BASIC EDUCATION

CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT:
FORMULATION
AND DESIGN

A RESEARCH OUTPUT
Presented to
MR. DENNIS BERMOY
Professor

In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements in

CONTENT BASED
INSTRUCTION
to the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION IN
SOCIAL SCIENCE

AIZZA M. DE LA CRUZ
Dangay National High School

30 March 2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
I Introduction: Educational Legislation and Policy 2
II Understanding the meaning of curriculum 2
III Classification of curriculum 3
IV Types of curriculum 4
V Overview of the curriculum development process 6
 Essential considerations for curriculum development 6
 Curriculum development model 6
VI Phases and steps in curriculum development 7
 Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing 8
Emphasis
 Phase I: planning 9
 Phase II: content and methods 10
 Phase III: implementation 11
 Phase IV: evaluation and reporting 11
VII Conclusion 13
VIII Bibliography/references 14

INTRODUCTION
Educational Legislation and Policy

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 The education sector (along with other government agencies) has the task of contributing to the
achievement of national development goals espoused in the country’s development plan. The general
purpose and goals of education in the Philippines have been cited in the national constitution. Section 3(2),
Article XIV of the Constitution states that:

All educational institutions shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for
human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country,
teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character
and personal discipline, en-courage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological
knowledge and promote vocational efficiency.

These goals have been translated into educational policies and further elaborated as the basic (elementary
and secondary) education framework.

UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum is referred to as a planned and an unplanned concept, content, skills, work habits, means of
assessment, evaluation techniques, approaches and instructional strategies taught within the classroom and
the variety of school activities that take place inside and outside of the classroom setting that have an
impact on the present and future academic, social, emotional and physical growth and development of the
students.

It is referred to as a comprehensive plan for an educational training program or a course to make provision
of new and improved human resources to fulfil the needs and requirements of the individuals themselves
and the community (Pillai, n.d.).

When understanding curriculum in simple terms, it is referred to what is taught in schools, set of
subjects, content, program of studies, set of materials, set of courses, course of study, and set of
performance objectives.

The processes and the strategies that are implemented in schools include extra classes, counselling and
guidance services, and interpersonal relationships; these are considered as an integral part of curriculum.

On the basis of the curriculum, the instructional methods are organized which facilitate learning amongst
the students. It is planned and organized by the school personnel. It is stated to be the series of experiences
undergone by the learners in schools and is an aggregate of the courses of study within the school system
(Pillai, n.d.).

CLASSIFICATION OF CURRICULUM
1) Subject Matter Curriculum – In the formulation of the curriculum at all levels, the subject
matter is considered to be of utmost significance. It comprises of the lessons and chapter plans that
are necessary for the students to understand in accordance to their levels.

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 For instance, a nursery school student’s curriculum would comprise of alphabets, numbers, scribbling,
drawing, and so forth. When subject matter is designed and formulated, there are number of areas that need
to be taken into consideration, as follows:
 age groups of the students,
 levels of education,
 facts and skills to be learned,
 knowledge and information to be adequately available to the learners and understanding of the
concepts. Main emphasis is put on the facts and skills of the subject matter.

2) Exercises – When lesson plans are formulated, it is important to have exercises and questions at
the end of it. The main purpose of exercises is to enable the individuals acquire a thorough
understanding of the lesson plans.

Exercises helps the students to prepare for the final exams and other class and home assignments.
Within the exercises, at the end of the lesson plans in textbooks, there are two types of questions, first are
objective type questions and the second are long answer questions. In subjects, such as Hindi, English,
Social Science, Science, etc. students are expected to work on exercises, after the teacher has provided
them adequate understanding of the lessons. The objective type questions are easier to answer, their
answers are normally available within the lessons. On the other hand, students are required to enhance their
writing skills, to provide long answers. Exercises and questions are beneficial and contribute in improving
the understanding of the concepts as well as the writing skills of the students.

3) Broad-Field Curriculum – It is stated to be the modification of the correlated curriculum.

In this case, the subjects are grouped into broad fields, such as language, arts, social science, science,
mathematics and so forth. In social science, the subjects include, history, geography, civics, economics and
so forth. In science, there are three subjects, physics, chemistry and biology. In languages, there is English,
Hindi, Sanskrit, Spanish, French, Japanese and so forth. Arts include, Sociology, Political Science, History,
Geography, Economics and so forth. These subjects may be grouped into a broad field, but their concepts
are different.

