Dr Sakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow

Faculty of Law

(Emerging economies)

Assignment on:
“infrastructure development and land reforms in india”

By :
Shailesh kumar
10th semester
Roll no:164140060

Under the guidance of:

ShAMBHAVI
MA’AM

INDEX

S.NO TITLE PA TEACHER’S

. GE SIGN.
 NO.
1 Introduction 1
2 Importance of infrastructure 2
3 Infrastructure in India: Making 4
an elephant fly
4 Land reform 5
5 Land reform in India 6
6 Different approaches to land 11
reforms
7 Present development 12
8 Bibliography 14

Acknowledgement

This project is as result of dedicated effort. It gives me immense pleasure to prepare this project report
on “infrastructure development and land reforms in india”
I Would like to thank our project guide ShAMBHAVI MA’AM for consultative help and
constructive suggestion on the matter in this project . I would like to thanks my parents and colleagues
who helped me in making this project, a successful one.

Thanks

Introduction

Infrastructure sector is a key driver for the Indian economy. The sector is highly responsible for
propelling India’s overall development and enjoys intense focus from Government for initiating
policies that would ensure time-bound creation of world class infrastructure in the country.
Infrastructure sector includes power, bridges, dams, roads, and urban infrastructure development.
Market Size

According to the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), FDIs in the
construction development sector (townships, housing, built up infrastructure and construction
development projects) and construction (infrastructure) activities stood at US$ 25.93 billion and US$
23.99 billion, respectively, between April 2000 and December 2020.

Government Initiative and investment

In Union Budget 2021, the government has given a massive push to the infrastructure sector by
allocating Rs. 233,083 crore (US$ 32.02 billion) to enhance the transport infrastructure. The
government expanded the ‘National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP)’ to 7,400 projects. ~217 projects
worth Rs. 1.10 lakh crore (US$ 15.09 billion) were completed as of 2020. The key highlights of the
Budget 2021 are as follows:

In March 2021, the government announced a long-term US$ 82 billion plan to invest in the country’s
seaports. ~574 projects have been identified, under the Sagarmala project, for implementation through
2035.

 In April 2021, the Ministry of Power (MoP) released the draft National Electricity Policy (NEP)
2021. The MoP created an expert committee including members from state governments, the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), NITI Aayog and the Central Electricity
Authority (CEA).
 In March 2021, the Parliament passed a bill to set up the National Bank for Financing
Infrastructure and Development (NaBFID) to fund infrastructure projects in India. Indian railways
received Rs. 1,10,055 crore (US$ 15.09 billion), of which Rs. 1,07,100 crore (US$ 14.69 billion)
is for capital expenditure. Rs. 1,18,101 crore (US$ 16.20 billion) has been allocated towards road
transport and highway sector.
 In Budget 2021, the government announced the following interventions under Pradhan Mantri
Aatmanirbhar Swasth Bharat Yojana (PMANSY):

An outlay of Rs. 64,180 crore (US$ 8.80 billion) over six years to strengthen the existing ‘National
Health Mission’ by developing capacities of primary, secondary & tertiary care and healthcare
systems & institutions to detect and cure new and emerging diseases. This scheme will strengthen
17,000 rural and 11,000 urban health and wellness centres. Setting up integrated public health labs in
all districts and 3,382 block public health units in 11 states. Establishing critical care hospital blocks
in 602 districts and 12 central institutions. Strengthening the NCDC (National Centre for Disease
Control) to have five regional branches and 20 metropolitan health surveillance units. Expanding
integrated health information portal to all states/UTs. Rolling out the pneumococcal vaccine, a ‘Made
in India’ product, across the country. Rs. 35,000 crore (US$ 4.80 billion) has been allocated for
COVID-19 vaccines in FY22. The government announced Rs. 18,998 crore (US$ 2.61 billion) for
metro projects.

