Imagine Autosync: User'S Guide December 2010

IMAGINE AutoSync™
User’s Guide
December 2010
Copyright © 2010 ERDAS, Inc.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
About This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Conventions Used in This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
More Information/Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Data Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Input Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Reference Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Selecting Input and Reference Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
APM Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
APM Strategy Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Ideal Situations for Good APM Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Situations to Avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
APM Trouble Shooting and Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Image to Image (2D) Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Ground to Image (3D) Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Approximate Sensor Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Selecting a Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Selecting a DEM/DTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Modeling Trouble-Shooting and Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
IMAGINE AutoSync Tips and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Interpreting Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Using the IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Using the IMAGINE AutoSync Wizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Table of Contents iii
Table of Contents iii

IMAGINE AutoSync Workflows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
General IMAGINE AutoSync Tips and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
General Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Using IMAGINE AutoSync . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Using the Edge Matching Wizard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Using the Input tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Using the APM Strategy tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Using the Edge Match Strategy tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Using the Projection tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Using the Output tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Display Output Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
View Summary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Using the AutoSync Workstation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Create New IMAGINE AutoSync Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Add Input Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Add Reference Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Collect Manual Tie Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Run APM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Preview Output Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Improve Output Image Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Review Image Map Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Set Output Image Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Resample Output Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Verify Output Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
View Summary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
iv Table of Contents
List of Tables
Table 1: APM Parameter Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 2: Tie Point-Based Model Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 3: Edge Match Image Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 4: Georeference Image Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
List of Tables v
List of Tables v
vi List of Tables
Preface
About This Manual The IMAGINE AutoSync User’s Guide serves as a handy guide to help
you use IMAGINE AutoSync™. Included is a comprehensive index, so
that you can reference particular information later.
Example Data Sample data sets are provided with the software. This data is
separately installed from the data DVD. For the purposes of
documentation, <ERDAS_Data_Home> represents the name of the
directory where sample data is installed. The Tour Guides refer to
specific data which are stored in <ERDAS_Data_Home>/examples.
Documentation This manual is part of a suite of on-line documentation that you receive
with ERDAS IMAGINE software. There are two basic types of
documents, digital hardcopy documents which are delivered as PDF
files suitable for printing or on-line viewing, and On-Line Help
Documentation, delivered as HTML files.
The PDF documents are found in <IMAGINE_HOME>\help\hardcopy
where <IMAGINE_HOME> represents the name of the directory where
ERDAS IMAGINE is installed. Many of these documents are available
from the ERDAS Start menu. The on-line help system is accessed by
clicking on the Help button in a dialog or by selecting an item from a
Help menu.
Conventions Used In ERDAS IMAGINE, the names of menus, menu options, buttons, and
other components of the interface are shown in bold type. For example:
in This Book
“In the Select Layer To Add dialog, select the Fit to Frame option.”
When asked to use the mouse, you are directed to click, Shift-click,
middle-click, right-click, hold, drag, and so forth.
• click—designates clicking with the left mouse button.
• Shift-click—designates holding the Shift key down on your

keyboard and simultaneously clicking with the left mouse button.
• middle-click—designates clicking with the middle mouse button.
• right-click—designates clicking with the right mouse button.
• hold—designates holding down the left (or right, as noted) mouse

button.
Preface vii
Preface vii
• drag—designates dragging the mouse while holding down the left
mouse button.
The following paragraphs are used throughout the ERDAS IMAGINE

documentation:
These paragraphs contain strong warnings.
These paragraphs provide software-specific information.
These paragraphs contain important tips.
These paragraphs lead you to other areas of this book or other

ERDAS® manuals for additional information.
NOTE: Notes give additional instruction.
Shaded Boxes
Shaded boxes contain supplemental information that is not required
to execute the steps of a tour guide, but is noteworthy. Generally, this
is technical information.
More As you go through the tour guides, there are several ways to obtain
more information regarding dialogs, tools, or menus, as described
Information/Help below.
On-Line Help
There are several ways to open Help:
• Click the Help icon
• Click the Help button on any dialog
• Read the Bubble Help
viii Preface
Help Icon
Clicking this icon launches On-Line Help at the main start page. This file
provides access to all On-Line Help through the Contents, Index, and
Search tools. From the Contents pane, you may jump to any of the
available On-Line Help documents. From the Search pane, you may
search the entire On-Line Help system.
Help Button
Dialogs within ERDAS software contain a Help button which you can
click to open On-Line Help for the respective dialog. To open the
navigation pane (containing the Contents, Index, and Search functions)
you must click the View Navigation icon at the top of the help page.
Bubble Help
As you move your cursor moves along individual tools on many of the
tabs, a small Bubble Help popup dialog may open, if it is available for
the item and if your Preference is set to use Bubble Help. This
information is the same as the Status Bar Help shown in the bottom of
the Workspace, but opens directly under your cursor.
Preface ix
x Preface
Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync
This chapter explains what to expect from IMAGINE AutoSync and how
to adjust the underlying engine for optimal results. It also provides
practical tips and hints, and describes the best strategies to handle
difficult situations you may encounter.
Overview Imagery always needs to be geometrically corrected to a map

coordinate system to be useful. This is especially true for applications
such as change detection, resolution merge (pan sharpening), mosaic,
and even simple layer stacking. The geometric correction must be
highly accurate, because misalignment of features at the same location
could render the results useless. Additionally, many applications
require the creation of a large database of georeferenced images.
The current process of manual point measurement can be prohibitively
labor intensive for large applications, and it does not enforce sub-pixel
level correlation between images due to the limitation of human visual
interpretation. Block triangulation, although tying imagery together
photogrametrically, does not enforce any correlation to already existing
image layers.
IMAGINE AutoSync uses an automatic point matching algorithm to
generate thousands of tie points, and produces a mathematical model
to tie the images together. The resulting workflows significantly reduce
or sometimes completely eliminate manual point collection. The output
should be generally equal or better in accuracy in comparison to the
current methodology.
Benefits Some of the benefits of using IMAGINE AutoSync include:
• Automatic point matching algorithm for mass tie point generation.
• Automatic sensor detection (if sensor information is available).
• Streamlined wizard workflow that can handle a large number of

similar images.
• Powerful workstation that provides an efficient environment and

tools for tie point quality assessment, point measurement, preview
of the output, and is useful in the organization of complex projects,
and so on.
• Iterative model refinement and instantaneous rectification results in

the workstation environment.
Constraints As with any tool, poor data quality and/or inappropriate parameters can
produce less than desirable results. As a user, you should be aware of
the following:
Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 1

• Default parameters are appropriate for most data, but may require
adjustment to work well for more varied scenes.
• Data quality of the input images, reference image, and Digital

Elevation Model (DEM) directly affects the final output results.
• User intervention may be required in some workflows to

compensate for poor data quality, erroneous model selection,
incorrect tie point measuring, and so on.
The more experienced you are with using IMAGINE AutoSync and the
more knowledge you have about the data and workflow, the better the
output will be using our software.
Data Preparation The quality of your input data plays a crucial role in determining the
accuracy of the output and extent of user intervention required.
Additionally, the type of the input data largely determines which
workflow to follow for optimal results. This section discusses various
data you can use in IMAGINE AutoSync and how to best prepare the
data. It also provides suggested remedies for potential problems.
Input Images When using the edge matching workflow, you can use georeferenced
or calibrated input images. In the georeferencing workflow, input
images can be georeferenced, calibrated, or raw images. You can also
use images that have map information but are not georeferenced to a
particular projected coordinate system.
If you are using raw input images, you must first establish a footprint
with the reference image before running automatic point measurement.
This is a necessary step since raw images lack the map information to
place the image at an approximate location to overlap with the
reference image.
Another consideration when using raw imagery is the potential for
matching problems between the uncorrected, vertically displaced
mountainous regions in the raw image and an orthorectified reference
image. This displacement can cause poor points to be generated from
the automatic point measurement process. You can alleviate this
problem by choosing an appropriate sensor model that allows for the
specification of a DEM (DLT, RPC, or ROP) and using an accurate
DEM. See Modeling on page 13 for more details.
Sensor metadata can be very helpful in establishing models for
rectification. For example, QuickBird images contain enough
information to build a rigorous model. Generally, data that are rectified
using a rigorous model and an accurate DEM produce the best results.
2 Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync

Reference Images The reference image must be georeferenced and have projection
information. For best results, the reference image should have a higher
or spatial resolution equal to the input images. IMAGINE AutoSync has
been tested with datasets that do not adhere to the above suggestion
and at a factor of six difference, it was generally found that tie point
editing was required to improve the solution.
Selecting Input and When selecting input and reference images to use, it is preferable to
Reference Images use images with maximum similarity. This largely improves the result of
the automatic point measurement. If the images are too dissimilar, the
results from the automatic point measurement process may be
undesirable.
Some of the main factors that affect the similarities of images include
the following:
Time of Capture
Time of capture, especially the season, could greatly alter the
radiometric characteristics of the images. For example, a winter scene
will not match well with a summer scene with high vegetation.
Resolution
Resolution is another factor that affects point matching results, because
it creates a difference in the details of the two images. Avoid mixing
input and reference images with a resolution difference larger than a
factor of six.
Elevation Variation
Variation in the elevation could also cause a difference between the
input and reference images. This is because the reference most likely
will be an orthorectified image and therefore vertical displacement is
minimal compared to the input. As a result, features that should be in
the same location could be far apart when the input and reference
images are attempted to be matched. To avoid this problem, you can
select a model that will allow for the specification of a DEM.
Spectral Range of Selected Band

The automatic point matching process uses a single band of a
multiband image to locate the tie point pairs. Consequently, it is
important to make sure similar bands are selected from the input image
and the reference image to achieve maximum similarity in radiometric
characteristics. Selecting a band within the visible spectrum will
produce the best results. Infrared and thermal bands should generally
be avoided.

Sensor
The sensor used in capturing the image (Landsat, IKONOS, SPOT, and
so on) affects the resolution and radiometric characteristics of the
images. It also determines the mathematical models that can be used
in the rectification. For example, the Rigorous Orbital Pushbroom
sensor model can only be applied to sensors such as IRS, QuickBird,
and so on. See Modeling on page 13 for details on selecting an
appropriate model.
Digital Elevation Model The availability of a high resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can
(DEM) drastically impact the quality of rectification results, especially for
mountainous areas. A DEM provides additional model-solving
information in determining the location of features in the output. This
could greatly reduce the negative impact of vertical displacement when
matching input and reference images.
APM Engine Automatic Point Measurement (APM) is a software tool that uses
image-matching technology to automatically recognize and measure
the corresponding image points between two raster images. In
IMAGINE AutoSync, APM aims to deliver the coordinates of evenly
distributed corresponding points between an input image and a
reference image.
APM Strategy APM works automatically to find the needed image points, but there are
Parameters a set of parameters you can adjust in circumstances where the default
settings fail to produce acceptable results. An Advanced Point Matching
Strategy dialog is also provided for more control over the process.
The defaults that appear in these dialogs can be set from the
IMAGINE AutoSync category of the Preference Editor.
Before using APM, confirm that the Initial Pyramid Layer Number
is set to 1 in Image Files (General) category of the Preference
Editor. This retains the largest pyramid layer when computing
pyramid layers to ensure point matching accuracy.
APM Strategy Tab

You can adjust APM parameters on the APM Strategy tab on the
IMAGINE AutoSync Project Properties dialog in the workstation, or on
the APM Strategy tab in the wizards.

Input Layer to Use: Select the layer of the input image to use for
APM. IMAGINE AutoSync automatically assigns a layer name for each
layer in the input image, using the following format: Layer_1, Layer_2,
and so on. Layer 1 refers to band one of the image. If you have multiple
input images in your list and they contain a different number of bands,
all possible bands will be listed. If you choose Layer_5 and one or more
images only contain four bands, band 5 will be used on any images
containing 5 bands, but band 4 or the next available band will be used
on any images with fewer than 5 bands.
Reference Layer to Use: Select the layer of reference image to use
for APM. IMAGINE AutoSync uses the actual reference layer names.
Try to select the layers of two images with same or similar

spectrum. For example, if you use two color images, then try to
choose the same green bands. The more similar the radiometric
characteristics of two images are, the better APM results it can
achieve. In case you are using images with different band widths
(such as a black-white image and a multi-spectral image), you may
still get good results, but you may also encounter less accurate
matching points depending on the specific situation.
Find Points With: Select either the Default Distribution or Defined

Pattern type of point distribution.
Default Distribution APM superimposes a regularly spaced grid
onto each image in an attempt to find matching points in a well
distributed pattern. When you are attempting to collect fewer than 100
points, a 5 x 5 grid is used. If you want to collect 100 points or more, a
10 x 10 grid is used.

APM tries to collect matching points within an area of 512 X 512 pixels
centered on the corresponding grid intersection of each image. If a
matching point is not found within this area, APM moves to the next grid
intersection. This optimizes the likelihood of finding well distributed
points while minimizing search time on large images.
10% 30% 50% 70% 90%
10% The 5 X 5 grid divides each image

as shown at left. The 10 X 10 grid
30% begins at 5% and increments by
10%.
50%
In both cases, the maximum
70% search area is 512 X 512 pixels
centered on each grid
90% intersection.
Default distribution is most appropriate for standard aerial

photography and less so for the more varied possible inputs to
IMAGINE AutoSync. For that reason, Default Distribution is
available as an option to those working with aerials, but the
standard default setting for finding points is set to Defined Pattern
in anticipation of a wider use of data.
Defined Pattern If you select Defined Pattern, the options Starting

Column, Starting Line, Column Increment, Line Increment, Ending
Column, and Ending Line become active. Using those options, you
can define the exact placement of tie points throughout the images of
the block. With this option, you can also define the intended number of
points per pattern.
Intended Number of Points/Pattern (Image) This section of the
APM Strategy tab changes depending on whether you have selected
Default Distribution or Defined Pattern, above. In the case of Default
Distribution, enter the intended number of tie points generated for
each image. The minimum is 9 and the maximum is 500. The default is
400. In the case of Defined Pattern, enter the intended number of tie
points generated per pattern. The minimum number of points per
pattern is 1 and the maximum is 8. The default is 1.

If you want to define a tie point pattern, select Defined Pattern.
However, you should consider the overlap percentage when you
define your own pattern and try to get each pattern location inside
as much of the overlap as possible.
Keep All Points Select this checkbox to use all tie points generated
regardless of accuracy or distribution. If this checkbox is active, the
number of collected tie points will be greater than the intended number
of points per image. You do not normally need to choose this option
unless your images have low contrast, yielding few points without this
option selected.
Starting Column, Starting Line: Define the starting location of tie
points you want to find on the image in pixels. You will get better results
if you define the starting location close to the upper-left corner of the
overlap area on the higher resolution image. It is safe to define the
location close to the upper-left corner of the image, but you may get bad
results if it is close to the lower-right corner.
Column Increment, Line Increment: Define the increment in pixels
for tie point locations along column and line direction. APM will try to find
tie points around the image locations with these increments to the
previous locations.
Ending Column, Ending Line: Define the last column and line for tie
point collection. If you want to define them, they should not exceed the
lower-right corner of the overlap area. If you leave them at the default
of 0, 0, APM will automatically use the last column and last line of the
overlap area.
Automatically Remove Blunders: Click this checkbox to remove
blunders (wrong tie points) automatically from the APM generated tie
points. Removing blunders is an iterative process based on a 3rd order
polynomial model. When this option is selected, the points that do not
fit well with the majority of tie points are considered blunders and are
discarded. By default, this option is selected. You should deselect this
option only if you suspect that it is removing correct tie points. For
example, you should deselect this option when most of the APM tie
points are wrong, or when there is a large difference in the terrain
between the inputs and reference image.
Maximum Blunder Removal Iterations: This option becomes
available when you choose to automatically remove blunders with the
Automatically Remove Blunders option. The default is 2. In most
cases, increasing this number means more iterations of the blunder
removal algorithm will be run. As a result, more tie points will be
considered as blunders and discarded.