The individuals need to formulate appropriate instructional methods to make the students
understand the concepts in an appropriate manner. The teachers need to acquire knowledge about the
subject areas, so that they can adequately instruct the students (Chapter 3, n.d.).

4) Developmental Activity Curriculum – The developmental activity curriculum is the one that
tries to fit into the scope and sequence of every student’s activity and experiences within the
educational institutions to his biological, physical and intellectual growth.

For example, if a student is learning how to make various forms of artworks and handicrafts, then
besides the instructions, developmental activity curriculum should also be put into practice in order to
enhance their understanding. In the case of sports, physical activities, artworks, handicrafts etc. besides
making provision of knowledge, the students are required to get engaged in practical activities, so that they
are able to improve their skills and abilities. Similarly, in science, there are different experiments that are
performed by the students, as they have been trained by their teachers, as practical performance of activities
and experiments are considered to be an integral part of science subjects (Chapter 3, n.d.).

5) Common Concepts in two Subjects – This is the curriculum of two or more subjects that is
usually common or the same. It is likely to include within it, the social universals of democratic
living that is put into operation through the study of social problems.

For instance, students may learn about occurrence of natural calamities and disasters and how they
impose detrimental consequences upon the existence of the individuals in an English chapter. On the other
hand, in geography, they may learn about the causes and effects of natural calamities and disasters. In this

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 way, there is a common concept in both the subjects of English and geography, but there are differences in
the methodology and information (Chapter 3, n.d.).

TYPES OF CURRICULUM
The different types of curriculum have been stated as follows: (Pillai, n.d.).

1) The Overt, Explicit or Written Curriculum – This is the curriculum, which is considered as the
written part of the formal instruction of schooling experiences.

It refers to a curriculum that is included in documents, texts, films, and supportive teaching materials.
These are obviously chosen to support the purposeful instructional schedule of the school. Generally
confined to those written understandings and guidelines formally designated and reviewed by the
administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often co-operatively. This type of curriculum is usually
outlined with mutual understanding and agreements on the part of the individuals. The needs and
requirements of the students and the functioning of the schools have to be taken into account when
designing curriculum.

2) The Societal Curriculum - This curriculum is regarded as the substantial, continuing, informal
curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, churches, organizations, occupations, mass
media and other socializing forces that provide knowledge and information to the other individuals
all through their lives.

Curriculum is referred to as a route that should be followed from the beginning to the end, the
starting point is referred to as the early childhood education (Guides to Formulation of Curriculum, n.d.). In
early childhood education, an individual begins to generate awareness about the outside world and then he
gradually begins to learn about other areas within the internal and the external environment.

3) The Hidden or Covert Curriculum – This is the curriculum which is understood by the
organization and environment of the schools. Much of what revolves around regular or well-
known routines. The hidden curriculum, refers to the kinds of learnings, learners derive from the
environment and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the performances and
approaches of the teachers and administrators.

The emphasis is put upon successive room arrangements, the cellular, timed segments of formal
instruction, an annual schedule that is still organized to accommodate an agrarian age, well-organized
messages, where awareness connects to the student behaviours, where they are paying adequate attention,
sitting up straight, listening to the instructors and are silent. The students need to be disciplined within the
educational institutions. The students getting in and standing in line silently, the ones who quietly raise
their hands to be called on, the limitless competition for grades, and so forth are the behavioural traits of the
students when understanding hidden or covert curriculum.

4) The Null Curriculum – This is the curriculum, which is not taught by the teachers to the
students. The students are communicated that when the curriculum is not important in their lives,
nor society nor any kind of educational experiences, they are not provided any instructions about
this type of curriculum.

The null curriculum is the one which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, there are people,
who are authorized to make cognizant decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be excluded
from the overt or written curriculum. Since it is actually difficult to teach everything in schools, most of the
topics and subject areas must be purposefully excluded from the written curriculum. The null curriculum is
when certain subjects or topics are left out of the overt curriculum. School personnel are sending messages
to the students that certain concepts and processes are not important enough to study or understand.
Inappropriately, without some level of cognizance, there is also a well-defined inherent schedule in schools,
school personnel send this same type of message through the hidden curriculum.