Mega Investment Textiles Parks (MITRA) scheme was launched to establish world-class
infrastructure in the textile sector and establish seven textile parks over three years. The government
announced Rs. 305,984 crore (US$ 42 billion) over the next five years for a revamped, reforms-based
and result-linked new power distribution sector scheme.

Road Ahead
The infrastructure sector has become the biggest focus area for the Government of India. India plans
to spend US$ 1.4 trillion on infrastructure during 2019-23 to have a sustainable development of the
country. The Government has suggested investment of Rs. 5,000,000 crore (US$ 750 billion) for
railways infrastructure from 2018-30.

India and Japan have joined hands for infrastructure development in India's Northeast states and are
also setting up an India-Japan Coordination Forum for Development of Northeast to undertake
strategic infrastructure projects for the region.

Importance of infrastructure

Infrastructure is crucially an important sector for the overall development of any country. In India, it
is considered as the backbone of the country’s economy as it integrates projects on a large scale and
strengthens its competitiveness on a global level. The infrastructural facilities such as roads, railways,
metro rails, and so on are required to potentially increase the productivity and seamless functioning of
other business sectors in India.

Highway construction target raised manifold; to construct 40 km roads per dayFuturistic infra project
to elevate Udaipur’s rank under Smart City Mission

According to the estimates of a recent report – India will require a whopping Rs 50 trillion (US$
777.73 billion) in infrastructure by 2022 for sustainable development in the country. It is also
showcasing a myriad of opportunities for foreign investors to invest in the country’s infrastructure
development. Furthermore, the estimates shared by the Department for Promotion of Industry and
Internal Trade (DPIIT) suggest – FDIs in the construction development and infrastructure activities
stood at US$ 17.22 billion in September 2020.

Given the present market scenario, the Indian government plans to spend USD 1.4 trillion during 2019
– 2023 on infrastructure with an investment of USD 750 billion on railways infrastructure by 2030.
On the other hand, the onset of the pandemic posed a daunting situation in front of infrastructure
companies to recover from an all-time low of the previous year. This calls for an urgent need to come
up with highly impactful strategies to stimulate growth in the sector.

Successful completion of infrastructure projects is capital intensive and requires a massive capital
inflow. The most crucial strategy to stimulate growth in the sector is an effective deployment of
capital resources by the government. As per the recent budget – the government has announced the
allocation of about Rs 1.07 Lakh crore to the Ministry of Railways and Rs 25,933 crore to the
Department of Telecommunications for capital expenditure. The deployment of the allocated
resources in the right way is expected to increase the number of tenders announced and completed. As
a result, there will be a large number of projects and higher demand for infrastructure firms,
accelerating the cashflows in the country. Additionally, if the time taken to fulfill contractual
obligations is reduced than the present, the operations in the sector will proceed with swiftness.

Besides resource allocation, it is extremely essential to introduce pan-India policies in the sector for
standardization. Inter-departmental disparities tend to hinder the progress of the projects significantly.
This has been obvious in the telecom sector that possesses differentiated pricing by municipal
corporations, for instance in Delhi. This becomes a huge detriment for the industry as a whole
especially at the time when telecommunication is not a luxury, but a necessity. Thus, the sector needs
a universal policy for the smoother execution of projects and tenders.
Another big challenge faced by large infrastructure companies is the sourcing of raw materials such as
steel. Earlier, the infrastructure companies were required to procure steel from primary producers
who charged a premium, therefore driving up costs for the industry as a whole. Recently, the ministry
of steel released a clarification stating that the raw material can be procured from any producer.
However, the implementation of such guidelines needs a great push in order to boost the industry’s
growth by reducing the cost of raw materials. Furthermore, the price fluctuations on raw materials
tend to delay the completion of infrastructure projects while slowing down the entire sector’s growth.
Providing relief on procurement of raw materials can result in expediting the delivery of the projects,
thereby, accelerating the growth of the sector.

