 + d2 ) (d1 + d 2 )
From eqn. (i) and (ii), we get
Ma Mgd1 Mah
= + ⇒ a(d1 + d2) = µgd1 + µah
μ (d1 + d2 ) (d1 + d 2 )

μgd1
⇒ a=
d1 + d 2 − μh
Example 7.7 Figure (a) shows a small ball resting on a turntable. Starting from rest, the
turntable is rotated in such a way that the ball undergoes a constant tangential acceleration of 1.5 m/s2.
Assuming µ = 0.25, find (1) the speed of the ball when it starts slipping off the turntable, and (2) the time
taken by the ball to attain this speed.
SY
0.9 m
Solution:
Given :
1.
EA (a)
R = 0.9 m, a1 = 1.5 m/s2, µ = 0.25

Let the mass of the ball be m. Slipping of the ball occurs along the direction of velocity when the
force F = ma just exceeds the frictional resistance µN. Here, as shown in FBD of Figure (b), the
tangential acceleration is along y-axis and is given as at = 1.5 m/s2. The normal acceleration is along
x-axis and is given as
V
V2 z
E
an = ...(i) y
R
where, V is the tangential velocity when the ball just slips off. N a ma
t
a
Net acceleration, a = at2 + an2 ...(ii)
AD
Considering dynamic equilibrium of the ball along z-axis, 0.9 m x

an
µN
ΣFz = 0 : N – mg = 0 ⇒ N = mg ...(iii)
Considering dynamic equilibrium of the ball along the direction of motion,
ΣFMotion = 0 : ma – µN = 0 ⇒ ma = µN mg
(b)
Using Eq. (iii), ma = µmg ⇒ a = µg ...(iv)
Putting this value of a in Eq. (ii),
M
at2 + an2 = µg
⇒ an = (μg)2 − at2 = (0.25 × 9.81)2 − 1.52 = 1.94 m/s2
From Eq. (i), V = an R = 1.94 × 0.9 = 1.32 m/s2

From Eq. (iv), net acceleration,
a = 0.25 × 9.81 = 2.453 m/s2
2. The ball starts from rest and attains a tangential velocity of 1.32 m/s2 under constant tangential
acceleration of 1.5 m/s2 in time t. Therefore, using first equation of motion, we get
V − 0 1.32
v = u + att ⇒ t = = = 0.88 s
at 1.5

Example 7.8 Figure (a) shows a small part ABC of a railway track which has a spiral portion
r2
AB of length r with radius of curvature varying as ρ = , where s is the distance measured from B
s
towards A. A diesel locomotive weighing 36000 N starts from rest at A and increases its speed along AB
g
with a constant tangential acceleration given by . Find the maximum lateral thrust on the outer rail
12
during the motion from A to B and the location where it occurs.
SY
O
x
ρ
r
B
C
Solution:
Given :
EA (a)
W = 36000 N, a =
g
10
Let R be the lateral thrust on the outer rail during the motion from A to B. Due to curvilinear motion, a
normal (centripetal) acceleration an is developed, as shown in Figure(b). The normal acceleration is given
E
v2
as an = where ρ is radius of curvature. the lateral thrust is a reaction to the centrifugal force (man) due
ρ
to acceleration an, as shown in Figure (b). Using D’Alembert’s principle,
AD
W W v2
ΣFn = 0 : R – man = 0 ⇒ R = an ⇒ R = ⋅ ...(i)
g g ρ
At a distance x from A, we have s = (r – x). Hence, the radius of curvature,
r2 r2 an
ρ= =
s (r − x)
The velocity v of the locomotive after travelling a distance x is given by man
⎛g⎞ gx
⇒ v2 =
M
v2 – u2 = 2as; v2 – 0 = 2 ⎜ ⎟ x
⎝ 12 ⎠ 6 R
Substituting the values of ρ and v into Eq. (i), we get
2
(b)
⎛ gx ⎞
W⎜ 6 ⎟ W x(r − x) W (rx − x2 )
R= ⎜ 2 ⎟ = = ...(ii)
g⎜ r ⎟ 6r 2 6r 2
⎜⎝ (r − x) ⎟⎠
For maximum value of R, we must have
dR d ⎡W (r x − x 2 ) ⎤
=0 ⇒ ⎢ ⎥ =0
dx dx ⎣ 6r 2 ⎦

W r
⇒ =0 ⇒ x=
6r (r − 2 x)
2 2
Thus, the thrust R is maximum when the distance travelled is half the length of the spiral. Putting this
value of x into Eq. (ii), we get
⎛ r2 r2 ⎞
W⎜ −
⎝2 4 ⎟⎠ W 36000
Rmax = 2
= = = 1500 N
6r 24 24
SY
Example 7.9 A car weighing 15 kN is travelling down a 12° inclined road at a speed of 4 m/s,
as shown in Figur
Figuree. To avoid an accident, the driver suddenly applies full brakes causing wheels to lock.
Determine how far the tyres skid on the road, if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the tyres and the
road is 0.6.
4 m/s
A
s
Solution:
Given :
B EA12°
W = 15 kN, θ = 12°, µk = 0.6, v1 = 4 m/s, v2 = 0

W 15000 N
Mass of the car, m = = = 1529 kg
g 9.81 m/s2
E
s
W = 15 kN
AD
12° A
C
B s sin 12°
F
–12°
N
The free-body diagram of the car at a point C, in between the displacement AB, is shown in figure. To
determine the frictional force F, we resolve the forces along the normal to the road,
M
ΣFn = 0 : N – W cos 12° = 0 ⇒ N = 15000 cos 12° = 14672.21 N

∴ Ft = µkN = 0.6 × 14672.21 = 8803.3 N
We shall solve this problem by two methods; first, by applying the work-energy principle and then by
using the equations of motion.
(a) Work-Energy Principle : The normal reaction force N does no work since it never undergoes
(a)Work-Energy
any displacement along its line of action. Let us take the point B (position 2) as reference for the
potential energy. The weight W is a conservative force. It is displaced downward by a vertical distance
s sin 12°, thereby decreasing the PE. The frictional force F is a non-conservative force. When it undergoes
a displacement s, the work done by it goes waste. Applying work-energy principle for the displacement
s, from A to B,

ΣE2 = ΣE1 + Uc – UL
⇒ (KE2 + PE2) = (KE1 + PE1) + Uc – UL
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ mv 2 + 0⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 2 mv 1 + W (s sin12°)⎟⎠ + 0 − Ft s
or 2
2
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 2 ⎞
⇒ ⎜⎝ × 1529 × 0 + 0⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 2 × 1529 × 4 + 15000(s × 0.208)⎟⎠ + 0 − 8803.3s
2
2
⇒ 0 = (12232 + 3120s) – 8803.2s ⇒ s = 2.15 m
(b) Equations of Motion : As a first step, we apply Newton’s second law of motion to determine the
acceleration a,
SY
ΣFt = ma
⇒ 15000 sin 12° – 8803.3 = 1529a
⇒ a = –3.72 m/s2
As second step, we use equation of motion, to determine displacement s,
v 22 − v 12 02 − 42
⇒ v22 = v12 + 2as ⇒ s = = = 2.15 m
2a 2(−3.72)
7.4 Belt, Rope and Pulley