Advanced Point Matching Strategy Dialog
On the Advanced Point Matching Strategy dialog in IMAGINE
AutoSync, you can adjust the more advanced APM parameters to
optimize automatic tie point collection.
Search Size: Enter the window size in pixels to use for searching for
corresponding points. IMAGINE AutoSync searches for the
corresponding point within a square window defined by this parameter.
The default value is 17 (a 17 x 17 pixel window). For flat areas, this
value could be smaller, for steeper areas, it could be larger. A larger
value could cause more computation time and more wrong points, but
a smaller value could result in fewer matched points.
Feature Point Density: Defines the feature point density percentage
based on an internal default. Increasing the value above 100% (for
example, in poor contrast area) will get more feature points to get more
matched points. Decreasing the value below 100% (for example, in an
area with crowded details) will result in fewer feature points to
accelerate the computation.
Normally, you do not need to adjust this parameter if you are using
scanned aerial photos. However, if you select the Avoid Shadow
option, you should set this parameter to a higher value (for
example, 200%).
Correlation Size: Enter the window size in pixels for cross-

correlation. The default window size is 11 (11 x 11). A larger window
size could cause a smaller correlation coefficient due to the geometric
difference within the two correlation windows and, therefore, fewer
matched points. A smaller window size could result in a larger
correlation coefficient due to insufficient contents, therefore yielding
more bad points.

Minimum Point Match Quality: Enter the limit for the cross
correlation coefficient. The allowed value is between 0.6 and 0.99. The
default value is 0.80. A larger limit results in fewer points accepted and
less error. A smaller limit results in more correlated points but possibly
more errors.
Least Squares Size: Enter the window size in pixels for least square
matching. A larger window size could reduce the number of badly
matched points, and could also reduce the number of good points. A
smaller window size could increase the number of both bad and good
points. The default is 21. You should increase this number for flatter
areas and decrease the number for steeper areas. Setting the window
size too small could result in insufficient contents in the window for the
least square computation.
Initial Accuracy: Enter the relative accuracy of your initial values
used by the automatic tie point generation process. Generally, a large
value here increases the initial search area for possible corresponding
points at the initial estimation phase. This value can be seen as the
relative accuracy of the source you have chosen for your initial values
(for example, initial map coordinates or relative terrain change). The
default value is 10%. You should use initial values with an accuracy of
10% or better for the automatic tie point collection.
Avoid Shadow: When you select this checkbox, APM will try to avoid
generating tie points in areas of shadow. Avoiding areas in shadow
improves tie point accuracy. You should choose the type of images you
are working with; negative or positive image scans.
You do not need to use this option unless shadows are very
prominent in your images.
Image Scan Type: Positive Select this option if you are working with
a positive image (bare ground appears white in the image).
Image Scan Type: Negative Select this option if you are working
with a negative image (bare ground appears black in the image).
Use Manual Tie Points for Initial Connection between
Images: Select this option if the manually measured tie points will be
used as the initials for APM to find additional tie points automatically.
Select this option when the initial map coordinates are very coarse, or
when no map information is available for one or more of the images. If
you try to rectify a raw image to another raw image, you should also
select this option. You should manually collect a minimum of three
points.

Exclude Background Area: Select this option if you want to exclude
the background of the image. When you select this option, a bounding
box excluding the background area will be calculated and used as the
active image area for APM. The default starting column and starting row
will move inside of this bounding box. If you manually changed the
values in the Starting Column and Starting Row, then your new
values will take precedence above the calculated bounding box.
Background Value: This option becomes available when you select
the Exclude Background Area option. Enter the background value of
the image. The default value is zero. If you do not know the background
value, you can use the IMAGINE ImageInfo tool and review the pixel
values of the image.
Ideal Situations for Good For the best APM results, try to ensure that the following conditions are
APM Performance met as much as possible. Not meeting one or more of these conditions
does not necessarily mean that the APM results will be of poor quality.
• Use images with an overlap larger than 40%.
• Use images with the same or similar resolution or pixel size.
• Use images that were captured in the same season, at the same
time of day (similar illumination conditions), and with similar weather
situations with good visibility.
• Use images that were captured by the same or similar sensor.
• Select the same band or a similar band in the images for point
matching to ensure similarity of radiometric characteristics.
• Use images that are properly orthorectified (if appropriate). This

reduces the impact of vertical displacement and other distortions.
Pay special attention to quality of orthorectification. A poorly
orthorectified image produces bad results and is misleading in
raising your expectation.
• Use images with relatively flat terrain. There is minimal vertical

displacement and the radiometric characteristics are better
preserved because they have not gone through extensive
modification in a prior rectification process.
• Ensure good initial map information is available for the images.

Images with less than 10% misalignment in the overlap region tend
to yield better results. When there is no initial image map
information, you need to perform an initial manual registration. You
can do this by digitizing 3-4 high quality points that are evenly
distributed and preferably placed close to the image corners.

• When using images with mountainous terrain, use an accurate
DEM in order to remove the image displacement caused by the
steep terrain change.
• Before using APM, confirm that the Initial Pyramid Layer Number
Situations to Avoid These are some situations you should try to avoid, since any or a
combination of the following conditions could result in poorly matched
points.
If you are unable to improve any of the following conditions, refer

to APM Trouble Shooting and Tips on page 12 to learn about
possible remedies by adjusting the APM parameters.
• Using images with an overlap that is less than 256 x 256 pixels or
with an overlap region that is too narrow. Since APM requires a
sufficient region to deploy the matching strategy, an overlap less
than 20% will not produce desirable results.
• Resolution differences (or pixel size difference) larger than 6 times.

This is the threshold for any meaningful results.
• Using images with a drastic time difference can result in a poor

match. For instance, a winter scene does not match well with a
summer scene due to the change in vegetation. Images do not
match well if they were captured too many years apart if there has
been a high level of change.
• The band to match selection for inputs and reference should not
differ too much in electromagnetic wavelength. For example, an
infrared band might not match well with a blue band.
• Sensor characteristics between the images if too different can affect

performance. For instance, a very high flying sensor does not match
well with a low flying sensor. The band width used, sensor
mechanism (pushbroom or discrete sensors) all could play a role in
making the images distinct from each other.
• If using images with large, uncorrected terrain relief, the vertical

displacement can drastically reduce the likelihood of successful
APM results.
• Large scale, high-rise urban scenes do not match well due to the
vertical displacement effect, which is difficult to orthorectify.

• Bad initial image registration. If misalignment in the overlap region
is larger than 20%, or manually digitized points are unevenly
distributed too far from image corners or of poor quality, results may
be affected.
• Inappropriate placement of the starting point too close to the ending

edge (lower-right corner) of overlap area. This will result in the
overlap area not having enough search regions.
APM Trouble Shooting Refer to this section if the APM results are not as expected. If APM
and Tips results in a large RMSE, it may indicate bad APM results and/or
inappropriate modeling. Examine the tie points carefully to ensure that
the problem is from the APM results (many bad points, not enough
points, and so on.) before applying the following steps to fine tune the
APM parameters for improved results. If the APM points are correct but
the output does not reflect the quality of the points, you most likely have
chosen an inappropriate model.
Problem Diagnosis and Solutions

Sometimes you may not be able to rectify or improve any of the
conditions. If that occurs, you can adjust the APM parameters by
following the steps listed in the next section.
APM Parameter Tuning

When you need to adjust the APM parameters, first match your
situation with one of the following, and then adjust the APM parameters
accordingly.
Table 1: APM Parameter Tuning
Situation Remedies
Many points, but On the APM Strategy tab, change one or more of the
many poor quality following parameters:
points
• Increase the Minimum Point Match Quality (>
0.9)
• Correlation Size and Least
Increase the
Squares Size
• Decrease the Intended Number of Points

Situation Remedies
Too few points, but On the APM Strategy tab, change one or more of the
good quality following parameters:
• Increase the Intended Number of Points

• Decrease the Column Increment and Line
Increment
Too few points, and On the APM Strategy tab, change one or more of the
poor quality following parameters:
• Increase the Search Size

• Decrease the Correlation Size
• Decrease the Least Squares Size
• Increase the Intended Number of Points
NOTE: Most likely, you have one or more

undesirable conditions, such as a large
misalignment. If the problem is a large
misalignment, manually collect a few tie points and
select the Use Manual tie points for initial
connection between the images option under
APM Strategy | Advanced Options.
Too many points On the APM Strategy tab, change one or more of the
following parameters:
• Decrease the Intended Number of Points

• Increase the Column Increment and Line
Increment
• Increase the Minimum Point Match Quality (>
0.9) and increase the Correlation Size and
Least Squares Size
NOTE: A large of number of points is unnecessary

and slows down the APM processing. A large
number of points does not necessarily improve the
accuracy. Try to trim down the numbers and keep
the best points.

