Basis of Structural Design

Course 9
Actions on structures:
permanent loads, imposed loads and snow loads

Course notes are available for download at

https://www.ct.upt.ro/studenti/cursuri/stratan/bsd.htm
 EN 1990: Classification of loads
 Actions are classified by their variation in time as follows:
– permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed
equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by
shrinkage and uneven settlements;
– variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams
and roofs, wind actions or snow loads;
– accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, or impact from vehicles.

 Actions can also be classified

– by their origin, as direct or indirect,
– by their spatial variation, as fixed or free, or
– by their nature and/or the structural response, as static or
dynamic.
 EN 1990: Classification of loads
 Permanent action is one that is likely to act throughout a
given reference period and for which the variation in
magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the
variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until
the action attains a certain limit value

 Variable action is one for which the variation in

magnitude with time is neither negligible nor monotonic

 Accidental action is usually of short duration but of

significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given
structure during the design working life
 EN 1990: Classification of loads
 Certain actions, such as snow loads, may be considered
as either accidental and/or variable actions, depending on
the site location

 Actions caused by water may be considered as

permanent and/or variable actions depending on the
variation of their magnitude with time

 Direct action: a set of forces (loads) applied to the

structure
 Indirect action: a set of imposed deformations or
accelerations caused for example, by temperature
changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or
earthquakes
 EN 1990: Classification of loads
 A fixed action is one that has a fixed distribution and
position over the structure or structural member such
that the magnitude and direction of the action are
determined unambiguously for the whole structure or
structural member if this magnitude and direction are
determined at one point on the structure or structural
member
 A free action is one that may have various spatial
distributions over the structure
 An action should be described by a model, its magnitude
being represented in the most common cases by one
scalar
NOTE: For some actions and some verifications, a more
complex representation of the magnitudes of some
actions may be necessary.
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
 The self-weight of construction works is classified as a
permanent fixed action

 Permanent action is one which is likely to act throughout

a given reference period and for which the variation in
magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the
variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until
the action attains a certain limit value

 Examples of permanent actions:

– self-weight (or dead load) of structures,
– fixed equipment and road surfacing,
– and indirect actions caused by shrinkage and uneven settlements
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
 Normative references: EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-
weight, imposed loads for buildings
 The total self-weight of structural and non-structural
members should be taken into account in combinations
of actions as a single action.
 The self-weight of new coatings and/or distribution
conduits that are intended to be added after execution
should be taken into account in design situations.
 The source and moisture content of bulk materials should
be considered in design situations of buildings used for
storage purposes.
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
 The self-weight of the construction works should be
represented in most cases by a single characteristic
value and be calculated on the basis of the nominal
dimensions and the characteristic values of the densities.
 The self weight of the construction works includes the
structure and non-structural elements including fixed
services as well as the weight of earth and ballast.
 Non-structural elements include:
– roofing;
– surfacing and coverings;
– partitions and linings;
– hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs;
– wall cladding;
– suspended ceilings;
– thermal insulation;
– fixed services.
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
– roofing;

– surfacing and coverings;

 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
– partitions and linings;

– hand rails,
safety barriers,
parapets and kerbs;
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
– wall cladding;

– suspended ceilings;
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
– thermal insulation;

– fixed services
 Fixed services include:
– equipments for lifts and moving
stairways;
– heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) equipment;
– electrical equipment;
– pipes without their contents;
– cable trunking and conduits.
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
 Characteristic values of self-weight are determined using
– nominal dimensions (from architectural plans and details) and
– characteristic values of densities (obtained from Annex A to
EN 1991-1-1 or manufacturer)
 Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
 For manufactured elements such as flooring systems,
facades and ceilings, lifts and equipment for buildings,
data may be provided by the manufacturer

 For determining the effect of the self-weight due to

movable partitions, an equivalent uniformly distributed
load shall be used and added to the imposed load
 Self-weight: example
CARPET FLOOR
RAISED FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB

Specific
Thickness, Weight,
weight,
mm kN/m2
kN/m3
CARPET FLOOR ON RAISED
0.40
FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR 30 21.0 0.63
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB 150 25.0 3.75
TOTAL 4.78
 Imposed loads on buildings - EN 1991-1-1
 Imposed (or live) loads on buildings are those arising
from occupancy, including:
– normal use by persons;
– furniture and moveable objects (e.g. moveable partitions, storage,
the contents of containers);
– vehicles;
– anticipating rare events, such as concentrations of persons or of
furniture, or the moving or stacking of objects which may occur
during reorganization or redecoration
 Imposed loads shall be classified as variable free actions
 The imposed loads are modelled by uniformly distributed
loads, line loads or concentrated loads or combinations
of these loads.
 For the determination of the imposed loads, floor and
roof areas in buildings should be sub-divided into
categories according to their use.
 Imposed loads on buildings - EN 1991-1-1
 Heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology
rooms, boiler rooms etc) are not included in the loads
given in EN 1991-1-1. Loads for heavy equipment should
be agreed between the client and/or the relevant
Authority.
 Generally, imposed loads are considered as uniformly
distributed. To ensure a minimum local resistance of the
floor structure a separate verification shall be performed
with a concentrated load. The concentrated load shall be
considered to act at any point on the floor (over an area
with a shape which is appropriate to the use and form of
the floor)
qk Qk
 Imposed loads on buildings: Categories
 Areas in
residential, social,
commercial and
administration
buildings are
divided into
categories
according to their
specific uses
 Dynamic effects
shall be considered
where it is
anticipated that the
occupancy will
cause significant
dynamic effects
 Imposed loads on buildings: load values
 Characteristic values qk for uniformly distributed load
and Qk for concentrated load are assigned to each
category. Recommended values are underlined.
 Imposed loads on buildings: load values
 Romanian National Annex to SR EN 1991-1-1:2004
 Imposed loads on buildings
 Where necessary qk and Qk should be increased in the
design (e.g. for stairs and balconies depending on the
occupancy and on dimensions). Where no value is
specified in the code, informatively, the loads on stairs
and balconies can be increased by 1.0 kN/m2.
 Imposed loads on buildings: movable partitions
 Provided that a floor allows a lateral distribution of loads,
the self-weight of movable partitions may be taken into
account by a uniformly distributed load qk which should
be added to the imposed loads of floors. This defined
uniformly distributed load is dependent on the self-weight
of the partitions as follows:
– for movable partitions with a self-weight ≤ 1.0 kN/m wall length:
qk =0.5 kN/m2
– for movable partitions with a self-weight ≤ 2.0 kN/m wall length:
qk =0.8 kN/m2;
– for movable partitions with a self-weight ≤ 3.0 kN/m wall length:
qk =1.2 kN/m2
 Heavier partitions should be considered in the design
taking account of:
– the locations and directions of the partitions;
– the structural form of the floors
 Imposed loads on buildings
 Imposed loads are free actions:
– the most unfavourable spatial distribution shall be considered
– in practice, several "chessboard" distributions are considered in
addition to the uniform distribution

uniform distribution chessboard distribution 1 chessboard distribution 2

 Imposed loads on buildings
 EN 1991-1-1 contain provisions for calculation of
characteristic values of loads for the following types of
use of buildings:
– Residential, social, commercial and administration areas
– Areas for storage and industrial activities (including actions
induced by forklifts, actions induced by transport vehicles)
– Garages and vehicle traffic areas (excluding bridges)
– Roofs
 Additionally, horizontal loads on parapets and partition
walls acting as barriers need to be considered in design.
 Normative references: EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-
weight, imposed loads for buildings
 Snow load: normative references
 Normative references
– EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 - Actions on structures -
Part 1-3: General actions - Snow loads
– CR 1-1-3/2012: Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acţiunii zăpezii
asupra construcţiilor
 EN 1991-1-3 and CR 1-1-3-2012 give guidance to
determine the values of loads due to snow to be used for
the structural design of buildings and civil engineering
works
 Snow load: special cases
 The two codes does NOT give guidance on specialist
aspects of snow loading, for example:
– impact snow loads resulting from snow sliding off or falling from
a higher roof;
– the additional wind loads which could result from changes in
shape or size of the construction works due to the presence of
snow or the accumulation of ice;
– loads in areas where snow is present all year round;
– ice loading;
– lateral loading due to snow (e.g. lateral loads exerted by drifts);
– snow loads on bridges.
 In regions with possible rainfalls on the snow and
consecutive melting and freezing, snow loads on roofs
should be increased, especially in cases where snow and
ice can block the drainage system of the roof
 Snow load: classification and characteristics
 Generally, for the purpose of applying EN 1990, snow
loads are classified as variable, fixed, and static actions.
 Snow load may be treated as accidental in two cases:
– In particular situation of a snow fall which has an exceptionally
infrequent likelihood of occurring
– In particular situation of a snow deposition pattern which has an
exceptionally infrequent likelihood of occurring