7.4.1 Flexible Belt
EA
The impending slippage of flexible cables, belts, and ropes over sheaves and drums is important in the
design of belt drives of all types, band brakes, and hoisting rigs.
r
E
n
dθ
β θ T + dT
t
M T
AD
µdN
dN r
R dθ dθ
2 2
dθ
T2
T1
(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a drum subjected to the two belt tensions T1 and T2, the torque M necessary to prevent
M
rotation, and a bearing reaction R. With M in the direction shown, T2 is greater than T1. The freebody
diagram of an element of the belt of length rdθ is shown in part (b) of the figure. We analyze the forces
acting on this differential element by establishing the equilibrium of the element, in a manner similar to
that used for other variable-force problems. The tension increases from T at the angle θ to T + dT at the
angle θ + dθ. The normal force is a differential dN, since it acts on a differential element of area. Likewise
the friction force, which must act on the belt in a direction to oppose slipping, is a differential and is µdN
for impending motion.
Equilibrium in the t-direction gives

dθ dθ
T cos + μdN = (T + dT )cos
2 2
or µdN = dT
Since the cosine of a differential quantity is unity in the limit. Equilibrium in the n-direction requires that
dθ dθ
dN = (T + dT )sin + T sin
2 2
or dN = Tdθ
where we have used the facts that the sine of a differential angle in the limit equals the angle and that the
product of two differentials must be neglected in the limit compared with the first-order differentials
SY
remaining.
Combining the two equilibrium relations gives
dT
= µdθ
T
Integrating between corresponding limits yields
T2 β
dT
∫ = ∫ μd θ
or
EA
T1
ln
T
T2
T1
= µβ
T2 = T1eµβ
0
Note that β is the total angle of belt contact and must be expressed in radians. If a rope were wrapped
around a drum n times, the angle β would be 2πn radians. Above result holds equally well for a non-
circular section where the total angle of contact is β. This conclusion is evident from the fact that the
radius r of the circular drum in Figure above does not enter into the equations for the equilibrium of the
E
differential element of the belt.
The above relation is also applies to belt drives where both the belt and the pulley are rotating at constant
speed. In this case the equation describes the ratio of belt tensions for slippage or impending slippage.
AD
When the speed of rotation becomes large, the belt tends to leave the rim,
7.4.2 Rope or V-Belt

In case of rope or V-belt, two normal reactions act as shown in Figure (a) and (b), making the total radial
reaction equal to 2N sin α as shown in Figure (c). The groove angle for both the cases is 2α as shown in Figure (a)
and (b).
y
2α 2α
M
Rope V-belt dθ/2 x

D C
N cos α N cos α N cos α N cos α 2µN
α α α α T 2N sin α T + dT
N Nsinα Nsinα N N Nsinα Nsinα N
dθ/2
(a) Rope (b) V-belt (c) FBD of element CD of belt

Fig. Rope of V-belt
μβ
T1
= e sin α = e μβcosec α
T2

Above equations gives the limiting tension ratio for a rope or V-belt and is applicable only when the rope
or belt is about to slip. It may be noted that in case of a V-belt or rope, the coefficient of friction is
⎛ 1 ⎞
apparently increased by ⎜ making the tension ratio higher for the V-belt than flat belt for the same
⎝ sin α ⎟⎠
lap angle and coefficient of friction.
NOTE 1. For open belt drive, the lap angle β is always taken for the smaller pulley as it has higher
chances of slippage for the same coefficient of friction, because of less frictional resistance.
SY
2. For cross belt drive, lap angles for both the pulleys are same.
3. The angle β is expressed in radians.
Advantages of Rope and V-Belts over Flat Belts

1. Rope drives are more suitable for transmitting large powers.
2. More frictional grip ensures stability.
3. Sideways slipping does not occur due to grooves. (In flat belt drives, it is a common problem).
Remember EA
Myth: Friction between rope and pulley causes difference in tension on two sides of the rope.
Fact: It is true as long as the pulley has to overcome resistance (friction at hinge, or load on
its shaft). As soon as the resistance becomes zero, the difference in tension vanishes.
Example 7.10 In a V-belt of gr

V-belt oove angle 45°, the maximum allowable tension is 2000 N. The
groove
coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley is 0.26 and angle of lap is 165°. If the belt is running at
E
2 m/s, calculate the driving tension and power transmitted, neglecting centrifugal tension.
Solution:
Given : 2α = 45°, Tmax = 2000 N, µ = 0.26, β = 165° = 2.88 rad, v = 2 m/s
AD
Tension allowed on tight side, T1 = Tmax = 2000 N

For the V-belt, at impending motion,
T1
= eµβ cosec α
T2
T1 2000
⇒ T2 = μβcosecα
= = 282.65 N
0.26 × 2.88 × cosec 22.5°
e e
Driving tension, T = T1 – T2 = 2000 – 282.65 = 1717.35 N
M
Power transmitted, P = (T1 – T2) × v = 1717.35 × 2 = 3434.7 W = 3.435 kW
7.4.3 Tension in the Belt
1. Initial Tension
When a belt drive is at rest, some tension is given to the belt to keep the belt tightly fitted on the pulleys.
This tension is known as initial tension Ti, and it is same on both the sides of the pulley. While transmitting
power, the tension on one side (tight side) increases to T1 and tension on the other side (slack side)
decreases to T2. This change in tension on both sides of the pulley is same as the material of the belt is
assumed to be perfectly elastic.

Increase in tension on the tight side,

ΔT = T1 – Ti
Decrease in tension on the slack side,
ΔT = Ti – T2
Equating the above two values, we get
(T1 + T2 )
Ti =
2
Thus, the initial tension is the average of the tension on the tight side and the tension on the slack side.
2. Centrifugal Tension
SY
While transmitting power, the belt running in a circular path over a pulley, Fc
dθ/2 dθ/2
C D
experiences a centrifugal force. This force tends to move the belt away
from the centre of the pulley and reduces normal reaction, and hence, Tc dθ Tc
β dθ/2
the frictional resistance. Therefore, the power transmission capacity of A B
r
the system gets reduced. In addition, this centrifugal force produces O
extra tension in the belt, known as centrifugal tension
tension. Consider a Tc
Tc
EA
small element CD of the belt wrapped on a pulley of radius r. Let Tc be
the centrifugal tension in the belt, and m be the mass of the belt per
unit length. The mass dm of the element CD is given as
T2
dm = (Mass of belt/length) × arc length CD