Edge Matching
The nature of APM is to avoid edges of images. Features on the edge,
if no points were found, could be misaligned. For the edge matching
workflow, it will typically align features towards the center of the overlap.
If the next step of processing is mosaicking, a cutline down the center
of the overlap will eliminate issues on the edge. To match the entire
overlap, it may be necessary to manually collect points on the edge,
especially on linear features, to obtain full alignment.
Modeling This section provides a brief explanation of the various mathematical

models available in IMAGINE AutoSync. You can apply these models
to the input images in order to geometrically correct them.
Understanding the model properties helps you select the model that will
generate the most accurate results for your dataset.
Image to Image (2D) An image-to-image transform can warp one image onto another without
Transforms the use of an earth model (DEM). The fit will not be as good as a
rigorous sensor model that requires a DEM because much of the
distortion comes from the terrain.
Rubber Sheeting
Rubber sheeting is a two dimensional image-to-image transformation
which is implemented as a piecewise transformation based on the
triangles formed from the tie points. This has the property that the
transformation is always perfect at the control points and there is
always a well behaved transition from triangle to triangle. However, if an
image has hilly or mountainous terrain, you will have to collect a large
number of tie points. In effect, the tie points will be forming a model of
the terrain surface. This can be impractical since the performance of
rubber sheeting decreases as the number of points increases. Rubber
sheeting is best used in an area of moderate relief when an actual
sensor model and a DEM is not available.
Polynomial
A polynomial model is a two dimensional image-to-image
transformation. The polynomial model is of the form:
If the order is set to 1, then the result is an affine or linear transformation

that is appropriate for cases where there is little or no terrain
displacement and most of the image to image difference is in the form
of scale, offset, and rotation. You can use higher orders in cases where
there is slowly varying terrain effects with scale, offset, and terrain
rotation. In both cases, it is assumed that the actual sensor model and
DEM are not available.

i (n – i)
X = ∑ Ai x y
i
i (n – i)
Y = ∑ Bi x y
i
Ground to Image (3D) Every image is a mapping of three-dimensional (3D) coordinates into a
Transforms two-dimensional (2D) plane. The ground-to-image transformation
models this mapping using a DEM as the earth model.
Rigorous Orbital Pushbroom (ROP)

Many current satellite imaging systems use pushbroom sensors. This is
a sensor that has a linear sensing array associated with an optical
system. The whole system is moved forward by the orbital motion of the
satellite. As it moves, the single line is pushed forward, scanning a
whole image. The linear array can be thought of as a very narrow
camera, which can be modeled with the same six parameters as a
frame camera. Each line has a different set of six parameters. Because
the orbit of the satellite is very stable and well known, the position (x, y,
z) and orientation, omega, phi and kappa (ω, φ, κ) can be modeled as
time varying parameters. The time is related to each line so these
parameters can be computed give the line number in the image. In the
case of the Rigorous Orbital Pushbroom (ROP), the parameters of the
orbit model are refined using the tie points.
Approximate Sensor It is possible to use mathematical approximations for many sensor

Models models. These approximations do not directly model the sensor.
Instead, they are based on mathematic formulas whose results are very
close to the rigorous sensor model.
Projective Transform Model

The Projective Transform model provides a more powerful modeling
capability for multiperspective satellite images such as Landsat, SPOT,
and QuickBird. While the best way to transform is to use the sensor-
specific models, the Projective Transform can be used in situations
where no ephemeris is available, where there is no applicable sensor
model, or where the satellite image has already been geometrically
corrected.

Rational Polynomial Coefficients (RPC)
Rational Polynomial Coefficients are (as the name implies) ratios of
polynomials. These can model reasonably complex transformations
and remain stable (high order polynomials tend to be unstable). Like a
polynomial, a rational polynomial is described by an order and a set of
coefficients for the numerator and denominator for the X and Y term. A
rational polynomial is a 3D to 2D transformation in the sense that a
ground x, y, and z are used along with the coefficients to compute the
image row and column values.
The RPC coefficients are typically computed using a solved rigorous
model. One reason to use RPCs is that you do not need to know the
original rigorous model, so it is a good way to provide a common
framework which is independent of the actual sensor used.
The RPC values themselves cannot be computed from the tie points
and ground points. However, existing RPC values can be refined to
provide more accurate transforms.
Direct Linear Transform (DLT)

The Direct Linear Transform (DLT) is actually an RPC whose order is
equal to one. The DLT is an excellent approximation for frame cameras,
and when it is known that the data comes from a frame camera, you can
use this without knowing the specifics of the frame camera. The DLT
coefficients can be computed from the tie and 3D points.
Selecting a Model You will get the best results when using a rigorous sensor model and
an accurate DEM. Most of the satellite data are shipped with sensor
model data (either parameters for the rigorous orbital pushbroom or
RPCs) which IMAGINE AutoSync can read. If the model is unknown but
a DEM is available, then it is a reasonable strategy to first try using a
DLT. If the results from the DLT are not acceptable, the image may
have been created using a pushbroom sensor. In this case, the
pushbroom orbital parameters are unknown, so the next best candidate
is to use one of the image-to-image (2D) transformations as described
above.
Selecting a DEM/DTM The quality and accuracy of the results will be directly tied to the quality
of the DEM or DTM (Digital Terrain Model) used. A DTM usually does
not include man-made structures such as buildings or bridges, so it can
be expected that these features will have the most mismatch in the final
results.
Modeling Trouble- Refer to this section for additional modeling troubleshooting help and
Shooting and Tips tips.
• The more rigorous the model, the better the result. Follow the list to
make the best of the available information from the data. The
recommended order of models from the most rigorous to the least
is:

1. Rigorous Orbital Pushbroom (ROP)
2. Rational Polynomial Coefficients (RPC)
3. Direct Linear Transform (DLT)
4. Polynomial
5. Rubber Sheeting
• The quality of the points is essential in determining the outcome of

the image-to-image transformation models. Ideally they should be
evenly distributed and closely matched. If a particular region has
very few points, you may collect some points manually to
compensate.
• If you determine that image to image (2D) transform is the best

available model for the images, the following tips can help you
decide whether to use an Affine, Polynomial, or Rubber Sheeting
model.
Table 2: Tie Point-Based Model Selection
Number of Tie
Appropriate Model
Points
< 10 Affine
10–50 Polynomial (3rd Order)
> 50 Polynomial or Rubber Sheeting
Note: When the density of points is satisfactory with an

even distribution, use Rubber Sheeting. Otherwise,
use a 3rd Order Polynomial.
• Rubber sheeting models always have an RMSE of zero. Points

would need to be manually reviewed in order to assess accuracy.
When using the Linear or Non-Linear Rubber Sheeting model, you
can first try using a Polynomial model for the data. Then use the
RMSE as threshold to find and remove any mismatched points
using the RMSE threshold selection tool in the IMAGINE AutoSync
Workstation. The RMSE threshold selection tool will select all points
that do not meet the specified value. By right clicking in the far left
column on the CellArray, you can delete all selected points quickly
eliminating the bad points. Finally, apply the Rubber Sheeting
Model. Only the remaining points will be used, yielding better
results.

• When results from using the Linear or Non-Linear Rubber Sheeting
model show significant misalignment in a region, selectively collect
some manual tie points in that area and resolve the model to correct
the situation. This process can be very effective in correcting a
situation where the overall model fits well, but is problematic in a
small number of regions.
• Deleting points with an Error Mean + 2 x Standard Deviation, and

resolving the model 3 to 4 times will drastically improve the overall
error results. Repeating this process more than 3 to 4 times will
have diminishing results. This is more applicable when using a
rigorous model such as RPC, Orbital Pushbroom, or DLT. When
using other models (Polynomial, Linear, or Non-Linear Rubber
Sheeting, and so forth), this method may not be as beneficial.
• During the process of resolving the model, you can undo the last
deletion of points if the model results are not what you expected.
IMAGINE This section provides additional tips and hints for using IMAGINE
AutoSync to generate the best results.
AutoSync Tips and
Hints
Interpreting Results After careful data preparation, you can run APM and tie the images
together through a mathematical model. Then you can review the
results. This section explains how to correctly interpret the results,
identify any problems, and how to resolve them.
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection in the workstation is the most reliable method to verify
results. Use the Swipe tool on overlaying images to inspect them for
proper alignment. A well-aligned set of images will swipe smoothly
without sudden visual interruption, except where there are real changes
(for example, new buildings) or shadows.
Tie Point Quality Analysis

Inspect selected areas and use the Zoom tool in the workstation to
assess the quality. Also look for an uneven distribution of tie points. If
this occurs, you may need to manually collect some points to
compensate. An easy way to locate suspect points is to select points
based on RMSE (for instance, RMSE > Error Mean + 2 x Standard
Deviation). Then use the Drive To tool to locate the points quickly.

