Review

Veterinary Pathology
2016, Vol. 53(5) 919-928
The Veterinary Forensic Necropsy: ª The Author(s) 2016
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
A Review of Procedures and Protocols DOI: 10.1177/0300985816655851
vet.sagepub.com

H. W. Brooks Brownlie1 and R. Munro2

Abstract
Investigation of animal-related crime, and therefore submission of forensic cases to veterinary pathology facilities, is increasing, yet
many veterinary pathologists are unfamiliar and often uncomfortable with involvement in the forensic necropsy. This article
discusses various aspects of the forensic necropsy without specific attention to any particular species group or crime. General
advice is given on procedures, documentation, and recording of the examination, and the article indicates how these features may
differ from those used in investigation of natural disease. It also discusses evidence management, including recordkeeping,
identification of evidence, labeling of photographs, and use of standard operating procedures and protocols. Various written and
visual methods for documentation of the forensic necropsy are covered, and adjunctive topics such as sample collection,
assessment, and description of wounds and taphonomy are included. Cause, mechanism, and manner of death are defined, and
guidance to the use of these terms is given. The aim of this article is to offer guidance on procedural aspects of the forensic
necropsy that will help those developing their forensic services, contribute to standardization of the provision of forensic
veterinary pathology, and build the confidence of the ‘‘uncomfortable’’ forensic veterinary pathologist.

Keywords
forensic veterinary pathology, necropsy, standard operating procedures, protocols, postmortem examination, quality control

Forensic veterinary necropsies have a broad range of indi-
cations, including neglect, nonaccidental injuries, unlawful
killing, animal abuse, infringement of wildlife laws, trans-
portation violations or other environmental investigations,
theft, human protection, malpractice or disciplinary pro-
cedures, and insurance claims.* Evidence garnered in
animal-related crimes is often directly pertinent to the
investigation or understanding of interpersonal violence
or of human-centered crime.1,4,5,7,58,59,71,75,76 This review
concentrates on medicolegal forms of investigation (ie,
where a crime is suspected of having been committed) and
does not aim to include malpractice or insurance proce-
dures (although certain aspects may be relevant to these
types of investigation). The diversity of reasons for sub-
mission has the potential to impose multiple approaches to
the necropsy, as do the various weapons or modes of ani-
mal abuse that may be involved. Adding to this complexity
is the breadth of the species range encompassed by forensic
veterinary investigations. This review therefore concen-
trates on generic issues of procedure pertinent to forensic
necropsies, although some specifics will be included as
appropriate.
The Role of the Veterinary Pathologist in
Forensic Veterinary Investigations
The veterinary pathologist is required to act in an independent,
objective, and unbiased manner in forensic investigations. The
role of the pathologist is not to pass judgment but to document,
interpret, and explain the pathological findings to the investi-
gators and ultimately to the court, thereby assisting the court to
reach a decision on the case. The pathologist must also help the
court to understand the significance (or otherwise) of patholo-
gical changes associated with natural disease, common inju-
ries, or incidental, perhaps age-related, findings. 53,61
Conclusions stated by the pathologist should be based on facts
or informed opinion. To fulfill these roles with competence and
confidence, those conducting forensic necropsies should have
training and, ideally, experience in diagnostic veterinary
pathology. As is the case with any professional or expert
1
School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Bristol, Langford House,
Langford, Bristol, United Kingdom
2
Royal Veterinary College, London and Royal School of Veterinary Studies,
Edinburgh, United Kingdom

*References 8, 16, 22, 39, 40, 51, 53, 57, 59, 68, 86.
Corresponding Author:
H. W. Brooks Brownlie, School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Bristol,
Langford House; Bridge Pathology Ltd., Horner Court, 637 Gloucester Rd,
Horfield, Bristol BS7 0BJ, United Kingdom.
Email: harriet@bridgepathology.com
920
witness to the legal system, the forensic veterinary pathologist
should stay within the boundaries of their competence and
experience unless able easily to access suitable expertise in,
for instance, less familiar species, weaponry, or analyses.20,60
Currently, the term forensic veterinary pathologist is used to
denote trained and certified veterinary pathologists who have
additional forensic qualifications or who have documented,
relevant experience in forensic practice.
It is not intended in this review to describe in detail how to
conduct a necropsy since trained veterinary pathologists will be
well versed in conducting systematic examinations and in
recording them—usually on a designated postmortem report
form—in a similarly structured manner. These skills are appli-
cable to both forensic and diagnostic necropsies. That there are
differences between a diagnostic necropsy and one performed
as part of a medicolegal investigation should, however, be
highlighted.36,52 In the latter, as well as a thorough documen-
tation of all natural and acquired (inflicted) pathological
changes, specific questions may form part of the initial instruc-
tion or may be explored during the subsequent court
case.20,36,66
The forensic veterinary pathologist may be asked to confirm
whether suspected inflicted injuries can be confirmed as such
and how the injury may have been caused. Is the injury con-
sistent with an alleged incident or with the account of the
accused? Can it be confirmed that the injuries were sustained
antemortem? If so, for how long might the animal have sur-
vived after the injury and, often the crux of a case, was suffer-
ing involved? The pathologist may be asked to estimate the
time between death and discovery of the body. Did the animal
drown or was he or she already dead when thrown into water?
Is there evidence to suggest burial when still alive? Did the
animal die in the fire? Is it possible to estimate the duration of
deprivation of food or water? In investigations involving wild-
life species, there may be additional questions relating to sex or
reproductive status.20 The pathologist may be asked whether
the findings of the necropsy are specific or whether there might
be an alternative cause.
Questions such as these may seem daunting to veterinary
pathologists, but it should be reiterated that the pathological
evidence forms part of the whole investigation, and it is the
responsibility of others to piece together all forms of evidence
from the investigation and to pass judgment. To play their part
in this process, the forensic veterinary pathologist must be
careful, thorough, and systematic, using an approach that ide-
ally is informed by experience and training, but also to remain
open-minded. In support of this are the procedures and proto-
cols surrounding the forensic necropsy, which underpin the
legitimacy of the evidence.