Any sector that needs a strong push needs to identify the roadblocks and come up with a solution for
its progress. In the infrastructure industry, one of the biggest hurdles is incomplete projects. These are
usually left for too long in the last stage of development and the completion of them would make way
for new projects as well as provide support for them. This case is evident especially with physical
infra projects such as roadways and railways. Focus on physical infrastructure projects will make the
movement of resources easier and also provide aid to logistics.

In the past three years, there has been a buzz around the development of smart cities in India.
Expediting the process of project approvals can help the government fulfil the mission of smart cities,
and alleviate infrastructural gridlock in tier 1 and tier 2 cities, where most of the population is
concentrated.

Market Overview

 The Infrastructure in India is estimated to grow at a CAGR of approximately 7% during the

forecast period.
 Government plans to invest about INR 102 lakh crore on infrastructure projects by 2024-25. The
five-year-long National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP) will enter its second year in FY21, during
which INR 1,950,397 crores are to be invested. About INR 19.5 lakh crore has been budgeted
during FY21 as part of the NIP. Urban infrastructure, road transport, energy, and Railways
account for about 70% of allocation this 2020.
 About 42% of the projects in the NIP are under implementation, which means construction work
is already going on. Another 19% is under a development stage, while a big 31% is still in the
conceptual stage
 During the fiscals 2020 to 2025, sectors such as Energy (24%), Roads (19%), Urban (16%), and
Railways (13%) amount to around 70% of the projected capital expenditure in infrastructure in
India

Scope of the report

The Infrastructure in India covers the growing construction projects in different sectors, like Social
Infrastructure, Transportation Infrastructure, Extraction Infrastructure, Manufacturing Infrastructure.
Along with the scope of the report also it analyses the key players and the competitive landscape in
the Infrastructure in India.

Increase in Road infrastructure

Development of highways would be undertaken, including the development of 2,500 km access
control highways, 9,000 km of economic corridors, 2,000 km of coastal and land port roads, and
2,000 km of strategic highways. FASTag mechanism encourages greater commercialization of
highways enabling the NHAI to raise more resources. It was proposed to monetize at least 12 lots of
highway bundles of over 6,000 km before 2024. The government has allocated INR 1,963,943 crore
for road infrastructure in Budget.

Increase in FDI:

Multilateral institution Asian Development Bank (ADB) announced a USD 100 million funding for
the Indian infrastructure sector through the government-promoted NIIF. Foreign investments are
crucial for India as the country for overhauling its infrastructure sector such as ports, airports, and
highways to boost growth. Infrastructure is one of the sectors which gets the highest foreign direct
investment (FDI). Inflows in the verticals such as townships, construction development projects, and
housing were recorded at USD 25.5 billion between FY00 and FY19. Schemes such as ‘Housing for
all’ and ‘Smart Cities Mission’ have benefitted from these investments. Saudi Arabia is looking to
make investments in India potentially worth USD 100 billion in the areas of energy, refining,
petrochemicals, infrastructure, agriculture, minerals, and mining.

Infrastructure structure in india: Making an elephant fly

Infrastructure in India has been a talking point in almost every forum, though mostly for the wrong
reasons. With Union Budget 2021-22, the finance minister has placed it front and centre, to
effectively try and swing the economic cycle.
So far, efforts to retrofit and spur the economy with growth-multiplying infrastructure have been
constrained by paucity of funding. The budget takes the issue head on with a three-pronged approach:
laying sharper focus on government spending in some core sectors; enabling institutional framework
for financing; and providing avenues to unleash the animal spirits of the private sector by way of asset
monetisation. With a whopping 26 per cent increase in capex allocation, it pushes the growth
multiplier rather than stoke consumption.

The nine infrastructure ministries have got Rs 5.6 lakh crore, just a shade below the half-way mark Rs
11.4 lakh crore capex spend of all ministries. At an all-time high of Rs 2.6 lakh crore, gross budgetary
support has almost doubled in the past five years. Roads and highways and railways have continued to
hog a lion’s share of the infrastructure spend, much of it likely to come through the engineering,
procurement and construction or EPC route.