RMSE Analysis
RMSE is the cumulative result of point matching and modeling. A large
RMSE could be caused by one or both. Inspect the tie points to
determine whether the points are the culprit. Often times, the
inappropriate use of a model is responsible for a large error value.
An example would be when the point quality is very good, yet the results
show a large RMSE. Conversely, a small RMSE may not necessarily
indicate good overall results. It could be an artifact of the model that is
being used. For example, the Linear or Non-Linear Rubber Sheeting
model by definition will produce a zero error because all tie points are
meant to match exactly in the results while the regions surrounding the
points may be distorted. Therefore, you should always perform a visual
inspection along with analyzing the RMSE to ensure correct judgment
of the error conditions.
Follow-up Actions
When your analysis of the results point to problems either in APM or
modeling, refer to the proper sections of this chapter for specific tips for
improvement:
• For better data preparation, refer to Data Preparation on page 2.
• For APM parameter tuning, refer to APM Engine on page 4.
• For a better model choice, refer to Modeling on page 13.

Using the IMAGINE This section provides some helpful tips when using the IMAGINE
AutoSync Workstation AutoSync workstation.
• Use the IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation for complex workflows

that require more user intervention. The workstation provides more
flexibility, tools for visual inspection of the results, and for manually
collecting tie points.
• Set the color of the GCPs in the IMAGINE AutoSync preferences

before running APM in the workstation. You will avoid having to
select all of the GCPs individually generated by APM to change their
color. Selecting a large number of GCPs (> 2000) can be very time-
consuming.
• Use the Preview Output option on the Input Image context menu
to view the results of the model before calibrating or resampling the
imagery. While in the preview mode, you can continue to delete
GCPs and resolve the model. Also, whenever you select Preview
Output again, the model will be recomputed and the viewer updated
appropriately. This avoids having to return to the Point Review
mode.
• When both the input and reference image contain projection

information and the two images are of different resolutions, click the
Set Same Scale icon on the toolbar in the workstation to set the
display scale of each image to be the same. During point review, it
will be easier to find similar features between the two images.
• If large errors are produced when using imagery with no projection

information, review the manually collected points to ensure they
were collected over the same features. Low quality manual GCPs
will produce low quality models.
• Using very low resolution elevation data with the rigorous models
may result in a shearing affect in the output imagery. This is due to
the difference in the resolution of the input image and the elevation
data.
• It saves time to turn off the display of a large number of tie points in
the Overview in the workstation.
Using the IMAGINE This section provides some helpful tips when using the IMAGINE
AutoSync Wizards AutoSync wizards.
• Use the Georeferencing or Edge Matching wizards when you want

to be guided through a workflow.

• The wizard workflow can be labor-saving when the datasets are
homogenous, large, and can be processed with the same settings
of parameters and models.
• Do not mix different types of datasets where each dataset requires

different settings in the same wizard workflow. Separate the
datasets into different projects.
• Before batching large homogenous datasets with the wizard, try to

run one dataset through the wizard and inspect the results in the
workstation. Experiment with the settings of the workflow to find one
that generates optimal output. Then batch the large datasets with
the same settings.
• After you determine a good workflow, you can make batching easier
by creating a template IMAGINE AutoSync .lap file with the proper
settings but no images in the workstation. Then load the template
.lap file in the wizard and add the large datasets.
IMAGINE AutoSync IMAGINE AutoSync supports three main types of workflows. Use the
Workflows workflow that is suitable to the nature of the data and your applications.
Georeferencing Workflow
Use the georeferencing workflow if you know that one input image is
clearly of better accuracy, and both images are georeferenced. For
example, use the georeferencing workflow if you have a database of
high-accuracy images and you want to introduce another
georeferenced image of lesser quality to the database.
Edge Matching Workflow

Use the edge matching workflow to bring the overlap area of image
pairs into alignment. This workflow will modify both images due to the
fact that the required shifts will be divided between the images. Edge
matching may also be a good choice when the overlap area is small and
it is undesirable to apply the same transform that is suitable for the
overlap region to the entire image.
Raw Imagery Workflow

Use the raw images workflow when an image does not have
georeferencing information available, or when it is unreliable. When the
georeferencing information is unreliable, you should ignore the existing
georeferencing information. With raw images, you need to manually
collect at least three tie points that are evenly distributed, close to the
image corners, and high quality.
General IMAGINE Some general tips and hints for using IMAGINE AutoSync include:
AutoSync Tips and Hints

• If you calculate statistics on all imagery before using the image
within IMAGINE AutoSync, this will improve the overall
performance.
• IMAGINE AutoSync will recompute pyramids at the start of the APM

process for any image that does not have 3x3 pyramids previously
computed. ERDAS IMAGINE defaults to producing 2x2 pyramid
layers. You can change the preference in Image Files (General)
category of the Preference Editor to always produce 3x3 to save
time.
• Before using APM, confirm that the Initial Pyramid Layer Number
• Work with local files whenever possible. Saving IMAGINE AutoSync

project files that contain a large number of GCPs may be slow over
a network.
• When resampling, ensure the output cell size is reasonable for the
images. The IMAGINE AutoSync defaults may not be suitable for
your application.
Summary When properly used, IMAGINE AutoSync is a powerful tool for fast
image rectification with a tremendous saving of manual labor. This is
achieved by a streamlined workflow, user-friendly workstation
environment, a state-of-the-art automatic point matching engine, and a
wide selection of intelligent modeling methods.
The final output from IMAGINE AutoSync is the cumulative result of the
workflow you select, the data quality, APM engine usage (parameter
settings), and the model selected. To ensure the best results, you
should make careful and judicious decisions on these factors, starting
with the data preparation, and proceeding with the steps as outlined in
the sections of this chapter.
As with any sophisticated system, using IMAGINE AutoSync requires
that you have a basic understanding of the various components of the
embedded technologies. The more knowledge you have with regard to
the data and the internal working of IMAGINE AutoSync, the better your
chance of success.
General Guidelines Some general guidelines you should follow when using IMAGINE
AutoSync include:
1. Start with careful data preparation to ensure that you obtain the
best data available.

Refer to Data Preparation on page 2.
2. Ensure that you understand the parameters of the APM engine.

Analyze the data to see how many ideal or undesirable scenarios
the data may exhibit and try to rectify them.
Refer to APM Engine on page 4.
3. Select the most accurate model for rectification and utilize the
provided metadata. Understand the limitations of each model
and troubleshoot accordingly
Refer to Modeling on page 13.
4. Follow the tips and hints. This will help you avoid frustration
caused by improper use.
Refer to IMAGINE AutoSync Tips and Hints on page 17.
5. If your APM results are not as expected, analyze whether it is the

result of bad tie points or improper choice of a sensor model.
Then proceed to rectify the situation accordingly.
Refer to Modeling on page 13.

Using IMAGINE AutoSync
Introduction IMAGINE AutoSync provides both wizard-driven and workstation

workflows for the automated rectification of imagery. The IMAGINE
AutoSync wizards guide you through the geometric correction process
or you can use the workstation for customizable control of your
workflow. This chapter explains the steps for edge matching two
images using the Edge Matching Wizard and how to use the IMAGINE
AutoSync Workstation to georeference a raw image.
All of the data used in this chapter are in the

<ERDAS_Data_Home>/examples directory.
Using the Edge In this section, you use the IMAGINE AutoSync Edge Matching wizard
to align two images so that features in the overlapping area match up.
Matching Wizard
Table 1: Edge Match Image Data Set
Image Name Image Date Image Size (pixels) Pixel Size
air-photo-1.img June 1999 1108 W x 1110 H x 1 band 18 feet
air-photo-2.img March 1997 1098 W x 1096 H x 1 band 18 feet
These data files are air photo images of the Oxford, Ohio area.
You must have ERDAS IMAGINE running.
1. Click Toolbox tab > AutoSync Workstation > Edge Match

Wizard.
Using IMAGINE AutoSync 5

Click here to
select images
Using the Input tab In the Input tab, you will add the images to be edge matched. IMAGINE
AutoSync will edge match neighboring images, so input image order in
the CellArray is important.
1. In the Input tab, click the Open File icon .