Before the Necropsy
It has been discussed previously whether forensic veterinary
pathologists should perform necropsies ‘‘blind,’’ that is, with-
out prior knowledge of the case,54,63 and that even if a history is
provided, it may be incomplete or unreliable.20 The amount and
Veterinary Pathology 53(5)
quality of history accompanying each case will vary, but at the
very least, the forensic veterinary pathologist should be aware
what specific question(s) investigators have with regard to the
examination.20,36,63 Veterinary pathologists should explore
with those instructing them whether there are aspects of espe-
cial relevance requiring attention, and it is a good idea to
include the requirement to address these specific aspects in the
introduction to their report.63
It is less common for forensic veterinary pathologists to
attend the ‘‘scene of crime’’ (or locus) than it is for forensic
medical examiners. If possible, however, attendance at the
scene is helpful to understand the circumstances of discovery
and possibly the recent history of the animal. Signs such as
soiling of the hair or feathers, marks and wounds suggesting
struggling or restraint, or extraneous material associated with
the body (soil, vegetation, soiled bedding) may be better under-
stood with a visit to the scene. Knowledge of the practical
aspects of retrieval of a particular body will help the pathologist
put into context skin wounds that may have been caused by
moving or dragging a body from a scene. Similarly, patterns of
livor mortis or postmortem shifting of fluid or bruising, which
may occur when a body is moved from the position in which it
died or was placed soon after death, may be better understood
with such information. Alternatively, a veterinarian, preferably
one with interest and experience of forensic cases, may have
attended the scene, especially when live animals are pres-
ent,54,67,69 and may be able to provide useful intelligence.
Reports (including visual representation—video, photography)
from the scene of discovery may be obtained from humane
society officers, police officers, or wildlife investigators. It
should be made known to the veterinary pathologist whether
the animal was still alive when seized and thus received veter-
inary attention before dying or being euthanized and, in the
case of the latter, the manner of euthanasia. All such informa-
tion is highly valuable to the forensic veterinary pathologist in
interpretation of necropsy findings.
Evidence Management
Evidence management and, within this subject, the mainte-
nance of continuity of evidence (‘‘chain of custody’’) are dis-
cussed in other articles in this special edition, so only a few
aspects appertaining to forensic necropsies will be discussed
herein. Depending on the case and the circumstances of retrie-
val, the cadaver may be considered an item of evidence or to be
a crime scene in its own right with all associated material
(biological or otherwise) as evidence relating to the ‘‘scene.’’
Either way, it should be borne in mind that, as with other forms
of material evidence, the contribution of the necropsy evidence
to the case relies on there being demonstrably no compromise,
contamination, alteration, or substitution of the evidence, or
any part, during the entire process of the pathological examina-
tion—from arrival at the pathology facility to presentation in
court and/or to handing over of the remains to another party or
disposal at the facility. Thus, as with other parts of an investi-
gation, the whole process requires secure custodianship of the
Brownlie and Munro
evidence with procedures to ensure appropriate handling and
storage and auditable recording and inventory protocols. Perti-
nent ancillary tests should be performed by competent provi-
ders (with recognized quality assurance accreditation and
relevant sample handling protocols), and release of material
from the pathology facility for these tests should be fully docu-
mented. Within this aspect of evidence management, ensuring
that continuity of evidence is demonstrable throughout
becomes an interesting challenge, and the specifics of these
processes may vary slightly between facilities and even with
different types of animal or investigation. However it is
achieved, being able to demonstrate robust evidence manage-
ment can certainly boost the confidence of the veterinary
pathologists who finds themselves called to attend the court
hearing.
Some aspects of evidence management to consider are dis-
cussed in the succeeding paragraphs.
Case Folder
Maintain a securely filed folder for the case containing hard
copies of significant paperwork such as the cadaver receipt,
signed and dated by the person delivering the body and by the
recipient; a record of unique identifiers, such as evidence, inci-
dent or case number, and the original labeling of the specimen
(thus documenting a link between these and the laboratory
accession number, which will have been assigned to the case
upon receipt); and a ‘‘significant event’’ log recording actions
such as the day/date/time the bag was opened, when imaging
was performed, when the necropsy started, who was present/
involved, when the examination was temporarily stopped and
when it resumed, when the examination was concluded, and
when and to where the remains were moved for storage. Each
significant event entry should be signed and dated.
Evidence Identification
Take care that cadavers and parts removed are identified, usu-
ally by use of permanent indelible and ideally freezer-proof
labels (various types are available) throughout the examination.
It is especially important to label the remains at key stages in
the examination. After full reflection of the skin, for instance,
the carcass denuded of any external markings becomes anon-
ymous. Secure attachment of a label in a position that it will not
be removed or interfere with subsequent dissection, such as the
tail base or the pelvic girdle, ensures continuity of
identification.
Secure Storage
Material to be retained at the conclusion of the necropsy should
be stored securely, ideally sealed in clearly and uniquely
labeled bags in secure refrigerators or freezers. Samples sepa-
rated from the parent cadaver should also be labeled carefully
and retained securely and their movements tracked. For
instance, parts of a carcass may need to be stored separately
921
or taken out of storage to be radiographed in isolation or to be
shown to another expert. Similarly, all other material removed
from or found with the carcass, such as paint flakes, ballistic
evidence, bedding, pieces of plastic from the stomach, and even
toys, towels, collars, and leads, should be carefully gathered,
labeled and stored appropriately, or passed on to an appropriate
agent. A record of where all materials and items have been
stored, how they were labeled, when they were deposited or
handed over, and when and how they were disposed of could be
made in the significant events log in the hard copy folder. A
separate inventory of refrigerator/freezer contents is a valuable
way to keep check of what remains have been retained and
where.
Cadavers from forensic cases should ideally not be stored in
open-access refrigerators or freezers. Material or cadavers
should also not be left unattended; if there is an intermission
in the examination, for instance, the remains should be moved
to a secure place for the duration of the interval, and this should
be recorded.
Labeling of Photographs
Labels should be included in all photographs (see ‘‘Photogra-
phy’’ below) and a complete copy of the photographs retained
securely.
Protocols and Standard Operating Procedures
Protocols for certain repeated necropsy procedures can be
devised. For instance, a standardized technique for removal
and examination of the respiratory tract of animals found at
the scene of a fire can be drawn up.65
Written standard operating protocols for all the above and
additional procedures, drawn up and used at the facility, can be
appended to necropsy reports and statements, with cross-
reference within the text of the reports. In this way, the
procedures followed do not have to be written out within the
statement pertaining to each case, and a consistent approach
can be maintained.
These types of measures give the investigators and the court
a clear statement as to how the evidence was managed and how
individual procedures were undertaken. If such protocols are
drawn up, however, it is important to regularly review them,
especially in the early stages of their use, to ensure they are
relevant, workable, and—importantly—followed.
Documenting the Examination
Contemporaneous Notes and the Necropsy Report
Contemporaneous notes (or audio recordings) made at the time
of the examination are part of the pathologist’s investigation.