= m × rdθ = mrdθ
Fig. Element CD of the belt
subjected to centrifugal force
If v is the linear velocity of the belt, the centrifugal force Fc acting radially outwards on the belt is given
T1
as
v2 v2
Fc = dm = mrdθ = mv 2dθ
E
r r
Considering the equilibrium of the element CD and resolving the forces in vertical direction, we get
dθ
Fc − 2Tc sin =0
AD
2
dθ
⇒ 2Tc sin = mv2dθ
2
dθ ⎛ ⎛ dθ⎞ dθ⎞
⇒ 2Tc = mv2dθ ⎜ ∵ d θ is very small, sin ⎜ ⎟ ≈
2 ⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎟⎠
⇒ Tc = mv2
Hence, the increased tensions in the belt on two sides of the pulley,
M
T1c = T1 + Tc and T2c = T2 + Tc

Thus, the tension on the tight side, (T1 + Tc) should not exceed the maximum allowable tension, Tmax in
the belt, i.e., (T1 + Tc) ≤ Tmax for safety of the belt.
Tmax is the product of area A of cross-section of the belt and maximum allowable tensile stress (σmax) for
the material of the belt,
Tmax = σmax A = σmax × b × t ...(25)
where, b = breadth of belt, t = thickness of belt
NOTE : Centrifugal tension increases the required dimension of the belt from the design point of view.

Remember Myth: The centrifugal tension reduces the power transmitted.

Fact: No. The centrifugal tension is developed on both sides of the belt in equal magnitude
and in opposite direction. Since the power transmitted depends on the difference between
net tensions on two sides, it is not affected by the centrifugal tension. However, it does
reduce the maximum permissible power transmitted for a given rope.
3. Maximum Power Transmitted

The power transmitted by the belt is written as
SY
⎛ T1 ⎞
P = v(T1 – T2) = v ⎜T1 − μβ ⎟
⎝ e ⎠
⎛ T1 μβ ⎞
= vT1 ⎛⎜ 1 −
1 ⎞
⎝ e μβ ⎟⎠
= T1kv ⎜⎝ ∵ T = e ⎟⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
where, k = ⎜ 1 − μβ ⎟ is a constant.
⎝ e ⎠
Total tension on the tight side,
∴
EA
T1c = T1 + Tc ⇒ T1 = T1c – Tc = T1c – mv2
P = T1kv = (T1c – mv2)kv = (T1cv – mv3)k
To find the velocity at which the power transmission would be maximum, we differentiate the above
expression with respect to v and equate it to zero.
dP
= (T1c – 3mv2)k = 0
dv
⇒ T1c = 3mv2 or T1c = 3Tc
E
T1c
and v=
3m
Therefore, for maximum power transmission, the total tension T1c on the tight side of the belt must be
AD
equal to three times the centrifugal tension Tc. The speed of belt for the maximum power transmission is
given as
T1c
vmax =
3m
Example 7.11 A block weighing 50 N is accelerated along a rough horizontal plane by means
M
of a 20 N weight attached to it through a flexible, inextensible and weightless rope passing over a smooth
pulley
pulley.. Using D’Alember t’
D’Alembert’ s principle, deter
t’s mine the acceleration of the system and the tension in the
determine
r ope. Take the coef
Take ficient of friction between the 50 N weight block and the horizontal plane as 0.2
coefficient
a
T T
µ = 0.2
T
T
W1 = 50 N
W2 = 20 N

Solution:
Given : W1 = 50 N, W2 = 20 N, µ = 0.2
Note that the acceleration of both the weights is same and the tension induced in the rope is also same
throughout.
Motion of 20-N weight: The weight is brought into dynamic equilibrium by applying inertia force Fi(= m2a)
in a direction opposite to that of its acceleration. Hence,
ΣFy = 0 ⇒ W2 – T – Fi = 0 T
W2
⇒ W2 − T − a =0 Fi a
g
SY
20
⇒ 20 − T − a =0 W2 = 20 N
9.81
⇒ T + 2.04a = 20 ...(i)
Motion of 50-N weight: N1
ΣFx = 0 ⇒ T – Ft – Fi = 0 a
Fi T
W1
⇒ T − μW1 − a =0
⇒
T − 0.2 × 50 −
Solving eqn. (i) and (ii),

g
50
9.81
EA
a =0
T – 5.097a = 10
T = 17.14 N and a = 1.4 m/s2
Fr
W1 = 50 N
...(ii)
Example 7.12 A system of blocks P, Q and R connected by strings passing over the two pulleys A
and B are ar
are ranged as shown in Fig
arranged ur
Figure (a). The weights of the blocks P, Q and R ar
ure e W1 = 50 N, W2 = 30 N and
are
E
W3 = 20 N, rrespectively
espectively
espectively.. Neglecting the friction, self-weight and iner tia of pulleys, find the acceleration of each
inertia
block and the tension in the two strings.
AD
P
B
W1
R
M
Q
W3
W2
(a)
Solution:
As shown in Figure let T1 and T2 be the tensions in the two strings. Let the block P move downward with
an acceleration a1, so that the pulley B moves upward with the same acceleration a1. Let the block Q
move downward with an acceleration a2 with respect to the pulley B, so that block R moves up with the
same acceleration a2 with respect to the pulley B. Then,

Absolute acceleration of block Q = a2 – a1 (downward)

Absolute acceleration of block R = a2 + a1 (upward)
Considering the FBDs of different parts of the system and applying Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma, we get
a1
A
T1 T2
T1
T1 B Q (a2 – a1)
P a1
B
SY
T2 30 N
T2 W (c) (e)
T2 1
R T1 T2
Q a2 P a1 R (a2 + a1)
W3
W2 50 N 20 N
(b) (d) (f)
For the pulley B [Figure (c)] :
50 – T1 =
EA
T1 – 2T2 = 0 × a1 ⇒ T1 = 2T2
For the block P [Figure (d)] :
50
g 1
a ⇒ 50a1 = 50g – T1g
...(i)
...(ii)
For the block Q [Figure (e)] :

30
30 – T2 = (a − a ) ⇒ 30a2 – 30a1 = 30g – T2g ...(iii)
g 2 1
E
For the block R [Figure (f)] :
20
T2 – 20 = (a + a ) ⇒ 20a2 + 20a1 = T2g – 20g ...(iv)
g 2 1
AD
We use above four equations to determine four unknowns a1, a2, T1 and T2.
Eliminating T1 from Eqs. (i) and (ii),
50a1 = 50g – 2T2g ...(v)
Eliminating T2 from Eqs. (iii) and (v),
10a1 – 60a2 = –10g ..(vi)
Eliminating T2 from Eqs. (iii) and (iv),
–10a1 + 50a2 = 10g ..(vii)
M
Eliminating a1 from Eqs. (vi) and (vii),