It is heartening that the finance minister has allocated funds to operationalise ideas announced in
previous budgets, such as the Jal Jeevan Mission, health infrastructure, economic corridors, high-
speed rail, and dedicated freight corridors.

In the energy sector, it proposed electricity connection portability, akin to telecom, which will bring in
competition, improve efficiency and benefit the power value chain. Necessary boost was provided to
smart meters, feeder separation and system upgradation in the power distribution space through a Rs
3.05 lakh crore outlay over the next five years, based on results. In the oil and gas sector, it proposed
an independent gas transport system operator to promote transparency and encourage competition.
Also, additional 100 city gas distribution licences are to be awarded to boost gas consumption.

As for urban transport, the government announced a Rs 18,000 crore scheme to add 20,000 city buses
– a welcome step given the precipitous drop in city bus patronage and the financial hole city bus
transport corporations are in given the pandemic. That said, while the Rs 4.3 lakh crore outlay for Jal
Jeevan Mission and Urban Swachh Bharat Mission is positive, more needs to be done to bridge the
gaps in basic services.

Overall, the budget has done well to allocate capital to sectors that have shovel-ready projects and the
ability to spur all-round growth and employment, as also setting the tone for bigger projects outlined
in the ambitious National Infrastructure Pipeline.

That said, the sector needs funds over and above the government’s own capex commitment. Over the
past 18 months or so, clamour was building for a funding institution that can cater specifically to the
sector’s financing needs. This has been addressed with the announcement to set up a professionally
managed Development Finance Institution (DFI) with an initial capital outlay of Rs 20,000 crore.

While we await details in a proposed Bill soon, it needs to be noted that the DFI will need capital well
in excess of Rs 20,000 crore in order to have a lending portfolio of Rs 5 lakh crore within three years.
The call out will be to rope in other development institutions and catalyze pension and insurance
funds to make a meaningful impact. This institution should go beyond traditional financing to
infrastructure projects, and catalyze direct long-term patient capital to the sector.

Other notable announcements such as the zero-coupon bonds by infrastructure debt funds, and debt
financing of infrastructure investment trusts and real estate investment trusts, set the stage for a robust
environment to garner funds for the all-important sector.

The third chapter in this Keynesian growth story centres on augmenting revenue and private play
through asset monetisation, cutting across key sectors such as gas pipelines, transmission assets, roads
and highways, railways, ports, and airports. There is also a push to privatise or disinvest some large
public sector units such as BPCL and Air-India. This is crucial as asset monetisation can be an
effective tool to shore up stretched government coffers. If there is any aspect it falls short in, it is in
the quantum of funds expected to be mobilised through this route.

While the impact may be seen in the medium term, implementation, as always holds the key.
Successful and timely implementation of the bold measures announced will be crucial to realise
the true benefits of this spending-focused budget. It can be said that the elephant has been given
the wings, and now comes the challenging task of walking-the-talk, and making the elephant fly.

LAND REFORMS

Meaning:

The term “Land reforms” is often used in discussing the various changes made in the cultivator’s
relation to a land in a land tenure system.

Derived from the Latin word “teneo”, the word tenure means “to hold”. Land tenure is therefore used
to refer to the conditions under which land is held

It therefore describes the arrangements by which farmers or others hold or control land and the
condition of its use and occupancy. Land constitutes the concurrent list of the constitution of India. It
is within the state power to legislate for land reforms. Each state in the country has its own agenda of
land reforms.

Importance of Land Reform:

In backward and largely rural societies the pattern of landholding happens to be a major correlate of
the political power structure, social hierarchy and economic relations. Possession of land ownership
further determines the manner in which land and labour are combined for production purposes and has
direct implication on the quantum and distribution of the produce. This, in turn, affects the relative
and absolute well-being of the population dependent on agriculture and others dependent on the
agricultural sector for food.