Investigators may request submission of the original (blood-
splashed) written notes or recording of a necropsy as an appen-
dix to the final typed report of the case. In this event, written
notes could be provided, sealed in clear document sleeves for
hygiene purposes. If health and policy reasons do not allow
922
paper notes to be removed from the necropsy room, then the
originals may be photographed, photocopied, or scanned (as
facilities allow) and the copies signed and dated as such by the
pathologist(s).
The necropsy report, which must be typed up from the con-
temporaneous notes as soon as possible after the examination,
should follow a structured systematic format, as would a diag-
nostic necropsy report. It should be borne in mind that cases
may not proceed to a court hearing for several months, maybe a
year or more, after the necropsy has taken place, and it is easy
to forget the details of a particular animal, so descriptions
should be clear and comprehensive and all organs or tissues
examined should be noted, even if just to say that there were no
significant gross abnormalities. If a structure was not found or
was omitted from the examination, this should also be
recorded.
The pathologist’s report must aid understanding by the
largely ‘‘lay’’ members of the court, and it can be a challenge
to pathologists who have spent their residencies learning how
to write ‘‘correct’’ pathological descriptions to write reports
devoid of anatomical or pathological jargon for the courts. Use
of ‘‘familiar’’ terms (windpipe, belly, broken jaw) alongside
the specific anatomical or pathological terms will help the
courts, as will a summary of the most significant findings and
their implications in laymen’s terms appended to the technical
pathology report. Comments of significance or opinion should
be accompanied by references where possible to demonstrate
that the remarks are based on current state of knowledge. When
compiling a postmortem report, it is important that the pathol-
ogist is mindful that the necropsy findings are a record of the
facts of the case (ie, the evidence), while the conclusions/opin-
ion form a separate section based on interpretation of these
findings and other relevant evidence.
Many investigators and courts will be familiar with the ter-
minology employed for physical injury since they are used in
medical forensic investigations, so it is important that such
terms are used correctly and appropriately. Commonly used
terms for traumatic wounds and their application in veterinary
necropsies are discussed in general terms in the following para-
graphs. More specific and detailed discussion of injury types is
included in other articles within this special issue of the journal,
and various medical and veterinary forensic texts give fuller
details.29–31,48,55,56,60,64,87
Abrasions
An abrasion is a superficial wound to the skin often involving a
tangential force. The defect may subsequently be covered by
serum and cellular crust, possibly with entrapped foreign mate-
rial, or, if extending into superficial dermis, there may be mild
hemorrhage at the site. In human pathology texts, it is noted
that with tangential abrasions, rough tags of epidermis may
remain at the terminal margin of the defect and may helpfully
indicate direction of the blow. In veterinary species, with the
cushioning effect of the hair or feather coat, this feature may
not always be apparent.
Veterinary Pathology 53(5)
Note also that postmortem abrasion of the skin as a result of
movement of the body is not infrequent; an example of this is
often seen over the bony prominences of the skull when large
animal bodies have been dragged using a winch.
Contusion and Bruising
These are terms used for escape of blood from the circulation
into encircling tissues and are often used interchangeably,
although strictly speaking, bruising occurs deep to an intact
dermis while contusions are collections of escaped blood any-
where in the body, such as in parenchymal organs such as the
spleen. Bruising is subject to comprehensive discussion in
human pathology texts, especially the different patterns of
bruising caused by various instruments or trauma. In most hir-
sute veterinary subjects, for the most part, bruises are difficult
to detect without full reflection of the skin. In forensic necrop-
sies, this is best achieved by interconnecting skin incisions
made along the ventral midline from chin to pubis, along the
medial aspect of each limb and encircling each distal limb, with
gradual undermining of fascial attachments to allow separation
of the skin in 1 piece (ideally).60 Once this is done, the pelt can
be stretched out underside uppermost and this, as well as the
naked torso, examined and photographed to demonstrate more
clearly any bruising (or other wounds). In view of the fact that
many veterinary species are skinned routinely in the abattoir, a
number of informative surveys of subcutaneous bruising in
farmed species have been undertaken with a view to identifying
traumatic stages in the meat or cull industries and to reducing
production losses.6,92,93 Shape and type of weapon used may
give similar bruise patterns in animals as in human subjects, but
again hair or feather cover should be considered. In addition,
while many are aware that extravasated blood changes color
with time in the live animal, it should be borne in mind that
bruises will, to varying extent, alter in distribution after death.
There may be gravitational pooling of leaked blood around the
ventral neck from a skull injury, for instance, or radial seepage
along tissue interfaces from a focal bruise, so the veterinary
pathologist should be circumspect in interpretation of causes of
bruises. Finally, medical forensic pathologists, especially those
investigating child abuse cases, need to be aware of overinter-
pretation of bruises that have an innocent cause,50 and the same
applies in veterinary species. Examples include bruising over
the hip of a cow caused by regularly impacting a door frame
when entering the milking parlor or the rough ‘‘play fights’’ of
young dogs. Obtaining as much information as possible from
the background of the animal is of value to aid interpretation.
Lacerations
These are full-thickness breaches of the skin that are caused by
blunt trauma, as opposed to incision by sharp object (see
‘‘Incised Wounds’’ below). Lacerations generally require a
firm base and minimal subjacent soft tissue in order for com-
plete penetration of the skin to occur, and again there may be a
cushioning effect of the hair or feather coat. Thus, lacerations
Brownlie and Munro
tend to occur with forceful impact over bony prominences,
such as hammer blows to the skull. Many lacerations may
appear at first inspection to be incisions, although careful
examination of a wound may reveal that in the case of a lacera-
tion, hair or feathers at the wound’s edge have not been cleanly
transected, and there may be ragged tissue strands, nerves, and
blood vessels crossing the skin defect (tissue bridging).85
Because of the associated crushing force, bruising is usually
also a feature of lacerated wounds.
The relatively slender abdominal wall offers little protection
from blunt-force injury to abdominal organs, and sudden rota-
tion of viscera at their point of suspension or traumatic splitting
within skeletal muscles may be caused by the transferred
energy of the impact. In these cases, tearing and shearing are
often prominent, and somewhat confusingly, laceration is also
used to describe such internal injuries.
Incised Wounds
These are wounds inflicted by sharp instruments, and this cate-
gory encompasses slashes or cuts—where the resultant defect
is generally longer than it is deep—and stab wounds or pene-
trations—where the offending weapon is inserted to a depth
greater than the length of the wound. Chopping wounds may
also be described, and in these, where a heavy weapon such as a
hatchet may have been used, there may be an element of tissue
laceration as well as incision.30,48 Hairs or feathers at the
wound margins are likely to be sliced cleanly, as are the skin
edges, and bruising may be less pronounced, although depend-
ing on the tract of a stab, internal hemorrhage may be
considerable.