490a2 = 100g ⇒ a2 = 0.204g = 0.204 × 9.81 = 2 m/s2
2.24 2.24
From Eq. (vi), 110a1 – 60 × 0.204g = –10g ⇒ a1 = g= × 9.81 = 0.2 m/s2
110 110
Putting the value of a1 into Eq. (v), we get
50(g − a1) 50(9.81− 0.2)
T2 = = = 24.5 N
2g 2 × 9.81
From Eq. (i), T1 = 2T2 = 2 × 24.5 = 49 N

Example 7.13 Figure (a) shows a weight W attached to the end of a flexible rope of 6 mm
diameter which is raised vertically by winching the rope on a reel. The reel is turning at a uniform rate of
90 rpm. Neglecting inertial effect of the rope and the lateral motion of the weight, find tension in the rope.
SY
b = 6 mm
W a
Solution:
Given :
EA (a)
N = 90 rpm, d = 6 mm = 0.006 m
Let the radius of the reel be R, diameter of rope be d and the tension in the rope be T. After one complete
revolution of the reel, the increased radius becomes (R + d).
90
Turning speed of the reel, N = 90 rpm = = 1.5 rps
60
Since the reel is making 1.5 revolutions per second, it will make 1.5t revolutions in t seconds. Hence, in
E
t seconds the radius becomes (R + 1.5td). Hence, at this stage, the length of rope would in one revolution,
Lt = 2π(R + 1.5td)
2(R + 1.5td)
AD
T
M
W ..
g a a=y
b = 6 mm
W W
a
(b) (c)
The total length of the rope wound in one second, or the speed with which the weight W is lifted up is gien
as
dy
v= = 1.5Lt = 1.5 × {2π(R + 1.5td)} = 3π(R + 1.5td)
dt

dv d
∴ Acceleration, a = y = = {3π(R + 1.5td )} = 4.5πd
dt dt
From the free-body diagram of the weight [Figure (c)], we have
W
F = ma ⇒ T–W= a
g
⎛ a⎞ ⎛ 4.5πd ⎞ ⎛ 4.5π × 0.006 ⎞
⇒ T = W ⎜1+ ⎟ = W ⎜1+ ⎟ = W ⎜1+ ⎟⎠ = 1.0086 W
⎝ g⎠ ⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ 9.81
SY
Example 7.14 A rope carrying a weight of 15 kN is wound 1.5 times around a rod fixed at its
ends. If the coefficient of friction between the rope and rod is 0.2, determine the range of the force P
applied at the other end of the rope for which the wight remains in equilibrium.
Solution:
Given : β = 1.5 × 2π = 3π rad, W = 15 kN, µ = 0.2
When the weight W is on the verge of going up, the applied force P has a maximum value Pmax for which
the rope is just about to slip. The limiting tension ratio is then given as
⇒
T1
T2
EA
= eµβ or
Pmax
W
= eµβ
Pmax = Weµβ = 15 × e0.2×3π = 98.79 kN

When the weight W is on the verge of going down, the applied force P has a minimum value Pmin for which
the rope is about to slip. The limiting tension ratio is then given as
T1 W
= eµβ or = eµβ
T2 Pmin
E
⇒ Pmin = We–µβ = 15 × e–0.2×3π = 2.28 kN
Thus, the weight shall remain in equilibrium for 2.28 kN ≤ P ≤ 98.79 kN.
AD
Example 7.15 Determine the maximum power that can be transmitted by a 200 mm × 12 mm
belt if the ratio of the tight-side tension to slack-side tension is 2. The belt weighs 1000 kg/m3 and has a
maximum permissible tensile stress of 2.5 N/mm2.
Solution:
Given : ρ = 1000 kg/m3, σmax = 2.5 N/mm2, b = 200 mm = 0.2 m
T1
t = 12 mm = 0.012 m, =2
T2
M
Mass of the belt, m = bt × ρ

= 0.2 × 0.012 × 1000 = 2.4 kg/m
Maximum tension, Tmax = σmax × b × t = 2.5 × 200 × 12 = 6000 N
Condition for transmission of maximum power requires that the centrifugal tension should be
Tmax 6000
Tc = ⇒ Tc = = 2000 N
3 3
Also, centrifugal tension is given as Tc = mv2

Tc 2000
⇒ v= = = 28.86 m/s
m 2.4
Tension on tight side, T1 = Tmax – Tc = 6000 – 2000 = 4000 N
Thus, the tension on slack side,
T1
T2 = = 2000 N
2
Maximum power transmitted is given as
P = (T1 – T2)v
SY
= (4000 – 2000) × 28.86 = 57735.02 W
= 57.74 kW
Example 7.16 The homogeneous rectangular block of mass m, width b, and height H is
placed on the horizontal surface and subjected to a horizontal force P which moves the block along the
sur face with a constant velocity
surface velocity.. The coef ficient of kinetic friction between the block and the sur
coefficient face is
surface
µk. Determine (a) the greatest value which h may have so that the block will slide without tipping over and
normal forces acts if h =

2
.
EA
(b) the location of a point C on the bottom face of the block through which the resultant of the friction and
P
E
H
h
AD
Solution:
(a) With the block on the verge of tipping, we see that the entire reaction between the plane and the
block will necessarily be at A. The free-body diagram of the block shows this condition. Since slipping
occurs, the friction force is the limiting value µkN, and the angle θ becomes θ = tan–1 µk. The resultant
of Fk and N passes through a point B through which P must also pass.
y
M
B
P
θ G
h
mg
Fk A
b
θ 2
N

b/2
tan θ = µk =
h
b
h =
2μk
If h were greater than this value, moment equilibrium about A would not be satisfied, and the
block would tip over.
Alternate Method:
We may find h by combining the equilibrium requirements for the x- and y-directions with the
SY
moment-equilibrium equation about A. Thus,
ΣFy = 0 : N – mg = 0; N = mg
ΣFx = 0 : Fk – P = 0; P = Fk = µkN = µkmg
b mgb mgb b
ΣMA = 0 : Ph − mg = 0; h = = =
2 2P 2μk mg 2μk
H
(b) With h = we see from the free-body diagram for case (b) that the
2
EA
resultant of Fk and N passes through a point C which is a distance x to the left
of the vertical centerline through G.
The angle q is still θ = φ = tan–1 µk as long as the block is slippping. Thus,
from the geometry of the figure we have
G
θ H
P
x H mg
= tan θ = µk so x = μk 2
H/2 2 Fk C
If we were to replace µk by the static coefficient µs, then our solutions would x
θ
E
describe the conditions under which the block is (a) on the verge of tipping
N
and (b) on the verge of slipping, both from a rest position.
AD
Example 7.17 The single-threaded screw of the vise has a mean diameter of 25 mm and has
5 square threads per 25 mm. The coefficient of static friction in the threads is 0.20. A 260 N pull applied
normal to the handle at A produces a clamping force of 4000 N between the jaws of the vise. Determine
the frictional moment MB, developed at B, due to the thr ust of the scr
thrust ew against the body of the jaw
screw jaw..
B 0.15 m
M
0.2 m
0.25 m
A
C
4000 N
Solution:
From the free-body diagram of the jaw we first obtain the tension T in the screw. T
ΣMC = 0 ⇒ 4000(0.4) – 0.25T = 0
T = 6400 N C
Moment due to lever, ML = 260 × 0.2 = 52 Nm