For countries with a large agricultural base the key to development is Improvement of agriculture.
Land is the major resource base in lilt’ agricultural sector. It is essential that land relations are
properly and the short-comings of the agrarian structure like highly skewed distribution of land.

Insecurity of tenure, high incidence of landlessness, high rents and rural indebtedness are attended to.
Thus the importance of land reforms becomes central to the agrarian structure. Supply of agricultural
land being inflexible, the title to land and its distribution has become a key issue of rural society and
polity.

The social objectives of land reform are as important as its economic and political objectives. Land
reform is visualised as an instrument of social Justice as it seeks to d^ away with exploitative
relationships characterised by sharp class division between rich landowning classes and impoverished
peasants with lo security of tenure.

It is a step against the concentration of land holdings in the hands of a few absentee/non-cultivating
owners, through imposition of ceilings on size of holdings which can be owned by a family. Land
reforms alter the power structure, both economic and political, since land has always been a source of
wealth, income, status and power. It empowers the actual tillers of the soil, and organises and enables
them to seek development benefits from the state.

Land reforms are also a means of increasing agricultural production through land development since
the peasant develops a long term interest for investing in the land he owns. He also has an incentive to
acquire new form technologies and innovations. As a result of land reform the small farmer is
benefited specially with the massive inputs provided by the state to the farmer.

LAND REFORMS IN INDIA

Pre Independence

Under the British Raj, the farmers did not have the ownership of the lands they cultivated, the
landlordship of the land lied with the Zamindars, Jagirdars etc. Several important issues confronted
the government and stood as a challenge in front of independent India. Land was concentrated in the
hands of a few and there was a proliferation of intermediaries who had no vested interest in self-
cultivation. Leasing out land was a common practice. The tenancy contracts were expropriative in
nature and tenant exploitation was almost everywhere. Land records were in extremely bad shape
giving rise to a mass of litigation. One problem of agriculture was that the land was fragmented into
very small parts l for commercial farming. It resulted in inefficient use of soil, capital, and labour in
the form of boundary lands and boundary disputes.

Post Independence

A committee, under the Chairmanship of J. C. Kumarappan was appointed to look into the problem of
land. The Kumarappa Committee's report recommended comprehensive agrarian reform measures.
The Land Reforms of the independent India had four components:
 The Abolition of the Intermediaries
 Tenancy Reforms
 Fixing Ceilings on Landholdings
 Consolidation of Landholdings.

These were taken in phases because of the need to establish a political will for their wider acceptance
of these reforms.

Abolition of the Intermediaries

 Abolition of the zamindari system: The first important legislation was the abolition of the
zamindari system, which removed the layer of intermediaries who stood between the cultivators
and the state. The reform was relatively the most effective than the other reforms, for in most
areas it succeeded in taking away the superior rights of the zamindars over the land and
weakening their economic and political power. The reform was made to strengthen the actual
landholders, the cultivators.

Advantages:

 The abolition of intermediaries made almost 2 crore tenants the owners of the land they
cultivated.
 The abolition of intermediaries has led to the end of a parasite class. More lands have been
brought to government possession for distribution to landless farmers.
 A considerable area of cultivable waste land and private forests belonging to the intermediaries
has been vested in the State.
 The legal abolition brought the cultivators in direct contact with the government.

Disadvantages:

However, zamindari abolition did not wipe out landlordism or the tenancy or sharecropping systems,
which continued in many areas. It only removed the top layer of landlords in the multi-layered
agrarian structure.

 It has led to large-scale eviction. Large-scale eviction, in turn, has given rise to several problems –
social, economic, administrative and legal.
 Issues: While the states of J&K and West Bengal legalised the abolition, in other states,
intermediaries were allowed to retain possession of lands under their personal cultivation without
limit being set.
 Besides, in some states, the law applied only to tenant interests like sairati mahals etc. and not to
agricultural holdings.

Therefore, many large intermediaries continued to exist even after the formal abolition of zamindari.
It led to large-scale eviction which in turn gave rise to several socio-economic and administrative
problems.