Wound Assessment
It was indicated above that the shape of the skin defect or the
damage to underlying tissues may convey information about
the weapon used. In experimental work that assesses wounding
pattern achieved with various weapons, animal tissues or
anesthetized animals are frequently used as models.y It should
be remembered, however, that unless the first blow renders the
animal unconscious or immobile, an attack is a dynamic situ-
ation. Shapes of injuries are affected by the relative postures
and stances of assailant and animal victim, variations in skin
tension, the angles of thrust and withdrawal of a sharp weapon,
and the force of each blow of a blunt instrument. Thus, the
veterinary pathologist should be cautious about overinterpret-
ing wound shapes and of using them to definitively describe
potential weapons.
In medical forensic medicine, it is noted that ‘‘popular’’
weapons are often dictated by local legal restrictions—for
instance, in countries with rigid gun laws, knives are more
often carried and therefore used in interpersonal attacks,33 and
in domestic settings, the knives are likely to be those readily
y
References 10, 14, 17, 19, 23, 33, 43, 44, 49, 70, 77–79, 88, 89, 94, 98.
923
available in the kitchen or among the hobbyist’s accoutrements
(including craft or hunting equipment). In street settings such
as among gangs, certain weapons can attain status, for instance,
serrated survival knives.18 Blunt weapons used in spontaneous
attacks may include what was on hand at the time such as
screwdrivers and hammers.23,94 Veterinary pathologists may
find it helpful to be aware of trends in weaponry noted in
medical forensic medicine. As yet, there is inadequate infor-
mation to confirm similar trends in attacks on animals, but it is
likely that these patterns of weapon use may be reflected in
veterinary cases.
Taphonomy and Postmortem Alterations
A number of contributing factors will leave their mark on
the remains, including autolysis, decomposition, predation,
submersion, and attempts to conceal or dispose of a
body.3,19,27,38,81,96,97,100 Experimental work suggests that
decomposition rates vary between species91 and, at least in
human bodies, between individuals.34 The retrieval processes,
time intervals before storage, and mode of storage of the body
(eg, freezing) prior to the necropsy will affect the state of the
body and influence the examination process. The forensic
veterinary pathologist should still proceed with attention to
detail and conduct and report on the examination within
the limitations imposed by the state of preservation of the
remains. Experiments with animal tissues suggest that even
in poorly preserved remains, imaging or dissection may reveal
fracture patterns19 or ballistic information,2 discriminating
toxicology may be possible, 99 or informative extraneous
material associated with the carcass may be retrievable.24,72
Nevertheless, in the case of poorly preserved remains, there
is a need to explain to investigators the limitations of the
necropsy and to exercise caution with interpretation of
findings.
Photography
A full set of photographs should accompany the pathology
report. Photography should start before the necropsy—before
unwrapping of the carcass if it arrives in packaging. As soon as
the case receives its own unique identifying (accession) num-
ber, a label for use in the photographs can be generated, which
includes this identifier, and this must be included in every
picture. An overall photograph is taken of the bagged carcass,
or large animal, followed by a closeup photograph of any label-
ing with which the animal arrived. Bags are often sealed with a
numbered cable tie, and large animals may be submitted with a
label tied to a limb; the closeup photograph of these unique
labels will now be captured along with the accession number of
the pathology facility. A photograph of any paperwork sub-
mitted with the carcass at this stage is also of value. Thereafter,
if the body is wrapped in more than one layer of covering,
photographs should be taken at each stage of the unwrapping
process. Before starting the necropsy, the external appearance
of the animal is photographed from as many different angles as
924
appropriate to the animal’s size to obtain a comprehensive view
of the whole animal. Any other unique features—ear tags, tat-
toos, brands—should also be captured at this stage.
Thereafter, the examination should be recorded by repeated
photography throughout, although avoid quick ‘‘snaps’’; take a
similar level of care when photographing findings as would be
used for a publication. All findings, including incidental or
nonsignificant changes, should be recorded, and where appro-
priate, it may be helpful to include ‘‘negative’’ findings—
where tissues can be demonstrated to have no gross significant
abnormalities. Care should be taken with framing of the photo-
graph. Place the identity label near to the area of interest and
stand back to take an overall orientation view. Then, without
moving the label, take a closeup view of the particular finding,
ensuring that it is as central in the view-finder as possible and
that the label is also included.
Try to keep the photographs clean and uncluttered. Provided
that material or fluids that may have evidential value are not
lost in the process, clean an area to be photographed. Paper or
card arrows, colored wires, or probes to indicate a particular
feature are helpful, but avoid inclusion of extraneous dissection
instruments or gloved hands. Similarly, if possible, try to avoid
lakes of blood, spilled gut contents, or autolysis fluid (unless
they are pertinent to the photograph). It is important that the
photographs are clear and understandable to the court—albeit
with the guiding interpretive comments of the pathologist—
and that they convey an air of methodical and thorough exam-
ination and not a haphazard and messy dissection.
Photographs should be taken in a continuous numbered
series. A complete set of photographs should then be stored
securely and traceably, whatever form is used, and this com-
plete set needs to be available to investigators or the court
without any alterations or deletions—even photographs that
are out of focus or inadvertent irrelevant shots should be
retained in the master set. Many cameras record the date and
time on the image, and it should be ensured that settings are
accurate before starting to take photographs. An index of the
photographs taken, with a brief indication of the subject of the
photograph or the reason for taking it, should be drawn up
using a clear serial number for each photograph. For instance,
the index may be a printed set of the photographs with their
number and a brief caption, or it may be a tabulated list with a
comments column. It is permissible then to take copies (or
scans) of photographs from the master copy to illustrate the
pathology report or statement and to subsequently amend these
copy photographs as required, such as by adding labels to
structures or inserting arrows to clarify a finding. These copies
must be saved or labeled as copies and not included in the
master set.