The Input Images dialog opens.
Click here
to open
the file
Click here
to select
the file
Preview
window
2. In the Input Images dialog under File name, select air-photo-1.img

from the file list.
3. Click OK in the Input Images dialog.

The file air-photo-1.img displays in the Input Images column in the
Edge Matching Wizard dialog.
6 Using IMAGINE AutoSync

Input
image
4. Repeat step 1. through step 3. for the second image, selecting

air-photo-2.img this time.
5. Click Next> to continue to the APM Strategy tab in the Edge Matching
Wizard.
Using the APM Strategy In the APM Strategy tab, you can adjust the algorithm settings that
tab control the placement of automatically generated tie points in your
images. You can also select which input image layer to use to achieve
a better point matching result.

Make sure
Defined Pattern
is selected
1. Accept the default settings in the APM Strategy tab. Make sure that
Defined Pattern is selected.
2. Click Next> to continue to the Edge Match Strategy tab in the Edge
Matching Wizard.
Using the Edge Match In the Edge Match Strategy tab, you can select a refinement method
Strategy tab and choose to apply the refinement to the overlapping area only or the
whole image.

Click to select
Linear Rubber
Sheeting
Make sure the

buffer size is 180
1. In the Edge Match Strategy tab, click the Refinement Method list and
select Linear Rubber Sheeting.
2. Accept the Apply Refinement to default of Overlapping Area Only to

apply refinement only to the overlapping area between the images.
3. In the Edge Match Strategy tab, in the Buffer Around the Overlapping
Area (pixels): field, keep the default of 180.
4. Click Next> to continue to the Projection tab in the Edge Matching

Wizard.
Using the Projection tab In the Projection tab, you can set a projection for your output images.
You can set it to the same projection as the corresponding input image
or to another specified projection.
NOTE: The Output Projection fields will be greyed out in the Projection
tab until you select the Resample geocorrection method in the Output
tab.

1. In the Projection tab, accept the default Output Projection of Same as
Input Image.
2. Click Next> to continue to the Output tab in the Edge Matching Wizard.
Using the Output tab In the Output tab, you can specify the properties for your output images,
including selecting the geocorrection method and specifying names for
the output files and summary report.
Click here
to open the
Resample
Click here to select Settings
the Resample method dialog
Enter a
Click here to open summary
the Output File report
Names dialog name here
1. In the Output tab, select the Resample geocorrection method.
2. Click Resample Settings... in the Output tab.

The Resample Settings dialog opens.
For more information on the geocorrection methods, see

Resampling vs. Calibration on page 12.
Make sure Cubic

Convolution
is selected
3. Accept the default settings in the Resample Settings dialog. Make sure
the Cubic Convolution resample method is selected.
4. Click OK in the Resample Settings dialog.
5. In the Output tab, click the Set Output File Names... button.
The Output File Names dialog opens.
Enter a default
file name suffix here Click here to
select a default
output directory
6. In the Output File Names dialog, click the File Selector icon to
select a default output directory of your choice.
7. In the Default Output File Name Suffix field, enter a default file name
suffix of your choice, or use the default _output.
8. Click OK in the Output File Names dialog.
9. In the Output tab, make sure the Generate Summary Report checkbox
is selected and enter a name of your choice for the HTML summary
report. You can also click the File Selector icon to select a directory
of your choice.
10. In the Output tab, click Save to save the project. A File Selector opens,
and you can save the project to a directory of your choice.

11. In the Output tab, click Finish to complete the edge matching process.
The AutoSync Job status dialog appears, stating the progress of the
edge match operation.
12. Click OK in the AutoSync Job status dialog when the operation is
finished.
NOTE: Edge matching can take several minutes to run, based upon
your hardware capabilities and the size of the image files.
Resampling vs. Calibration
Resampling
Resampling is the process of calculating the file values for the
rectified image and creating the new file. All of the raster data layers
in the source file are resampled. The output image has as many
layers as the input image.
ERDAS IMAGINE provides these widely-known resampling
algorithms:
• Nearest Neighbor
• Bilinear Interpolation
• Cubic Convolution
• Bicubic Spline
Calibration
Instead of creating a new, rectified image by resampling the original
image based on the mathematical model, calibrating an image only
saves the mathematical model into the original image as a piece of
auxiliary information. Calibration does not generate new images, so
when the calibrated image is used, the math model comes into play
as needed.
For example, if you want to see the calibrated image in its rectified
map space in a Viewer, the image can be resampled on the fly based
on the math model, by selecting the Orient image to map system
option in the Select Layer To Add dialog.
A major drawback to image calibration is that the processes involved
with the calibrated image is slowed down significantly if the math
model is complicated. One minor advantage to image calibration is
that it uses less disk space and leaves the image’s spectral
information undisturbed.

Display Output Image
1. Open a 2D View.
2. Open a File Selector.
3. Click the Raster Options tab at the top of the Select Layer To Add:
dialog.
4. Make sure the Background Transparent option is checked.
5. Click the File tab at the top of the Select Layer To Add: dialog.
6. In the Select Layer To Add: dialog under Filename, select the output
images from the directory in which you saved them.
7. Click OK in the Select Layer To Add dialog.

The edge matched output images display in the View.
Use the Viewer Swipe Tool
1. To compare the layers, click Home tab > Swipe.
2. The Viewer Swipe dialog opens.

Drag the slide
to swipe over
the images
Check if desired to turn on

Auto Mode to watch the
images being swiped at a
rate you choose
3. Check Auto Mode in the Viewer Swipe dialog, and type 500 for the
Speed. You can watch as the swipe tool slowly works its way over the
images allowing you to evaluate the quality. Experiment with both
Vertical and Horizontal direction and different speeds.
View Summary Report Once you have finished edge matching the images, you can view the
HTML summary report to review information about the error, tie points,
and so forth.
1. In a Windows Explorer window, browse to the directory where you

saved the HTML report (in the Output tab).
2. Click to open the HTML file.

The summary report opens in a browser window.
You can experiment with selecting different options in the Edge

Matching wizard tabs to produce different results. For example, in
the Edge Match Strategy tab, select to apply refinement to the
Whole Image (instead of the Overlapping Area Only) or change
the Buffer Around the Overlapping Area (pixels) number to see
the differences in the resulting output images.
Using the In this section, you use the georeference workflow in the IMAGINE
AutoSync Workstation to georeference a raw Landsat TM image of
AutoSync Atlanta, Georgia, using a SPOT panchromatic image of the same area.
Workstation The raw Landsat TM image does not have any map information and the
SPOT image is rectified to the State Plane map projection.

Table 2: Georeference Image Data Set
Image Name Image Date Image Size (pixels) Pixel Size
tmAltanta.img Feb 1993 512 W x 512 H x 6 bands n/a
panAtlanta.img Feb 1993 1401 W x 1301 H x 1 band 32.81 feet
This section explains the steps for using the georeference workflow
in the workstation to georeference a raw image (an image without
any map information). When georeferencing a rectified image, you
do not need to manually collect tie points before running APM.
To georeference a raw image in the IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation,

follow these basic steps:
• create a new IMAGINE AutoSync project
• add an input image
• add an image to reference against the input image
• collect manual tie points
• run APM
• preview the output image
• improve output image results (if necessary)
• review the input and reference image map data information
• set the output image projection
• resample or calibrate the output image
• verify the rectification process
• view the summary report
Create New IMAGINE First, create a new IMAGINE AutoSync project.

AutoSync Project You must have ERDAS IMAGINE running.
1. Click Toolbox tab > AutoSync Workstation.
2. The IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation Startup dialog opens, as well as

the AutoSync Workstation.

Click here to create
a new IMAGINE
AutoSync project
3. On the IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation Startup dialog, select Create a

new project.
4. Click OK.
The Create New Project dialog opens.
Click to select the

Georeference workflow
Enter a project
name here
Click to select the
Resample geocorrection
method
Click to open the
Resample Settings
dialog
Enter a name for your

summary report here
5. On the Create New Project dialog, select the Georeference workflow.
6. In the Project File (*.lap) field, enter a project file name of your choice
or click the File Selector icon.
7. On the Create New Project dialog, select the Resample geocorrection

method.
8. Click the Resample Settings... button.