Tenancy Reforms

After passing the Zamindari Abolition Acts, the next major problem was of tenancy regulation. The
rent paid by the tenants during the pre-independence period was exorbitant; between 35% and 75% of
gross produce throughout India. Tenancy reforms introduced to regulate rent, provide security of
tenure and confer ownership to tenants. With the enactment of legislation (early 1950s) for regulating
the rent payable by the cultivators, fair rent was fixed at 20% to 25% of the gross produce level in all
the states except Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, and some parts of Andhra
Pradesh. The reform attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to regulate rents to give some
security to the tenants. In West Bengal and Kerala, there was a radical restructuring of the agrarian
structure that gave land rights to the tenants.

Issues: In most of the states, these laws were never implemented very effectively. Despite
repeated emphasis in the plan documents, some states could not pass legislation to confer rights
of ownership to tenants.

Few states in India have completely abolished tenancy while others states have given clearly spelt out
rights to recognized tenants and sharecroppers.

Although the reforms reduced the areas under tenancy, they led to only a small percentage of tenants
acquiring ownership rights.

 Ceilings on Landholdings

The third major category of land reform laws were the Land Ceiling Acts. In simpler terms, the
ceilings on landholdings referred to legally stipulating the maximum size beyond which no individual
farmer or farm household could hold any land. The imposition of such a ceiling was to deter the
concentration of land in the hands of a few.

In 1942 the Kumarappan Committee recommended the maximum size of lands a landlord can retain.
It was three times the economic holding i.e. sufficient livelihood for a family.

By 1961-62, all the state governments had passed the land ceiling acts. But the ceiling limits varied
from state to state. To bring uniformity across states, a new land ceiling policy was evolved in 1971.

In 1972, national guidelines were issued with ceiling limits varying from region to region, depending
on the kind of land, its productivity, and other such factors.

It was 10-18 acres for best land, 18-27 acres for second class land and for the rest with 27-54 acres of
land with a slightly higher limit in the hill and desert areas.

With the help of these reforms, the state was supposed to identify and take possession of surplus land
(above the ceiling limit) held by each household, and redistribute it to landless families and
households in other specified categories, such as SCs and STs.

Issues: In most of the states these acts proved to be toothless. There were many loopholes and
other strategies through which most landowners were able to escape from having their surplus
land taken over by the state.

While some very large estates were broken up, in most cases landowners managed to divide the land
among relatives and others, including servants, in so-called ‘benami transfers’ – which allowed them
to keep control over the land.

In some places, some rich farmers actually divorced their wives (but continued to live with them) in
order to avoid the provisions of the Land Ceiling Act, which allowed a separate share for unmarried
women but not for wives.
Consolidation of Landholdings

Consolidation referred to reorganization/redistribution of fragmented lands into one plot. The growing
population and less work opportunities in non- agricultural sectors, increased pressure on the land,
leading to an increasing trend of fragmentation of the landholdings. This fragmentation of land made
the irrigation management tasks and personal supervision of the land plots very difficult. This led to
the introduction of landholdings consolidation. Under this act, If a farmer had a few plots of land in
the village, those lands were consolidated into one bigger piece of land which was done by either
purchasing or exchanging the land. Almost all states except Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland,
Tripura and parts of Andhra Pradesh enacted laws for consolidation of Holdings. In Punjab and
Haryana, there was compulsory consolidation of the lands, whereas in other states law provided for
consolidation on voluntary basis; if the majority of the landowners agreed.

Advantages:

 It prevented the endless subdivision and fragmentation of land Holdings.

 It saved the time and labour of the farmers spent in irrigating and cultivating lands at different
places.
 The reform also brought down the cost of cultivation and reduced litigation among farmers as
well.

Result: Due to lack of adequate political and administrative support the progress made in terms
of consolidation of holding was not very satisfactory except in Punjab, Haryana and western
Uttar Pradesh where the task of consolidation was accomplished.