ML
R φ T
α MB
The helix angle α and the friction angle φ for the thread are given by
⎡ 25 ⎤
α = tan−1 L = tan−1 5 = 3.64° ⎢∵ L = 5 = 5 mm⎥
2πr π × (25) ⎣ ⎦
φ = tan–1 µ = tan–1 0.20 = 11.31°
For Tightening:
SY
The isolated screw is simulated by the free-body diagram shown where all of the forces acting on the
threads of the screw are represented by a single force R inclined at the friction angle φ from the normal
to the thread. The moment applied about the screw axis is ML in the clockwise direction as seen from
the front of the vise. The frictional moment MB due to the friction forces acting on the collar at B is in the
counterclockwise direction to oppose the impending motion.
M = Tr tan(α + φ)
0.025
7.5 Brake and Clutche

EA
52 – MB = 1600 ×
MB = 30.63 Nm
2
× tan (3.64° + 11.31°)
Friction between circular surfaces under distributed normal pressure occurs in pivot bearings, clutch plates,
and disk brakes. To examine these applications, we consider the two flat circular disks shown in Figure. Their
shafts are mounted in bearings (not shown) so that they can be brought into contact under the axial force P. The
maximum torque which this clutch can transmit is equal to the torque T required to slip one disk against the other.
E
If p is the normal pressure at any location between the plates, the frictional force acting on an elemental area is
µpdA, where µ is the friction coefficient and dA is the area r × drdθ of the element. The torque of this elemental
friction force about the shaft axis is µpr dA, and the total torque becomes
AD
T= ∫ µprdA
where we evaluate the integral over the area of the disk. To carry out this integration, we must know the
variation of µ and p with r.
dθ
M µpdA dr
r R
M
P P
M
Fig. Circular discs
In the following examples we will assume that µ is constant. Furthermore, if the surfaces are new, flat, and
well supported, it is reasonable to assume that the pressure p is uniform over the entire surface so that
πR2p = P. Substituting the constant value of p in the expression for M gives
2π R
μP 2
∫ ∫r
2
M= 2
drdθ = μPR
πR 0 0
3

We may interpret this result as equivalent to the moment due to a friction force µP acting at a distance
2
R from the shaft center.
3
If the friction disks are rings, as in the collar bearing shown in Figure, the limits of integration are the
inside and outside radii Ri and Ro, respectively, and the frictional torque becomes
2 R 3 − R i3
M= μP o2
3 Ro − R i2
SY
M
P
2Ri 2Ro
After the initial wearing-in period is over, the surfaces retain their new relative shape and further wear is
EA
therefore constant over the surface. This wear depends on both the circumferencial distance travelled
and the pressure p. Since the distance travelled is proportional to r, the expression rp = K may be
written, where K is a constant. The value of K is determined from the equilibrium condition for the axial
forces, which gives
2π R
P= ∫ pdA = K ∫ ∫ drdθ = 2πKR
0 0
With pr = K =
P , we may write the expression for M as
E
(2πR)
2π R
μP
M = ∫ μprdA =
2πR ∫0 ∫0
rdrdθ
AD
which becomes
1
M= μPR
2
1/2 3
The frictional moment for worn-in plates is, therefore, only or as much as for new surfaces. If the
2/3 4
friction disks are rings of inside radius Ri and outside radius Ro, substitution of these limits gives for the
M
frictional torque for worn-in surfaces.

1
M=μP (Ro + Ri )
2
You should be prepared to deal with other disk-friction problems where the pressure p is some other
function of r.

Key Learnings
We can now recognize the following three types of problems encountered in applications involving dry
friction. The first step in solving a friction problem is to identify its type.
1. First type: The condition of impending motion is known to exist. Here a body which is in equilibrium
is on the verge of slipping, and the friction force equals the limiting static friction Fmax = µsN.
2. Second type: Neither the condition of impending motion nor the condition of motion is known to
exist. To determine the actual friction conditions, we first assume static equilibrium and then solve
for the friction force F necessary for equilibrium. Three outcomes are possible :
SY
(a) F < (Fmax = µsN ) : Here the friction force necessary for equilibrium can be supported and
therefore the body is in static equilibrium as assumed. We emphasize that the actual friction
force F is less than the limiting value Fmax and that F is determined solely by the equations
of equilibrium.
(b) F = (Fmax = µsN) : Since the friction force F is at its maximum value Fmax, motion impends, as
discussed in problem type (1). The assumption of static equilibrium is valid.
(c) F > (Fmax = µsN) : Clearly this condition is impossible, because the surfaces cannot support
3.
EA
more force than the maximum µsN. The assumption of equilibrium is therefore invalid, and
motion occurs. The friction force F is equal to µkN.
Third type: Relative motion is known to exist between the contacting surfaces, and thus the
kinetic coefficient of friction clearly applies.
Multiple Choice Questions

E
1. The power transmitted by a belt drive depends on
(a) angle of contact (b) speed of shaft
(c) T1 and T2 (d) All of the above
AD
1. (d)
2. Speed of the belt to transmit maximum power is
T 2T
(a) (b)
2m m
3T T
(c) (d)
m 3m
M
2. (d)
Unsolved Practice Questions

1. The axial section of the two mating circular disks is shown. Derive the expression for the torque M required
to turn the upper disk on the fixed lower one if the pressure p between the disks follows the relationship
k
p= , where k is a constant to be determined. The coefficient of friction µ is constant over the entire
r2
surface.

L
Rotating
Fixed
SY
ri
ro
ro − ri
Ans. M = μL
r
ln o
ri
2. The pulley system shown is used to hoist the 200-kg block. The diameter of the bearing for the upper
EA
pulley is 20 mm, and that for the lower pulley is 12 mm. For a coefficient of friction µ = 0.25 for both
bearings, calculate the tension T, T1 and T2 in the three cables if the block is being raised slowly.
180 mm
T2 T1
T
E
90 mm
AD
200 kg
Ans. T =1069 N; T1 = 1013 N; T2 = 949 N
8. Lagrangian Equation
M
8.1 Introduction
The steps of using Newtonian mechanics to solve a problem is dynamics:
(i) Draw a clear diagram of the system,
(ii) Then mark in the forces on the various parts of the system and the accelerations of the various
parts.
(iii) Then apply the equation F = ma in two different directions if it is a two-dimenstional problem or in
three directions if it is three-dimensional problem, or τ = I θ if torques are involved.