The Resample Settings dialog opens.

Make sure
Cubic
Convolution
is selected
Click to accept
the default
resample
settings
9. Accept the default settings in the Resample Settings dialog. Make sure
the Cubic Convolution resample method is selected.
IMAGINE AutoSync provides these widely-known resampling

algorithms: Nearest Neighbor, Bilinear Interpolation, Cubic
Convolution, and Bicubic Spline. In some cases you may want to
change the Resample Method, but for this chapter, leave it set to
Cubic Convolution.
10. Click OK in the Resample Settings dialog.
11. In the Create New Project dialog, in the Default Output Directory: (*)
field, click the File Selector icon to select a default output directory of
your choice.
12. In the Default Output File Name Suffix field, enter a default file name
suffix of your choice, or keep the default _output.
13. In the Create New Project dialog, make sure the Generate Summary
Report checkbox is selected. The name of the project in the Project
File field defaults as the summary report name, but you can also click
the File Selector icon to select a different name and directory of your
choice.
14. If you are using SPOT DIMAP for input and you selected an imagery.tif
file for the input image file name, you can run APM without manually
measured points.

Menu bar
Workstation toolbar
Project Explorer
Viewer panes
GCP toolbar
CellArray
Status bar
Add Input Image After you have created the IMAGINE AutoSync project, the next step is
to add the input image you want to georeference.
1. To add an input image to the project, do one of the following:
• In the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, click the Open Input Images icon
.
• Select File -> Add Images -> Input Images... from the menu bar
• Right-click on the Input Images folder in the Project Explorer Tree

View and select Add Input Image...
The Select Images To Open dialog opens.
2. In the Select Images To Open dialog under Filename, click the file
tmAtlanta.img.
This file is a Landsat TM image of Atlanta that has not been rectified.
3. Click OK in the Select Images To Open dialog.

The input image tmAtlanta.img displays in the IMAGINE AutoSync
Workstation.

The input file displays
in the Project Explorer
and in the left Viewer
panes
Add Reference Image After you have added an input image, the next step is to add an image
to reference against the input image.
1. To add a reference image to the project, do one of the following:
• In the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, click the Open Reference

Images icon .
• Select File -> Add Images -> Set Reference Image... from the
menu bar
• Right-click on the Reference Image folder in the Project Explorer

Tree View and select Set Reference Image....
The Select Images To Open dialog opens.
2. In the Select Images To Open dialog under Filename, click the file
panAtlanta.img.
This file is a SPOT panchromatic image of Atlanta. This image has been
georeferenced to the State Plane map projection.
3. Click OK in the Select Images To Open dialog.

The reference image panAtlanta.img displays in the IMAGINE
AutoSync Workstation.

The reference file
displays in the
Project Explorer
and the right
Viewer panes
Collect Manual Tie Points Once you have loaded the input and reference images in the IMAGINE
AutoSync Workstation, you can manually collect tie points.
This step is necessary here because the input image

(tmAtlanta.img) is a raw image (without any map information).
When using the IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation to georeference
images with map information, you do not need to manually collect
tie points before running APM and you can skip this step.
1. In the GCP toolbar, click the Create GCP icon .

Click to collect
tie points
Click to show tie points in Click to change tie point

the Viewer panes color to yellow
2. In the GCP toolbar, click the Show Selected Points icon .
3. To make the input image tie points easier to see in the viewer om the
left, right-click in the Color column to the right of Point ID in the first row
of the CellArray and select the color Yellow. Repeat this for each tie
point in the CellArray.
4. To make the reference image tie points easier to see in the viewer on
the right, right-click in the Color column to the right of Y Input in the first
row of the CellArray and select the color Yellow. Repeat this for each
tie point in the CellArray.
5. In the Main View pane of the input image, click a location to collect a tie
point.
The point you have created is labeled as 1 in the Main View pane and
its X and Y inputs are listed in the CellArray. Also notice that the input
image icon in the Project Tree View now has a green border since it now
has tie points.
6. In the Main View pane of the reference image, click the same location
to collect a tie point.

Click to create tie
points on both the
input image and
reference image
These are the X and Y These are the X and Y

coordinates for tie points coordinates for tie points
in the input image in the reference image
(tmAtlanta.img) (panAtlanta.img)
7. Collect at least three manual tie points in both the input and reference
images.
You should choose points that are easily identifiable in both

images, such as road intersections and landmarks, so that the
images match properly.
Also, make sure you scatter your tie points around the images so
they are not all concentrated in one place.
Try to collect tie points that are close to each of the four corners of
the images.
If you are using SPOT DIMAP for input and you selected an
imagery.tif file for the input image file name, you can run APM
without manually measured points.

Your project in the IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation should now look
similar to the following:
Run APM After collecting several tie points in the input and reference image, the
next step is to run automatic point matching (APM) to automatically
generate more control points for your images.
1. In IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, do one of the following to run APM:
• In the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, click the Run APM icon
• Select Process -> Run APM from the menu bar
• Right-click on the input image (tmAtlanta.img) in the Project

Explorer Tree View and select Run APM

The Status bar at the bottom of the workstation displays the RMSE and
Error Standard Deviation results. The APM points generated populate
the CellArray and display in the Viewers for both the input and reference
images.
The APM points display

in the Viewer panes and
populate the CellArray
The Status bar displays the RMSE and

error standard deviation results
Preview Output Image After you run APM, you can preview the output image to make sure you
are satisfied with the results before resampling or calibrating.
1. To preview the output image, right-click on the input image

(tmAtlanta.img) in the Project Explorer Tree View and select Preview
Output.
2. Click Reset Image to Viewer Size icon .
3. Click Zoom In by Two icon .

A preview of the output image displays in the Viewer.

Improve Output Image If you preview the output results and the image is warped, shows black
Results images, or produces other unacceptable output, it is most likely the
result of incorrect APM tie points or an inappropriate sensor model. In
this chapter, if you are dissatisfied with the results, there are most likely
incorrect tie points that you should delete before resampling. If the
Error Std. Dev. is higher than 2.0, you should also follow these steps
to improve the tie points. If you delete incorrect APM points and the
results are still poor, then you should try changing the sensor model in
the IMAGINE AutoSync Project Properties dialog.
To learn more about improving APM results, see APM Engine on

page 4.
1. Right-click on the input image (tmAtlanta.img) in the Project Explorer

Tree View and select Review Points.
The input and reference images display in the Viewer panes, showing
the tie points.

Enter 2 for the error Click to select tie points in
threshold search criteria the CellArray with an error
threshold of 2
2. In the GCP toolbar, enter or use the nudgers to the right of the field to
enter 2 in the error threshold text box.
3. In the GCP toolbar, click Select GCPs with Error Threshold icon .
The tie points with an error higher than 2 are highlighted in the
CellArray. Note the Total Points value and the Selected value, located
to the right of the Select GCPs with Error Threshold icon.
Total Points - total number of manual GCPs and APM GCPs.
Selected - number of GCPs you have selected

Click here to drive through the
selected points in the CellArray
4. Click the Drive To icon to click through the selected points in the
CellArray.
As you click through the points, the points in the Viewers will be
highlighted with a box.
5. When you find a point with a high error, click Delete GCP icon .
The selected point is deleted from the Viewers and the CellArray.
6. After you delete all the points with a high error, right-click on the input
image (tmAtlanta.img) in the Project Explorer Tree View and select
Preview Output to see the current output.
7. Right-click on the input image (tmAtlanta.img) in the Project Explorer

Tree View and select Review Points to return to the other view.
Review Image Map Data The next step is to review the image map data for the input and
reference image. You can review the map data to learn about the map
and projection information in order to determine if you want the output
image to have the same projection as the reference image.

1. Click on the reference image in the Main View pane to select it.
Click to open the

ImageInfo dialog
Click to select
panAtlanta.img
2. On the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, click the ImageInfo icon .

The ImageInfo dialog for panAtlanta.img opens.
Note map and

projection
information
Note the information in the Map Info section and that the Projection
Info section shows that the map is georeferenced to State Plane.
3. When you are finished, select File -> Close in the ImageInfo dialog.