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 5) The Rhetorical Curriculum – This is the curriculum that is comprised from the ideas that are
made available by the administrators, policy makers, school officials, or politicians. These ideas
come from those individuals who are involved in formation of the concepts or bringing about
changes in the content.

This curriculum originates from those educational initiatives resulting from the decisions that are based
on national and state reports and public speeches. Textbooks that critique outdated traditional practices are
also referred to as the rhetorical curriculum. They encourage the individuals to generate awareness
regarding utilization of modern and innovative techniques. Magazines, articles, journals and other
documents that make provision of ideas, suggestions, viewpoints and concepts are stated to be contributing
to rhetorical curriculum. It is also from the publicising works that is making available updates from the
pedagogical knowledge.

6) The Electronic Curriculum – This is the curriculum that is obtained by searching the internet
for information or by making use of electronic forms of communication. It can be either formal or
informal and the lesson plans may be overt or covert, appropriate or inappropriate, it depends upon
the outlook and viewpoints of the individuals how one understands the electronic curriculum.

In the present existence, there have been numerous uses of electronic curriculum, it is
comprehensively used for recreational purposes, such as, in blogs, chat rooms, online conversations,
emails, list serves and so forth. Internet is regarded to be an area, where individuals are able to find
knowledge about all subjects and fields. One is able to conduct research, improve one’s knowledge and
generate information through the internet. The usage of technology and electronic curriculum has
facilitated the recognition of education and enhancement of skills and abilities amongst the individuals. The
Internal

OVERVIEW OF THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

"Every Journey Begins With The First Step."

The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be taught,
and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components.

For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of development in age,
maturity, and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by who is being taught, their
characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above three essential components, the following are
widely held to be essential considerations in experiential education in non-formal settings:

 Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:

1. issue/problem/need is identified (issue   what),

2. characteristics and needs of learners (target audience   who),

3. changes intended for learners (intended outcomes/objectives   what the learners will be
able to do),

4. the important and relevant content   (what),

5. methods to accomplish intended outcomes   (how),

6. evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended outcomes   (What works?).

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 The CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL shows how these components relate to each other and
to the curriculum development process.

o It begins when an issue, concern, or problem needs to be addressed. If education or training a

segment of the population will help solve the problem, then curriculum to support an educational
effort becomes a priority with human and financial resources allocated.
o The next step is to form a curriculum development team. The team makes systematic decisions
about the target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives), content,
methods, and evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team, draft
curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated, and redesigned -if necessary. When the
final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted. The model shows a circular process
where volunteer training provides feedback for new materials or revisions to the existing
curriculum.

An Example: In the case of population education, a need rural out-of-school youth with information on how
population relates to the total environment as well as their personal lives.

PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

It further illustrates how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also shows the interaction
and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development process:

( I) Planning,
(II) Content and Methods,
(III) Implementation, and

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 (IV) Evaluation and Reporting.

It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly as depicted in a model!

Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not always separate
and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum development team is
involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to assess progress. The team
learns what works and what does not and determines the impact of the curriculum on learners after it is
implemented. Each step logically follows the previous. It would make no sense to design learning activities
before learner outcomes and content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined
before learner outcomes are described.

In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following curriculum
development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to successful curriculum
development and need to be emphasized.

Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1) Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed, but the
appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.
2) Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the implementors of the
curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full members of the curriculum development
team).
3) Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled curriculum implementors
are critical (the printed word cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't provide feedback).
4) Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for securing human and
financial support from key policy decision makers and for assessing whether the curriculum has
achieved the intended outcome.

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 Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps illustration:

(1) Formative provides feedback during the process of developing the curriculum, and

(2) Summative answers questions about changes (impact) that have occurred in learners because of their
learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence for what works, what does not work, and
what needs to be improved.

In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep the learner
(in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process.

For example, the curriculum team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be
involved in conducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem areas are
identified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and the scope of the
problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to allocate resources for a
curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.

A brief description of each of the curriculum development steps is described below. After reviewing these
descriptions, you should have a very clear idea of how the steps occur in each of the phases and what each
step includes.

PHASE I: PLANNING
"Nobody plans to fail but failure results from a failure to plan."