More correctly, it a mass or a moment of inertia is not constant, the equations are F = p and τ = L . In
any case, we arrive at one or more equations of motion, which are differential equations, we integrate with
respect to space or time to find the desired solution.
Sometimes it is not that easy to find the equations of motion as described above. There is an alternative
approach known as lagragian mechanics which enables us to find the equations of motion when the
Newtonian method is proving difficult.
The steps involved in lagrangian mechanics:
(i) Start by drawing a clear diagram of the system, but rather than drawing the forces and accelerations,
we draw the velocity vectors (including angular velocities) and from these we write down the kinetic
SY
energy of the system.
(ii) If the forces are conservative forces (gravity, springs and stretched strings), we write down the
potential energy also.
(iii) Write down the lagrangian equations of motion for each coordinates. These are equations involve
the kinetic and potential energies and are little bit more involved than F = ma, though they do arrive
at the same results.
In the subsequent pages we shall derive lagrangian equations of motion which will help to solve the not
EA
difficult problems in mechanics. Lagragian equations are highly beneficial for the problems which are
unable to get solved using Newtonain methods.
NOTE Simple steps to summarise lagragian equation application are:

Draw the diagram → mark the velocity vectors → write down expressions for the kinetic and
potential energies → and apply the lagragian equations.
E
8.2 Generalized Coordinates
In two-dimentionss the positions of a point can be specified either by its rectangular coordinates (x, y) or
AD
by its polar coordinates. There are other possibilities such as conforcal conical coordinates that might be less
familiar. In three dimensions there are the options of rectangular coordinates (x, y, z) or cylindrical coordinates ρ,
φ, z or spherical coordinates, ρ, ω, φ or again there may be others that may be of use for specialized purposes.
The state of a molecule might be described by a number of parameters, such as the bond lengths and the angles
between the bonds, and these may be varying periodically with time as the molecule vibrates and twists, and
these bonds lengths and bond angles constitute a set of coordinates which describe the molecule. We are not
going to think about any particular sort of coordinate system or set of coordinates. Rather, we are going to
M
thinkabout generalized coordinates, which may be lengths or angles or various combinations of them. We shall
call these coordinates (q1, q2, q3, ....). If we are thinking of a single particle in three-dimensional space, there will
be three of them, which could be rectangular, or cylindrical, or spherical. If there were N particles, we would need
3 N coordinates to describe the system - unless there were some constraints on the system.
With each generalized coordinate, qj is associated a generalized force Pj, which is defined as follows. If
the work required to increase the coordinates qj by δqj is Pj δqj, then Pj is the generalized force associated with the
coordinates qj.
A generalized force need not always be dimensionally equivalent to force. For example, if a generalized
coordinates is an angle, the corresponding generalized forcw will be a torque. One of the things that we
shall want to do is to identify generalized force associated with a given generalised coordinate.

8.3 Degrees of Freedom

The number of coordinates required to specify the position of a system of one or more particles is called
the number of degrees of freedom of the system. If the system is a single particle, the Cartesian coordinates are
expressible as functions of the generalized coordinates.
x = x(q) } [One degree of freedom - motion on a curve]
x = x (q1,q2 ) ⎪⎫
⎬ [Two degree of freedom - motion on a curve]
y = y (q1,q2 )⎪⎭
x = x (q1,q2,q3 ) ⎫
SY
⎪
y = y (q1,q2,q3 )⎬ [Three degree of freedom - motion on a
⎪
z = z (q1,q2,q3 ) ⎭
curve]
8.4 Constraints
The limitations on the motion are often called constraints.
EA
8.4.1 Holonomic and Non-Holonomic Constraints
If all constraints of the system can be expressed as equations having the form f(q1, q2, .... qn, t) = 0 or their
equivalent, then the system is said to be holonomic; otherwise the system is said to be non-holonomic.
Example 1: A cylinder rolling wthout slipping down a rough inclined plane of angle α.
Example 2: A particle constrained to move along a line under the influence of a force which is inversely
porportional to the square of its distance from a fixed point and a damping force proportional to the
square of the instantaneous speed.
E
8.4.2 Conservative Forces
If the work done by a force in moving a body from one position to another is independent of the path
followed by the body, the force is called a conser vative for
conservative ce
force
ce. The weight of a body and the force exerted by a
AD
stretched (or compressed) elastic spring are two examples of conservative forces often encountered in Engineerign
Mechanics. Other example of conservative forces are (i) normal reaction, (ii) tension, (iii) electrostatic force, (iv)
magnetic force, and (v) hydrostatic force.
In contrast, the frictional force is non-conservative
non-conservative. Consider the frictional force exerted on a moving
body by a fixed surface. The work done by the frictional force depends on the path. The longer the path, the
greater is the work done. The work done on the body is dissipated from it in the form of heat. Like friction, the air
drag and viscous drag are also non-conservative forces.
M
8.5 Lagrangian Equations (Derivation)

Let, the Generalise Coordinates: q1, q2, q3, q4, ..... qn
x = f(q1, q2, q3, ..... qn) or x(q1, q2, q3, ..... qn)
y = y(q1, q2, q3, qn)
∂x ∂x
So, δx = × δq1 + × δq2 + .....
∂q1 ∂q2
∂y
δy = × δq1 + .....
∂q1

For polar coordinates (r, θ)

Let a1, r1, q2 = θ
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
⇒ δx = δx + × δθ ; δy = δr + × δθ
∂r ∂θ ∂r ∂θ
n n
∂xi ∂y i
⇒ δxi = ∑ δ qk and δyi = ∑ δqk ...(i)
∂
k =1 k q ∂
k =1 qk
(i) refers to the particle ‘P ’.
Value of i change from 1 to N for N particle system.
SY
Convection aged will be
δx1 = δx, δx2 = δy, δx3 = δz
As per this convention :
i ⇒ 1 to 3 for 1 particle.
i ⇒ 1 to 3N for n-particles

Now, δ ri = δx1iˆ + δx2jˆ + δx3kˆ
⇒

EA
Let a particle displacement δr under force F

δw = F ⋅ δr
3
δw = F ⋅ δr = F1δx1 + F2δx2 + F3δx3 = ∑ Fi δxi
i =1
n
∂x
As δxi = ∑ ∂qi δqk
k =1 k
3 n
∂x
E
dW = ∑∑ Fi ∂qi δqk
i =1 k =1 k
n ⎛ 3 ∂xi ⎞ n
= ∑ ⎜ ∑ i ∂q k ⎟⎠ ∑ Qk δqk
F δ q =
k =1 ⎝ i =1
AD
k k =1
d xi
where, Qk is generalised force = ∑ Fi
i dqk
[If the various forces in a particular are conservative (gravtiy, springs and stretched strings, including
valence bonds in a molecule) then the generalized force can be obtained by the negative of the gradient
∂V ( xi )
of a potential energy function i.e. Fi = − ]
∂xi
M
For conservative force system,