4. Click on the input image in the Main View pane to select it.
Click to open the

ImageInfo dialog
Click to select
tmAtlanta.img
5. On the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, click the ImageInfo icon .
6. The ImageInfo dialog for tmAtlanta.img opens.
Note map and

projection
information
Note the information in the Map Info section and that the Projection
Info section shows that this is a raw image with no projection
information. Therefore, for this chapter, use the input projection from
the reference image (panAtlanta.img) for the output image.

Set Output Image Since the image to be georeferenced is a raw image with no projection
Projection information, you need to change the project properties to set the output
projection before resampling or calibrating the image.
1. To change the output projection, do one of the following:
• Select Process -> Project Properties... from the menu bar
• In the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar, click the Edit Project Properties

icon
The IMAGINE AutoSync Project Properties dialog opens.
2. Click the Projection tab.

The Projection tab opens in the IMAGINE AutoSync Project Properties
dialog.
3. In the Output Projection section, select Same as Reference Image.

The projection information from the reference image displays (greyed
out).
Click here to use the

same projection as the
reference image
The reference image

projection info
displays here
4. Click the OK button to close the IMAGINE AutoSync Project Properties

dialog.
Resample Output Image Resampling is the process of calculating the file values for the rectified
image and creating the output file. All of the raster data layers in the
source file are resampled. The output image will have as many layers
as the input image.

1. To resample the output image, do one of the following:
• Select Process -> Calibrate/Resample from the menu bar
• Right-click on the input image (tmAtlanta.img) in the Project

Explorer Tree View and select Calibrate/Resample
You can change the resample settings in the Output tab in the
IMAGINE AutoSync Project Properties dialog. You may want to
experiment with changing the resample settings later, but this
chapter uses the default settings.
The resampled output image (tmAtlanta_output.img) displays in the

workstation viewer and the output image name now displays in the
Output Images folder in the Project Explorer. Your project in the
IMAGINE AutoSync Workstation should now look similar to the
following:

The resampled output
image displays in the
Viewer and Project
Tree View
Verify Output Image Once the output image is created, you can use the Workstation to
perform the output image verification. You can verify that the input
image (tmAtlanta.img) has been correctly georeferenced to the
reference image (panAtlanta.img) by visually checking that they
conform to each other using the Viewer Blend/Fade, Viewer Swipe, or
Viewer Flicker verification tools.
Use the Viewer Blend/Fade Tool
1. To perform visual verification using the Viewer Blend/Fade tool, click

the Start Blend Tool icon on the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar.
The Viewer Blend/Fade dialog opens.

Drag the slide to blend
and fade the images

images being blended
together
2. Select Auto Mode in the Viewer Blend/Fade dialog, and type 500 for
the Speed. You can watch as the tool slowly blends the images,
allowing you to evaluate the quality. Experiment with both different
speeds or use the slide to blend and fade the images.
Use the Viewer Swipe Tool
1. To perform visual verification using the Viewer Swipe tool, click the
Start Swipe Tool icon on the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar.
The Viewer Swipe dialog opens.
Drag the slide

to swipe over
the images

images being swiped at a
rate you choose

2. Check Auto Mode in the Viewer Swipe dialog, and type 500 for the
Speed. You can watch as the swipe tool slowly works its way over the
images allowing you to evaluate the quality. Experiment with both
Vertical and Horizontal direction and different speeds.
Use the Viewer Flicker Tool
1. To perform visual verification using the Viewer Flicker tool, click the
Start Flicker Tool icon on the IMAGINE AutoSync toolbar.
The Viewer Flicker dialog opens.
Click to switch
between the
images
Check if desired to turn

on Auto Mode to watch
the images switch from
top to bottom at a rate
you choose
2. Check Auto Mode in the Viewer Flicker dialog, and type 500 for the
Speed. You can watch as the flicker tool switches between the top and
bottom images, allowing you to evaluate the quality. You can also click
Manual Flicker to quickly switch between the images. Experiment with
different speeds.
View Summary Report You can view the summary HTML report for more information.review
information about the error, tie points, and so forth.
1. To view the summary report, do one of the following:
• In the GCP toolbar, click the Summary Report icon
• Right-click on input image (tmAtlanta.img) in the Project Explorer

Tree View and select Review Report.
• Open a Windows Explorer window, browse to the directory where

you saved the HTML report (in the Create New Project dialog) and
open the .html file
The summary report opens in a separate browser window.

Index I
Image information 45
A M
APM, Automatic Point Matching 4, 41 Map information 45
AutoSync Workstation 32 Map projection
Create New Project dialog 34 State Plane 32
GCP toolbar 38 Map projection, set 48
Georeference workflow steps 33
Project Properties dialog 48 N
Resample Settings dialog 34 Nearest Neighbor 30, 35
Viewer Blend/Fade tool 50
Viewer Flicker tool 51 P
Viewer Swipe tool 50
Polynomial transformation 14
Workstation Startup dialog 33
R
B Rational Polynomial Coefficients 15
Bicubic Spline 30, 35 Raw imagery workflow 20
Bilinear Interpolation 30, 35 Resample 30, 48
Bicubic Spline 30, 35
C Bilinear Interpolation 30, 35
Calibration 30 Cubic Convolution 30, 35
Cubic Convolution 30, 35 Nearest Neighbor 30, 35
Review points 43
D Rigorous Orbital Pushbroom transformation
Data 15
air photos 23 RMSE analysis 18
Landsat multispectral 32 RMSE results 41
raw 32 Rubber sheeting transformation 14
SPOT panchromatic 32
Direct Linear Transform 16 S
Summary report 32, 35, 52
E
Edge Matching Wizard 23 T
APM Strategy tab 25 Tie points, analysis 18
Edge Match Strategy tab 26 Tie points, collect 38
Input tab 24 Tie points, generate automatically 4, 41
Output File Names dialog 29
Output tab 28 V
Projection tab 27
Verify
Refinement method list 27
Output image 49
Resample settings dialog 29
Viewer Blend/Fade tool 50
Edge Matching workflow 20
Viewer Flicker tool 51
Error standard deviation results 41, 43
Viewer Swipe tool 31, 50
Example data vii
F
File extension (*.lap) 34
G
Georeference workflow 20, 32
Index 57
58 Index

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Printed in the United States of America.

Manager, Technical Documentation

The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice.

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Table of Contents iii

Table of Contents iii

Using IMAGINE AutoSync . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

• click—designates clicking with the left mouse button.

• Shift-click—designates holding the Shift key down on your

• middle-click—designates clicking with the middle mouse button.

• right-click—designates clicking with the right mouse button.

• hold—designates holding down the left (or right, as noted) mouse

The following paragraphs are used throughout the ERDAS IMAGINE

These paragraphs contain strong warnings.

These paragraphs provide software-specific information.

These paragraphs contain important tips.

These paragraphs lead you to other areas of this book or other

NOTE: Notes give additional instruction.

• Click the Help icon

• Click the Help button on any dialog

• Read the Bubble Help

Overview Imagery always needs to be geometrically corrected to a map

Benefits Some of the benefits of using IMAGINE AutoSync include:

• Automatic point matching algorithm for mass tie point generation.

• Automatic sensor detection (if sensor information is available).

• Streamlined wizard workflow that can handle a large number of

• Powerful workstation that provides an efficient environment and

• Iterative model refinement and instantaneous rectification results in

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 1

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 1

• Data quality of the input images, reference image, and Digital

• User intervention may be required in some workflows to

2 Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync

Spectral Range of Selected Band

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 3

APM Strategy Tab

4 Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync

Try to select the layers of two images with same or similar

Find Points With: Select either the Default Distribution or Defined

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 5

10% The 5 X 5 grid divides each image

Default distribution is most appropriate for standard aerial

Defined Pattern If you select Defined Pattern, the options Starting

6 Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 7

Correlation Size: Enter the window size in pixels for cross-

8 Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 9

• Use images with an overlap larger than 40%.

• Use images with the same or similar resolution or pixel size.

• Use images that were captured by the same or similar sensor.

• Use images that are properly orthorectified (if appropriate). This

• Use images with relatively flat terrain. There is minimal vertical

• Ensure good initial map information is available for the images.

10 Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync

If you are unable to improve any of the following conditions, refer

• Resolution differences (or pixel size difference) larger than 6 times.

• Using images with a drastic time difference can result in a poor

• Sensor characteristics between the images if too different can affect

• If using images with large, uncorrected terrain relief, the vertical

Introduction to IMAGINE AutoSync 11