Imaging Techniques
Imaging techniques (according to the facilities) are invaluable
in forensic necropsies.11,15,41,42,83,95 Most practically, they can
be performed before dissection while the cadaver is still sealed
within its wrappings, which ensures cleanliness and hygiene in
Veterinary Pathology 53(5)
clinical facilities, but is also good from the point of view of
evidence management. The value of imaging in gunshot injury
has been discussed by others.67,73,74 This may reveal informa-
tion about the weapon used, the position of retained missiles,
fragments or gunshot residues within or under the skin, and the
tracts caused by the shot or dislodged bone fragments. Imaging
is also of value in cases of suspected raptor poisonings where,
for instance, the bird has eaten the poison-baited carcass of a
shot rabbit—the shotgun pellets may then be viewed within the
crop or stomach. 67 Lead residues from missiles may be
observed radiographically and radio-opaque residues are
retained and visible even in an extensively charred body, such
as might be the case when an attempt has been made to dispose
of the carcass by burning.2 Even without externally apparent
wounds, imaging can be informative,11 especially in veterinary
species where detection of bruising or wounds can sometimes
be challenging on external examination. Bone fractures and
dislocations are identifiable in situ, before artifactual misalign-
ment of bone fragments caused by dissection. Imaging can also
overcome the masking of bone injury by surrounding hemor-
rhage and soft tissue damage. Similarly, signs of bone repara-
tive processes, suggesting serial beatings or neglect of an
injury, may be visible and can be indicated to the courts. Radio-
graphic views demonstrating loss of bone density may help
demonstrate chronicity of undernutrition.62 Closure of growth
plates may have evidential importance when confirming the
identity of immature animals or during the investigation of
bones recovered from graves containing more than one animal.
Finally, imaging techniques have been employed experimen-
tally in animal models, in the estimation of time since
death.9,41,42
With modern digital imaging techniques of whatever kind,
the images can be securely stored locally or by use of a central
storage facility and can be retrieved and viewed at a later date,
even after disposal of the cadaver.11 Postprocessing techniques
are investigator independent and objective and accessible for
audit.82 A copy of the images can be submitted via portable
data storage or central files can be accessed, and in court, the
images can be viewed as hard copies or via a computer con-
nected to a large screen. For the courtroom, imaging is a more
accessible and acceptable visual representation of physical
wounds in an animal than the sometimes gory photographs
from the necropsy hall. The 3-dimensional reconstructions
from computed tomography (CT) are especially clear and
understandable to lay observers and can be rotated on the com-
puter screen to give a graphic view of areas of interest and
angles of an attack.
Sample Collection and Ancillary Testing
Procedures vary from one facility to the next over the collection
of specimens at necropsy for further testing. Immediate ancil-
lary tests may be undertaken, or it may be considered prudent to
archive a range of samples (with appropriate evidence manage-
ment protocols) pending further lines of inquiry in the investi-
gation, which may suggest the need for particular tests at a later
Brownlie and Munro
date.21 Thus, samples may be collected for toxicology, chem-
istry, microbiology, histopathology, DNA identification, or
entomology. (More information on collection of trace materials
and for biologic materials on the body is included elsewhere
within this special issue of the journal, such as in the discussion
of sexual abuse of animals.)
Depending on the case, the pathologist needs to give con-
sideration to the benefit to be gained from undertaking specific
laboratory tests to complement the findings of the gross
necropsy. Tissue samples from a range of organs are routinely
collected into fixative by many pathologists, but there is no
imperative to process all or any of these samples unless the
results of histopathology are likely to advance, materially, the
interpretation of the initial necropsy, especially where the body
is poorly preserved. As discussed in detail by Munro and
Munro,66 histology may be useful as a guide to the age and
timing of wounds with reference to established progression of
tissue healing,25,37 although it should be remembered that data
for all our animal species are not yet available, and extrapola-
tion between species on exact timings is unsound.35,36,66,90 For
this reason, published tables of histological features and tim-
ings or ages of wounds should be considered guides and not
absolutes, and each case will be subject to unique individual
and environment-specific factors. Newer immunohistochem-
ical, genetic, or other microscopy techniques have been devel-
oped, and some have been successfully applied to experimental
animal models to assess various wound types,26,46,47 but vali-
dation and routine use in most veterinary species remain
distant.
Aspects relating to estimation of time since death are also
discussed comprehensively in Munro and Munro,66 and studies
have been conducted in a limited number of animal species
using various techniques.32,45,80,81,84 In general terms, collec-
tion of samples for toxicology, biochemistry, or entomology
might be vital to the determination of the cause of death or
establishment of an approximate time of death, and having
protocols and the necessary sample containers for these specia-
lized procedures is essential.21 If such ancillary testing is
undertaken, the results must be included and interpreted in the
final postmortem report even if the results appear to undermine
the necropsy findings.
Cause, Mechanism, and Manner of Death
In medical pathology, determination of the cause, mechanism,
and manner of death is required. DiMaio and DiMaio28 define
the cause of death as any injury, disease, or disorder that initi-
ates the physiological derangement (morbid events) leading
directly to the death of the individual; examples in forensic
pathology would be stab wounds or blunt force to the head.
If an unequivocal cause of death is not recognized at autopsy,
then the report must contain the statement that cause of death is
‘‘undetermined.’’36 The more specific the cause of death that is
recorded, the more informative will be the report to the courts.
It is worth noting that in veterinary investigations, euthanasia is
925
not the initiating event of disease or injury and, as such, should
not be recorded as the cause of death.
The mechanism of death is the physiological derangement
so caused. Note that one mechanism may be produced by a
number of causes; for instance, fatal hemorrhage may result
from a stab wound or from blunt force to the abdomen suffi-
cient to rupture the liver. More than one mechanism of death
may follow one cause—the blunt-force injury to the skull could
cause cerebral edema or penetration of the brain by implanted
bone fragments. So far, these terms are as applicable to the
forensic veterinary as to the forensic medical investigation.
The manner of death is somewhat different. This is a sum-
mary statement of the circumstances under which the cause of
death occurred and is essentially the opinion of the medical
examiner based on the facts known about the case in conjunc-
tion with the autopsy findings. There are 5 conventional cate-
gories into which the death will be placed: natural, homicide,
suicide, accident, or undetermined, and the information is col-
lated for various epidemiological uses. As noted by Gerdin and
McDonough,36 this classification is not suitable for forensic
veterinary pathology, not least because the terms used are not
all appropriate to animals. Manner of death in veterinary inves-
tigations can be described as natural or unnatural, and the
latter category may be subdivided (eg, injury, chemical, or
undetermined). However, forensic veterinary pathologists
should be cautious about requests to provide a manner of death
merely because the courts may expect one, and this caution
should be elucidated.