∂V ( xi )
Fi = −
∂xi
⎛ ∂V (xi ) δxi ⎞
Also, Qk = ∑ ⎜⎝ − δxi
×
∂qk ⎟⎠
i
∂V (q ′s)
Qk =
∂qk

Kinetic Energy (T) of system of N particles,

3N
1
T= ∑ 2 mi xi2
i =1
x i = xi(q1, q2, q3, ..... qn; t)
n
∂x ∂xi
δxi = ∑ ∂qi δqk +
∂t
× δt
k =1 k
Dividing by δt
n
δxi ∂xi δqk ∂xi δt
= ∑ × + ×
SY
δt ∂
k =1 qk δt ∂t δt
n
∂x ∂xi
⇒ xi = ∑ ∂qi × δqk +
∂t
i =1 k
∂xi ∂x δx
⇒ xi = q 1 + i q 2 + ..... i
∂q1 ∂q2 ∂t
∂xi ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
As,
Hence,
EA
xi

∂ qk

∂q1
∂xi
= ;
∂q1 ∂q2
∂x

=
∂q2
= xi i (Multiplying both sides by xi )
On differentiating w.r.t. time on both sides,

d ⎛ ∂xi ⎞
∂
∂x
qk
∂x
...(1)
⇒ ⎜ xi ⎟ = xi i + x i

dt ⎝ ∂qk ⎠ ∂qk ∂qk
Multiplying both sides with mass,
E
d ⎛ ∂ ⎛ xi2 ⎞ ⎞ ∂xi ∂ ⎛ xi2 ⎞
= F + m (here, mi xi = Fi)
⎜ mi ⎟
dt ⎝ ∂q k ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠ ∂qk ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
i i
∂qk
d ⎛ ∂ ⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎞ ∂xi ∂
AD
⎛1 2⎞
⎜ ⎜⎝ mxi ⎟⎠ ⎟ = Fi + ⎜⎝ mi xi ⎟⎠
dt ⎝ ∂qk 2 ⎠ ∂ qk ∂ qk 2
Now for N-particles : i from 1 to 3N
⎧ ⎫
d ⎪⎪ ∂ ⎛ 3N 1 2 ⎞ ⎪⎪ 3N
d xi ∂ ⎛ 3N 1 ⎞
⎨ ⎜ ∑ mi xi ⎟ ⎬ = ∑ Fi ⎜ ∑ 2 m xi ⎟
2
+
dt ⎪ ∂qk ⎝ i =1 2 ∂ qk
⎠ ⎪ i =1 dq
k ⎝ i =1

⎠
⎩⎪ T ⎭⎪ Q T
M
So, above equation can be written in the following way

∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜ ⎟ = Qk + (Lagrange’s equation of motion)
(Lagrange’s
∂t ⎝ ∂q k ⎠ ∂q k
Case 1 : For conservative system
−∂V (q ′s)
Qk =
∂qk
Where, V(q ′s) is potential energy function of partical.

d ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T ∂V
Lagrange’s equation, = −
dt ⎜⎝ ∂q k ⎟⎠ ∂ qk ∂ qk
d ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂
⎜ ⎟ = (T − V )

dt ⎝ ∂qk ⎠ ∂qk
Let’s define L = T – V is called as Langrangian function of the system or Lagrangian of the system.
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂
⇒ ⎜ ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂q k ⎠
=
∂q k
(L )
SY
Case 2 : Velocity independent potential system
Velocity
T = T (q s′ s) , V = V(q′s)
∂V
If, =0
∂q
∂T ∂L
then, = (for velocity independent potential) ...(3)
∂q k ∂q k
and, EA∂L
∂q k
=
T=
∂T
∂ q
1
2
k
−
∂V
∂
m x 2
qk
⇒
∂T
∂x
= m x
1 2
V= kx
2
1 1
L=T–V= m x 2 − k x2
E
2 2
∂L
= m x + 0
∂x
AD
Hence, for conservative force and velocity independent potential.

From equation 3 and 2
d ⎛ ∂T ⎞ d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ =
dt ⎝ ∂q k ⎠ dt ⎝ ∂q k ⎠ ∂qk
Case 3 : When part of generalised forces are not conservative,
Say Q′K and part are derivative form of potential function V.
We can write,
M
∂V
QK = QK′ −
∂qK
So, we have now derived lagrangian’s equation of motion. It was a hard struggle, and in the end we
obtained three versions of an equation which at present look quite useless. But from this point, things
become easier and we rapidly see how to use the equations and find that they are indeed very useful.
1. Differential equation motion for conservative force system
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
− =0 ...(4)
dt ⎜⎝ ∂qk ⎟⎠ ∂qK
2. Differential equation of motion when non-conservative forces are also present.

d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ⎛ ∂L ⎞
− ⎜ QK′ + =0 ...(5)
dt ⎜⎝ ∂qk ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂qK ⎟⎠
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
or − = QK′ ...(6)
dt ⎜⎝ ∂qk ⎟⎠ ∂qK
8.6 Application of Lagrange’s Equation :

1. Simple Harmonic Oscillator (Damped) :
As damping force is proportional to the velocity (x)
SY
K C
. ..
T=
V=
1 2
EA
Q′x = Fd = −C x
1
2
k x
m x 2
x, x, x
(Non-conservative force)
(Velocity independent)
2
So, Lagrange’s equation, L=T–V
1 1
m x 2 − k x2
E
=
2 2
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
As ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = Q x′ + (From equation (6))
dt ∂x ∂x
AD
d ⎧ ∂ ⎛1 1 2⎞⎫ ∂ ⎛1 1 2⎞
⇒ ⎨ ⎜ m x − k x ⎟ ⎬ = Q x′ + ⎜⎝ m x − k x ⎟⎠
2 2
dt ⎩ ∂
x ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎭ ∂x 2 2
d
⇒ (m x − 0) = −c x + (−k x)
dt
⇒ m x + c x + k x = 0 (differentiale quation of damped harmonic motion)
2. Single Particle in a Central Force Field : Force which is directed towards centre is called as central
M
force field.
i.e., gravitational force, electrostatic force etc. (conservative force) y
Choosing polar coordinate q1 = r and q2 = θ P

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ r
x = −r θ sin θ + r cos θ θ
O
and y = r θ cos θ + r sin θ
1 1
So, T= mV 2 = m ( x 2 + y 2 )
2 2

1 22 2
= [r θ sin θ + r 2 cos2 θ − 2rr sin θ cos θ + r 2 θ 2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ + 2rrθ sin θ.cos θ]
2
1
T= m[r 2 θ 2 + r2 ] ...(1)
2
Potential function,V = V(r), It depends upon radial distance only.
Lagrangian, L = T – V
1
= m(r2 + r 2 θ 2 ) − V (r )
2
∂L ∂L
= mr ; = mr 2 θ
SY
where,
∂r ∂θ
∂L ∂V (r ) ∂L
= mr θ 2 − ; =0
∂r ∂r ∂θ
For co-ordinate ‘r’ Lagrangian equation of motion will be,
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
=
dt ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠ ∂r
or
d
dt
(mr) =
∂L
∂r EA
= mr θ 2 −
mr = mr θ 2 −
m (r − r θ 2 ) = Fr
∂V (r )
∂r
∂V (r )
∂r
For co-ordinate ‘θ’ Lagrangian equation of motion will be,

d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
⇒ =
dt ⎜⎝ d θ ⎟⎠ dθ
E
⇒
d
dt
( )
mr 2 θ = 0
( )
Which means, r mr θ is moment of angular momentum remains constant.
AD
3. At Wood’
Wood’ s Machine :
ood’s
φ = Angle moved by pulley
a = Radius of pulley
I
a
V=0 φ
M
x2 = (L – x – πa)
x1 = x
M2
M1 x.