 Snow action is modelled as a

gravity (vertical) load applied
on roofs of buildings, acting
per unit area of horizontal projection
 Snow load on the ground
 The characteristic value of snow load on the ground (sk)
is based upon the probability of 0.02 being exceeded for a
reference period of one year. This is equivalent to a mean
return period of 50 years.
 CR 1-1-3-2013 gives ground snow load map of Romania,
representing characteristic values of snow load on
ground, for altitudes below 1000 m
 For higher altitudes, the following relations can be used
to obtain characteristic values of snow load on ground:
Snow load on the ground
 Snow load: nature of load
 Snow can be deposited on a roof in many different
patterns. Properties of a roof or other factors causing
different patterns can include:
– the shape of the roof;
– its thermal properties;
– the roughness of its surface;
– the amount of heat generated under the roof;
– the proximity of nearby buildings;
– the surrounding terrain;
– the local meteorological climate, in particular its windiness,
temperature
– variations, and likelihood of precipitation (either as rain or as
snow).
 Snow load
 Two primary load
arrangements should be
considered when modelling
snow action:
– undrifted snow load on the roof:
load arrangement which describes undrifted
the uniformly distributed snow snow
load on the roof, affected only by
the shape of the roof, before any drifted
redistribution of snow due to snow
other climatic actions.
– drifted snow load on the roof: load
arrangement which describes the
snow load distribution resulting
from snow having been moved
from one location to another
location on a roof, e.g. by the
action of the wind.
 Snow load: code procedure
 Snow load on the roof in the persistent/transient design
situation is determined as follows:
s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk

 Is is the importance – exposure factor for snow load

 i is the snow load shape coefficient, depending on the
shape of the roof
 sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground,
depending on geographic location of the building and on
altitude
 Ce is the exposure coefficient, accounting for the degree
in which wind sweeps the snow from the roof
 Ct is the thermal coefficient, defining the reduction of
snow load on roofs as a function of the heat flux through
the roof, causing snow melting
 Snow load: code procedure
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 Is is the importance – exposure factor for snow load
 Snow load: code procedure
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground,
depending on geographic location of the building and on
altitude
 Snow load: code procedure
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk

 The thermal coefficient Ct is used to account for the

reduction of snow loads on roofs with high thermal
transmittance (> 1 W/m2K), in particular for some glass
covered roofs, because of melting caused by heat loss

 For most building structures, the roofs do not fit the

above condition, having a lower thermal transmittance,
and, therefore, Ct = 1.0
 Snow load: code procedure
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 Ce is the exposure coefficient, accounting for the degree
in which wind sweeps the snow from the roof, and
depends on the topography at the building site
 Snow load: code procedure
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 i is the snow load shape coefficient,
depending on the shape of the roof
 Roof shape coefficients are available for
undrifted and drifted snow
 Example: monopitch roofs
– Values for roof shape coefficients apply
when the snow is not prevented from sliding
off the roof.
– Where snow fences or other obstructions
exist or where the lower edge of the roof is
terminated with a parapet, then the snow
load shape coefficient should not be reduced
below 0.8
 Snow load: code procedure
 Example: pitched roofs
– case (i): undrifted snow
– case (ii): drifted snow
– case (iii): drifted snow
 Snow load: code procedure
 Example: multi-span roofs
– case (i): undrifted snow
– case (ii): drifted snow
 Snow load: code procedure
 Further guidance is available in codes for roof shape
coefficients for:

– Cylindrical roofs

– Roof abutting and close to

taller construction works
• s – snow load shape
coefficient due to sliding
of snow from the upper roof
• w – the snow load shape
coefficient due to wind
 Snow load: code procedure
 Roof shape coefficients are also specified for local
effects:
– drifting at projections and obstructions;
– the edge of the roof;
– snow fences
 Drifting at projections and obstructions:
– in windy conditions drifting of snow can occur on any roof which
has obstructions as these cause areas of aerodynamic shade in
which snow accumulates
– accumulation of snow due to
parapets at roof edges can
be modeled using this procedure
 Snow load: code procedure
 Snow overhanging the edge of a
roof: the design of those parts of
a roof cantilevered out beyond
the walls should take account of
snow overhanging the edge of the
roof, in addition to the load on
that part of the roof
 Snow loads on snowguards and
other obstacles: under certain
conditions snow may slide down
a pitched or curved roof. The
sliding mass of snow need to be
considered for the design of the
obstacles preventing this
movement.