Conclusions
There is much to be learned in the field of forensic veterinary
pathology. We must be cautious about extrapolating directly
from medical pathology texts or even from animal models used
for advancement of human forensic pathology when the ani-
mals used may not represent all veterinary species66 or the
conditions of the experiments are such that the results may not
be representative of findings in the ‘‘field.’’12,101 Suggested
approaches to the forensic necropsy are already available in
specific texts on the subject,20,36,54,63 and with moves to pro-
pagate information between practitioners in the field,52 it is
anticipated that there will be rapid growth in forensic veterin-
ary pathology as a discipline in its own right and not merely by
extrapolation from forensic medical pathology. Nevertheless,
building supportive multidisciplinary networks of experts,
including medical pathologists and other forensic scientists,
is clearly beneficial.4,13,22,54
Necropsy findings can be immensely important because
they provide documented observation of injury, natural disease,
neglect, and decomposition. These observations may provide
unique insights into events occurring both before and after
death. Nevertheless, each case has the potential to introduce
some novel or unexpected feature and should be viewed as a
learning opportunity. Consequently, it is useful to keep notes
on how an investigation went, then to review procedures or
report-writing technique as experience is gained. Above all,
926
thoroughness in the conduct of each case is the key to the
delivery of sound advice that assists the court.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
References
1. Alys L, Wilson JC, Clarke J, et al. Developmental animal cruelty and its corre-
lates in sexual homicide offenders and sex offenders. In: Linzey A, ed. The Link
Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic
Press; 2009:145–162.
2. Amadasi A, Borgonovo S, Brandone A, et al. The survival of metallic residues
from gunshot wounds in cremated bone: a radiological study. Int J Legal Med.
2012;126:363–369.
3. Anderson GS. Comparison of decomposition rates and faunal colonization of
carrion in indoor and outdoor environments. J Forensic Sci. 2011;56(1):
136–142.
4. Aquila I, Di Nunzio C, Paciello O, et al. An unusual pedestrian road trauma:
from forensic pathology to forensic veterinary medicine. Forensic Sci Int. 2014;
234:e1–e4.
5. Ascione FR. Examining children’s exposure to violence in the context of animal
abuse. In: Linzey A, ed. The Link Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence.
Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press; 2009:106–115.
6. Barington K, Jensen HE. Forensic cases of bruises in pigs. Vet Rec. 2013;
173(21):526–530.
7. Benetato MA, Reisman R, McCobb E. The veterinarian’s role in animal cruelty
cases. JAVMA. 2011;238:31–34.
8. Berny P, Caloni F, Croubels S, et al. Animal poisoning in Europe, part 2:
companion animals. Vet J. 2010;183:255–259.
9. Bilheux HZ, Cekanova M, Vass AA, et al. A novel approach to determine post
mortem interval using neutron radiography. Forensic Sci Int. 2015;251:11–21.
10. Bolliger SA, Preiss U, Glaeser N, et al. Radiological stab wound channel depic-
tion with instillation of contrast medium. Legal Med. 2010;12:39–41.
11. Bolliger SA, Thali MJ, Ross S, et al. Virtual autopsy using imaging: bridging
radiologic and forensic sciences. Eur Radiol. 2008;18(2):273–282.
12. Bright F, Winskog C, Walker M, et al. Why are Wischnewski spots not always
present in lethal hypothermia? The results of testing a stress-reduced animal
model. J Forensic Legal Med. 2013;20:785–787.
13. Byard RW, Boardman W. The potential role of forensic pathologists in veter-
inary forensic medicine. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2011;7:231–232.
14. Byard RW, Gabrielian L, Helps SC, et al. Further investigations into the speed
of cerebral swelling following blunt cranial trauma. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(4):
973–975.
15. Byard RW, Machado A, Braun K, et al. Mechanisms of deaths in captive
juvenile New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri). Forensic Sci Med
Pathol. 2010;6:217–220.
16. Byard RW, Machado A, Woolford L, et al. Symmetry: the key to diagnosing
propeller strike injuries in sea mammals. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2013;9:
103–105.
17. Christensen AM, Smith VA, Ramos V, et al. Primary and secondary skeletal
blast trauma. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(1):6–11.
18. Ciallella C, Caringi C, Aromatorio M. Wounds inflicted by survival-knives.
Forensic Sci Int. 2002;126:82–87.
19. Coelho L, Cardoso HFV. Timing of blunt force injuries in long bones: the
effects of the environment. PMI length and human surrogate model. Forensic
Sci Int. 2013;233:230–237.
Veterinary Pathology 53(5)
20. Cooper JE. Working with dead animals. In: Cooper JE, Cooper ME, eds. Wild-
life Forensic Investigation: Principles and Practice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press; 2013:237–323.
21. Cooper JE. Dealing with samples. In: Cooper JE, Cooper ME, eds. Wildlife
Forensic Investigation: Principles and Practice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press;
2013:325–366.
22. Cooper JE, Cooper M. Forensic veterinary medicine: a rapidly evolving disci-
pline. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2008;4:75–82.
23. Croft AM, Ferllini R. Macroscopic characteristics of screwdriver trauma.
J Forensic Sci. 2007;52(6):1243–1251.
24. DeBattista R, Tidy H, Thompson TJU, et al. An investigation into the persis-
tence of textile fibres on buried carcasses. Sci Justice. 2014;54:288–291.
25. Dettmeyer R. Staining techniques and microscopy. In: Forensic Histopathol-
ogy: Fundamentals and Perspectives. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 2011:17–35.
26. Dettmeyer R. Vitality, injury age, determination of skin wound age, and fracture
age. In: Forensic Histopathology: Fundamentals and Perspectives. Berlin, Ger-
many: Springer; 2011:191–209.
27. Dickson GC, Poulter RTM, Maas EW, et al. Marine bacterial succession as a
potential indicator of post-mortem submersion interval. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;
209:1–10.
28. DiMaio VJ, DiMaio D. Medicolegal investigative systems. In: Forensic Pathol-
ogy. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:1–20.
29. DiMaio VJ, DiMaio D. Blunt trauma wounds. In: Forensic Pathology. 2nd ed.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:92–116.
30. DiMaio VJ, DiMaio D. Wounds caused by pointed and sharp-edged weapons.
In: Forensic Pathology. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2001:187–228.
31. Dolinak D, Matshes E. Blunt force injury. In: Dolinak D, Matshes E, Lew E,
eds. Forensic Pathology: Principles and Practice. London, UK: Elsevier; 2005:
121–141.
32. Erlandsson M, Munro R. Estimation of the post-mortem interval in Beagle dogs.
Sci Justice. 2007;47:150–154.
33. Ferllini R. Macroscopic and microscopic analysis of knife stab wounds on
fleshed and clothed ribs. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(3):683–690.