Constraints :
x1 + πax + x2 = l
x = aφ
x = aφ or aω (angular velocity)
⎛1 1 ⎞ 1
T = ⎜ m1x12 + m2 x22 ⎟ + I ω 2
⎝2 2 ⎠ 2
1 1 ⎛ x 2 ⎞
= (m1 + m2 ) x 2 + I ⎜ 2 ⎟ (as x1 = x2 = x ) ...(1)
2 2 ⎝a ⎠
SY
Considering datum for potential energy V = 0 at centre of pully
V = –m1gx – m2g(l – x – πa)
Lagrangian (L) is :
1⎛ I ⎞ 2
⎜ m1 + m2 + 2 ⎟⎠ x + (m1 − m2 )g x + m2g (l − πa)
L=
2⎝ a
Here, x is the single generalised cordinate of system.
The Lagrange’s equation of motion are
⇒
d
dt
⎡⎛
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
I ⎞
⎢ ⎜⎝ m1 + m 2 + 2 ⎟⎠
⎣ a
∂L
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ∂x
dt ∂x
⎤
EA
x ⎥ = (m1 – m2)g
⎦
⎛ I ⎞
⇒ x ⎜ m1 + m2 + 2 ⎟ = (m1 – m2)g
⎝ a ⎠
E
Final acceleration of the system
(m1 − m2 )g
⇒ x = ... Ans.
⎛ I ⎞
⎜⎝ m1 + m2 + 2 ⎟⎠
AD
4. A particle sliding on a movable inclined path.

V=0
.
x
θ
x′ φ
h .
x′
M
M m
(Resultant Velocity of Particle)
x
θ
Now, let q1 = x and q2 = x′
V2 = x 2 + x ′ 2 − 2xx
′ cos φ (Using cosine triangle rule)
as φ = 180 – θ, cos φ = –cos θ

V2 = x + x ′ + 2 xx
′ cos θ
2 2
So, kinetic energy (T) :

1 1
T= m ( x 2 + x ′2 + 2 xx
′ cos θ) + M x 2
2 2
Potential Energy (V) :
V = –mgx′ sin θ
Here, no need to consider potential energy M as its height h is constant.
So, L=T–V
SY
1 1
= m ( x 2 + x ′2 + 2 xx
′ cos θ) + M x 2 + Mg x sin θ
2 2
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
as ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ∂x (for x coordinate)
dt ∂x
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
⇒ [M ( x + x ′ cos θ) + M x ] = 0 ⎜⎝ ∵ = 0⎟
dt ∂x ⎠
⇒ m x + m x′ cos θ + M x = 0
⇒
Also,
d
d
dt
EA
x(m + M) + mx′ cos θ = 0
⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ∂x ′
∂x ′
...(1)
(For x’ coordinate)
⇒ [m ( x ′ + x cos θ)] = mg sin θ

dt
⇒ m x′ + m x cos θ = mg sin θ
E
⇒ x′ + x cos θ = g sin θ ...(2)
Solving for x and x′ (eqn. 1 and eqn. 2), we get
x = −g sin θ cos θ ... Ans.

AD
⎛m +M⎞
⎟ − cos θ
2
⎜⎝
m ⎠
−g sin θ
x′ = ... Ans.
m (cos2 θ)
1−
m +M
5. Generalised Moment of particle having mass, m :
1
M
T= m x 2
2 m
x
V=0
1
1=T= m x 2
2
∂L
= m x = Px (linear momentum) ...(1)
∂x
∂L
and =0 ...(2)
∂x

d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
⇒ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ =
dt ∂x ∂x
d
⇒ (m x ) = 0
dt
⇒ m x = Constant
Hence, we can conclude that
For Conservative System :
∂L
Momentum, Pk =
∂q k
SY
where Pk is generalised momentum associated with generalised co-ordinate qk.
Now, differentiating above equation w.r.t. t
dPk d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
= =
dt dt ⎜⎝ ∂qk ⎟⎠ ∂qk
∂L
Pk =
EA ∂qk

E
AD
M

Newly Introduced

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Newly Introduced

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 Mechanical Engineering

1.3 Modes of Operation

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

Figure illustrates the main components of a probe assembly. A probe

1.5 Probe Calibration

1.7 Machine Programming

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

1.8 Major Applications

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

Difference between Rapid Prototyping and Additive Manufacturing

Additive vs Subtractive Manufacturing

How does additive manufacturing works?

2.2 Generic AM Process

2.3 Data path for AM

Design Idea Machine or process parameters

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

• Reparation of files, close holes or open surfaces

Manufacturing • Generation of control data

• Removal of powder, support structures and platform

2.4 CAD Model into STL Format

2.5 Effects of building using different layer thicknesses

2.6 Generation of Geometrical Layer Information on Single Layers

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

2.7 STL Format

File starts with mandatory line:

2.9 Binary STL file format

2.10 Special rules for the STL Format

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

2.11 Layer Manufacturing Processes

Layer manufacturing processes

Powder materials Liquid Materials Solid Materials

Extrusion process Liquid polymerisation or

• Solid Ground Curing • Stereolithography

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

2.12 Advantages of STL File format

2.13 Disadvantages of STL File format

2.14 Additive Manufacturing Technologies

Sintered powder particles

Unsintered material in previous layers

• Nearly 0.1 mm thick layers.

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

2.14.2 Three Dimensional (3D) Printing

The 3D printing process is an indirect process in two steps.

2.14.3 Fused deposition modeling ( FDM)

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

Stereolithography is also called Laser

to induce a chemical reaction (curing reaction),

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

Facts about SLA

Part time build in SLA

SLA Build Cycle Time

2.15 Electron Beam Melting

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

2.17 Different Additive Manufacturing Processes

2.17.1 Powder Bed Fusion

2.17.2 Material Extrusion

2.17.3 Direct Energy Deposition

2.17.4 Material Jetting

www.madeeasyprime.com © Copyright MADE EASY

2.17.5 Binder Jetting

2.17.6 Sheet Lamination

2.17 VAT Polymerisation

2.18 Additive Manufacturing Materials

2.19 Benefits of AM technology