The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps. The steps in this phase
include:

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

↪(2) Form Curriculum Development Team
↪(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or problem of
one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to be addressed to define
the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum
development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify, the scope (what will be included) of
the curriculum content.

(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum
development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) the roles and functions of
team members, (2) a process for selecting members of the curriculum development team, and (3) principles
of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of the
curriculum content among the team members and develop an effective team.

(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

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 There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a needs
assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and by whom relative to the
identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP - Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice
Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.

Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the data and the
results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between knowledge and practice;
trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the characteristics of the
target audience.

"As the twig is bent, so grows the tree"

PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS

Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in
curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught). Steps
include:

(4) State Intended Outcomes

↪ (5) Select Content
↪(6) Design Experiential Methods

(4) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and prioritized, the
next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended outcomes or educational
objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to do as a result of participating in the
curriculum activities.

This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended outcomes
(condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4) an overview of
learning behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of learning behaviours is included
in the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from FAO population education materials.

(5) Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a real
difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the primary questions
are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to know? What knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and practiced?"

The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of the content
are also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content topics is provided in the
Addendum section as an example and application of how intended outcomes are linked with content.

(6) Design Experiential Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help the learner
achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's components (i.e.,
experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.

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 PHASE III: IMPLEMENTATION
(7) Produce Curriculum Product
↪(8) Test and Revise Curriculum
↪(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators
↪(10) Implement Curriculum

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of curriculum
materials begins. This section includes: 1) suggestions for finding and evaluating existing materials; 2)
evaluation criteria; and 3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.

(8) Test and Revise Curriculum

This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of curriculum
materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided.

(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators

It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for facilitators
to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a sample three-day
training program.

(10) Implement Curriculum

Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without planning.
Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.

PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

↪(12) Reporting and Securing Resources

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types of
evaluation, formative and summative, are used during curriculum development. Formative evaluations are
used during the needs assessment, product development, and testing steps. Summative evaluations are
undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the curriculum. This step reviews evaluation
strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce valid and reliable information. A series of questions
are posed to guide the summative evaluation process and a sample evaluation format is suggested.

(12) Reporting and Securing Resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off (i.e., getting the results into the hands
of people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to key shareholders,

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 especially funding and policy decision makers, are provided and a brief discussion on how to secure
resources for additional programming.

The purposes of the school-based assessments are:

(a) to improve the teaching/learning process;

(b) to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses;

(c) to determine the students’ subject area performance and/or achievement levels and;

(d) to report student progress to parents. Al-though there are four periods annually at both elementary and
secondary levels where students are examined in each subject, formative and summative evaluation are
under-taken regularly. Paper and pencil tests are the most common forms of examination in the schools.

CONCLUSION

In schools and higher educational institutions, the formulation of curriculum methods in an appropriate
manner is considered imperative in facilitating learning amongst the students and in the development of
instructional strategies on the part of the teachers. There are different types of curriculum that is put into
practice at different levels of education. In the present existence, there has been comprehensive usage of
technology in the formulation of appropriate curriculum methods and in communicating them to the
learners. When curriculum development takes place in educational institutions, the first and the foremost

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 procedure is the formulation of objectives. There are a number of fundamental objectives that help in
determining the development and implementation of the plan of instruction. Regardless of the definitions of
approaches and strategies, curriculum can be organized into three major components, these are, objectives,
content or subject matter and the learning experiences. The objectives in this case, should be looked from a
roadmap perspective, where an individual wants to go, content is referred to the subject matter, lesson plans
and the materials that are taught to the learners and learning experiences are how individuals are able to
learn the content and the materials that are made available to them. There is a close interconnection
between the components of curriculum and teachers and students should be completely aware of.

References:
El Sawi, Gwen Ph.D. (1996), Curriculum Development Guide: By Gwen El Sawi, Ph.D. Under the
guidance and sponsorship of Extension, Education and Communication Service (SDRE) Research,
Extension and Training Division, Rome

(PDF) Formulation of Objectives in Curriculum Development. Available from:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323694981_Formulation_of_Objectives_in_Curriculum_Develop
ment [accessed Dec 29 2018].

https://www.scribd.com/doc/19273276/Philippine-Curriculum-Development

http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/ah650e/AH650E03.htm#TopOfPage

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