34. Ferreira MT, Cunha E. Can we infer post mortem interval on the basis of
decomposition rate? A case from a Portuguese cemetery. Forensic Sci Int.
2013;226:298.e1–298.e6.
35. Finnie JW. Pathology of traumatic brain injury. Vet Res Commun. 2014;38:
297–305.
36. Gerdin JA, McDonough SP. Forensic pathology of companion animal abuse and
neglect. Vet Pathol. 2013;50(6):994–1006.
37. Greaves NS, Ashcroft KJ, Baguneid M, et al. Current understanding of mole-
cular and cellular mechanisms in fibroplasia and angiogenesis during acute
wound healing. J Dermatol Sci. 2014;72:206–217.
38. Gruenthal A, Moffatt C, Simmons T. Differential decomposition patterns in
charred versus un-charred remains. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(1):12–18.
39. Guitart R, Croubels S, Caloni F, et al. Animal poisoning in Europe, part 1: farm
livestock and poultry. Vet J. 2010;183:249–254.
40. Guitart R, Sachana M, Caloni F, et al. Animal poisoning in Europe, part 3:
wildlife. Vet J. 2010;183:260–265.
41. Heng HG, Selvarajah GT, Lim HT, et al. Serial postmortem abdominal radio-
graphic findings in canine cadavers. Forensic Sci Int. 2009;192:43–47.
42. Heng HG, Selvarajah GT, Lim HT, et al. Serial postmortem thoracic radio-
graphic findings in canine cadavers. Forensic Sci Int. 2009;188:119–124.
43. Jordana F, Colat-Oarros J, Bénézech M. Diagnosis of skull fractures according
to post mortem interval: an experimental approach in a porcine model. J For-
ensic Sci. 2013;58(suppl 1):S156–S162.
44. Kalin J, Madias C, Alsheikh-Ali AA, et al. Reduced diameter spheres increases
the risk of chest blow-induced ventricular fibrillation (commotion cordis).
Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:1578–1581.
45. Kienzler JM, Dahm PF, Fuller WA, et al. Temperature-based estimation for the
time of death in white-tailed deer. Biometrics. 1984;40:849–854.
46. Kubo H, Hayashi T, Ago K, et al. Forensic diagnosis of ante- and post-mortem
burn based on aquaporin-3 gene expression in the skin. Legal Med. 2014;16:
128–134.
Brownlie and Munro
47. Kubo H, Hayashi T, Ago K, et al. Temporal expression of wound healing-
related genes in skin burn injury. Legal Med. 2014;16:8–13.
48. Lew E, Matshes E. Sharp force injuries. In: Dolinak D, Matshes E, Lew E, eds.
Forensic Pathology: Principles and Practice. London, UK: Elsevier; 2005:
143–162.
49. Love JC, Derrick SM, Wiersma JM, et al. Validation of tool mark analysis of cut
costal cartilage. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(2):306–311.
50. Maguire S, Mann M. Systematic reviews of bruising in relation to child abuse—
what have we learnt: an overview of review updates. Evid Based Child Health.
2013;8:255–263.
51. Maria ACBE, da Silva Rego AAM, Maiorka PC. Necropsy findings in dogs that
died during grooming or other pet service procedures. J Forensic Sci. 2013;
58(5):1189–1192.
52. McDonough SP, Gerdin J, Wuenschmann A, et al. Illuminating dark cases:
veterinary forensic pathology emerges. Vet Pathol. 2015;52(1):5–6.
53. McEwen BJ. Trends in domestic animal medico-legal pathology cases sub-
mitted to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory 1998–2010. J Forensic Sci. 2012;
57(5):1231–1233.
54. Merck M, Miller DM, Maiorka PC. CSI: examination of the animal. In: Veter-
inary Forensics: Animal Cruelty Investigations. 2nd ed. Ames, IA: Blackwell;
2013:37–68.
55. Merck M, Miller DM, Maiorka PC. Sharp force injuries. In: Veterinary Foren-
sics: Animal Cruelty Investigations. 2nd ed. Ames, IA: Blackwell; 2013:
123–150.
56. Merck M, Miller DM, Reisman RW, et al. Blunt force trauma. In: Veterinary
Forensics: Animal Cruelty Investigations. 2nd ed. Ames, IA: Blackwell; 2013:
97–137.
57. Millins C, Howie F, Everitt C, et al. Analysis of suspected wildlife crimes
submitted for forensic examinations in Scotland. Forensic Sci Med Pathol.
2014;10:357–362.
58. Montoya CC, Miller CA. The role of veterinarians and other animal welfare
workers in the reporting of suspected child abuse. In: Linzey A, ed. The Link
Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic
Press; 2009:238–249.
59. Munro HMC, Thrusfield MV. ‘‘Battered pets’’: non-accidental physical injuries
found in dogs and cats. J Small Anim Pract. 2001;42:279–290.
60. Munro R, Munro H. Forensic veterinary medicine: 2. Postmortem investigation.
In Practice. 2011;33:262–270.
61. Munro R, Munro HMC. Introduction. In: Animal Abuse and Unlawful Kill-
ing: Forensic Veterinary Pathology. Edinburgh, UK: Saunders Elsevier;
2008:1–2.
62. Munro R, Munro HMC. Non-accidental injuries. In: Animal Abuse and Unlaw-
ful Killing: Forensic Veterinary Pathology. Edinburgh, UK: Saunders Elsevier;
2008:6–10.
63. Munro R, Munro HMC. Forensic examination and report writing. In: Animal
Abuse and Unlawful Killing: Forensic Veterinary Pathology. Edinburgh, UK:
Saunders Elsevier; 2008:11–16.
64. Munro R, Munro HMC. Wounds and injuries. In: Animal Abuse and Unlawful
Killing: Forensic Veterinary Pathology. Edinburgh, UK: Saunders Elsevier;
2008:30–47.
65. Munro R, Munro HMC. Thermal injuries. In: Animal Abuse and Unlawful
Killing: Forensic Veterinary Pathology. Edinburgh, UK: Saunders Elsevier;
2008:38–54.
66. Munro R, Munro HMC. Some challenges in forensic veterinary pathology: a
review. J Comp Path. 2013;149:57–73.
67. Munro R, Shorrock G. Investigating wildlife crime. In: Mullineux E, Keeble E, eds.
BSAVA Manual of Wildlife Casualties. 2nd ed. Gloucester, UK: BSAVA; 2015.
68. Nagy A-L, Bolfa P, Mihaiu M, et al. Intentional fatal metallic phosphide poi-
soning in a dog—a case report. BMC Vet Res. 2015;11:158–1162.
69. Newbery S, Munro R. Forensic veterinary medicine: 1. Investigation involving
live animals. In Practice. 2011;33:220–227.
70. Nic Daéid N, Cassidy M, McHugh S. An investigation into the correlation of
knife damage in clothing and the lengths of skin wounds. Forensic Sci Int. 2008;
179:107–110.
927
71. Nurse A. Dealing with animal offenders. In: Linzey A, ed. The Link Between
Animal Abuse and Human Violence. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press;
2009:238–249.
72. Palmer R, Polwarth G. The persistence of fibres on skin in an outdoor deposition
crime scene scenario. Sci Justice. 2011;51:187–198.
73. Partnership for Action against Wildlife Crime (PAW) Forensic Working
Group. Wildlife poisoning and pesticide analysis. In: Wildlife Crime: A
Guide to the Use of Forensic and Specialist Techniques in the Investiga-
tion of Wildlife Crime. 2014. http://www.tracenetwork.org/wp-content/
uploads/2012/08/Willife-Crime-use-of-forensics-FWG-April-2014.pdf.
Accessed September 16, 2015.
74. Partnership for Action against Wildlife Crime (PAW) Forensic Working Group.
Forensic veterinary pathology. In: Wildlife Crime: A Guide to the Use of For-
ensic and Specialist Techniques in the Investigation of Wildlife Crime. 2014.
http://www.tracenetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Willife-Crime-use-
of-forensics-FWG-April-2014.pdf. Accessed September 16, 2015.
75. Petersen ML, Farrington DP. Measuring animal cruelty and case histories. In:
Linzey A, ed. The Link Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence. Brighton,
UK: Sussex Academic Press; 2009:13–23.
76. Petersen ML, Farrington DP. Types of cruelty: Animals and childhood cruelty,
domestic violence, child and elder abuse. In: Linzey A, ed. The Link Between
Animal Abuse and Human Violence. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press;
2009:24–37.
77. Potts MB, Adwaniker H, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Models of traumatic cerebellar
injury. Cerebellum. 2009;8:211–221.
78. Pounder DJ, Reeder FD. Striation patterns in serrated blade stabs to cartilage.
Forensic Sci Int. 2011;208:91–94.
79. Powell BJ, Passalacqua MS, Baumer TG, et al. Fracture patterns on the infant
porcine skull following severe blunt impact. J Forensic Sci. 2012;57(2):
312–317.
80. Proctor KW, Kelch WJ, New JC Jr. Estimating the time of death in domestic
canines. J Forensic Sci. 2009;54(6):1433–1437.
81. Reigada C, Gião JZ, Galinda LA, et al. Survival of submerged blowfly species
and their parasitoids: Implications for post-mortem submersion interval. For-
ensic Sci Int. 2011;212:126–129.
82. Roberts IS, Benbow EW, Bisset R, et al. Accuracy of magnetic resonance
imaging in determining cause of sudden death in adults: comparison with con-
ventional autopsy. Histopathology. 2003;42(5):424–430.
83. Rollins KE, Meyerholz DK, Johnson GD, et al. A forensic investigation into the
etiology of bat mortality at a wind farm: barotrauma or traumatic injury? Vet
Pathol. 2012;49(2):362–371.
84. Rosa MF, Scano P, Noto A, et al. Monitoring the modifications of the vitreous
humor metabolite profile after death: an animal model. BioMed Res Int. 2015;
2015:627201.
85. Roscoe DE, Stansley W. Wildlife forensic pathology and toxicology in wound
analysis and pesticide poisoning. In: Huffmann J, Wallace J, eds. Wildlife For-
ensics: Methods and Applications. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012:
119–127.
86. Salem NH, Belhadj M, Aissaoui A, et al. Multidisciplinary approach to
fatal dog attacks: a forensic case study. J Forensic Leg Med. 2013;20:
763–766.
87. Saukko P, Knight B. The pathology of wounds. In: Knight’s Forensic Pathol-
ogy. 3rd ed. London, UK: Arnold; 2004:136–173.
88. Sharkey EJ, Cassidy M, Brady J, et al. Investigation of the force associated with
the formation of lacerations and skull fractures. Int J Legal Med. 2012;126(6):
835–844.
89. Shaw K-P, Chung J-H, Chung F-C, et al. A method for studying knife tool marks
on bone. J Forensic Sci. 2011;56(4):967–971.
90. Stacy BA, Costidis AM, Keene. Histologic changes in traumatized skeletal
muscle exposed to seawater: a canine cadaver study. Vet Pathol. 2015;52(1):
170–175.
91. Stokes KL, Forbes SL, Tibbett M. Human versus animal: contrasting dynamics
of mammalian analogues in experimental taphonomy. J Forensic Sci. 2013;
58(3):583–591.
928
92. Strappini AC, Frankena K, Metz JHM, et al. Characteristics of bruises in car-
casses of cows sourced from farms or from livestock markets. Animal. 2012;
6(3):502–509.
93. Strappini AC, Metz JHM, Gallo C, et al. Bruises in culled cows: when, where
and how are they inflicted? Animal. 2013;7(3):485–491.
94. Sulaiman NA, Osman K, Hamzah NH, et al. Blunt force trauma to skull with
various instruments. Malaysian J Pathol. 2014;36(1):33–39.
95. Thali MJ, Kneubuehl BP, Bolliger SA, et al. Forensic veterinary radiology:
ballistic-radiological 3D computer tomographic reconstruction of an illegal lynx
shooting in Switzerland. Forensic Sci Int. 2007;171:63–66.
96. Tumer AR, Karacaoglu E, Namli A, et al. Effects of different types of soil
decomposition: an experimental study. Legal Med. 2013;15:149–156.
Veterinary Pathology 53(5)
97. Vanin S, Zancaner S. Post-mortal lesions in freshwater environment. Forensic
Sci Int. 2011;212:e18–e20.
98. Wahl M, Gadžijez EM, Wahl J, et al. An experimental model of reproducible
liver trauma. Injury Int J Care Injured. 2005;36:963–969.
99. Watterson JH, Desrosiers NA, Betit CC, et al. Relative distribution of drugs in
decomposed skeletal tissue. J Anal Toxicol. 2010;34:510–515.
100. Widya M, Moffatt C, Simmons T. The formation of early stage adipocere in
submerged remains: a preliminary experimental study. J Forensic Sci. 2012;
57(2):328–333.
101. Zhou C, Bright F, Winskog C, et al. Lethal hypothermia in an animal model,
not associated with basal renal epithelial vacuolization. J Forensic Legal Med.
2014;21:14–16.