However, in these states there was a need for re-consolidation due to subsequent fragmentation of
land under the population pressure.

Need of re-consolidation: The average holding size in 1970-71 was 2.28 hectares (Ha), which has
come down to 1.08 Ha in 2015-16. While Nagaland has the largest average farm size, Punjab and
Haryana rank second and third in the list respectively. The holdings are much smaller in densely
populated states like Bihar, West Bengal and Kerala. The multiple subdivisions across generations
have reduced even the sub divisions to a very small size.

he Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements

Vinoba Bhave, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, noticed the problems faced by the landless harijans in
Pochampalli, Telangana. He led the movements in an attempt to bring about a “non-violent
revolution” in India’s land reforms programme. The movements were about urging the landed classes
to voluntarily surrender a part of their land to the landless giving it the name- Bhoodan Movement. It
began in 1951. In response to the appeal by Vinoba Bhave, some land owning class agreed to
voluntary donation of their some part of land. The Central and State governments had provided the
necessary assistance to Vinoba Bhave. Later, the Bhoodan gave way to the Gramdan movement
which began in 1952. The objective of the Gramdan movement was to persuade landowners and
leaseholders in each village to renounce their land rights and all the lands would become the property
of a village association for an egalitarian redistribution and joint cultivation. Under this movement, a
village was declared as Gramdan when at least 75% of its residents with 51% of the land signified
their approval in writing for Gramdan. The first village to come under Gramdan was Magroth,
Haripur, Uttar Pradesh.

Successes of the Movement:

The movement was the first post independence movement that sought to bring social transformation
through a movement and not through government legislation. It created a moral ambience that put
pressure on the big landlords. It also stimulated the political activity among the peasants and landless,
providing a fertile ground for political propaganda to organise peasants.

Drawbacks:

The land donated was mostly those which were unfertile or under litigation as a result although large
areas of land was collected but little was distributed among the landless. Gramdan movement was
started in villages where class differentiation had not emerged, there was little difference in
landholdings ownership, mainly in tribal areas. But it was not successful in areas where there was
disparity in landholdings. Further, the movement failed to realize its revolutionary potential.

Result:

 The movements received widespread political patronage.

 The movements reached their peak around 1969.
 Several state governments passed laws aimed at Gramdan and Bhoodan.
 But after 1969 Gramdan and Bhoodan lost its importance due to the shift from being a purely
voluntary movement to a government supported programme.
 In 1967, after the withdrawal of Vinoba Bhave from the movement, it lost its mass base.

Way Forward

It has now been argued by the NITI Aayog and some sections of industry that land leasing should be
adopted on a large scale to enable landholders with unviable holdings to lease out land for investment,
thereby enabling greater income and employment generation in rural areas. This cause would be
facilitated by the consolidation of landholdings. Modern land reforms measures such as land record
digitisation must be accomplished at the earliest.

Different Approaches to Land Reforms:

P.C. Joshi has suggested three approaches to land reforms. These are:

 The Gandhian Approach:

The Gandhian view does not bring out directly the contradictions of the Indian rural society in regard
to its land relations. However, Vinoba Bhave started a movement which is known as Gramdan. This
movement approached the landlords to part away with their surplus land as a donation to give to those
who were landless peasants. In the initial stage the movement cooled down.

 The Radical Nationalist Approach:

The radical nationalist did not work satisfactorily. It turned out to be a formal approach generally
adopted by the state governments.

 The Marxist Approach:

It takes into consideration the peasant movements and other non-legal lines and action. Taking into
consideration of these three approaches, it is clear Hint in order to reduce the sharp class differences,
land reforms have to be implemented.

Objectives of Land Reforms:

Land reforms in India have been under taken with many objectives.

 To bring about institutional changes in the agrarian structure.

 To abolish the intermediaries.
 To ensure social justice by distributing the surplus lands undertaken from the intermediaries.
 To prevent the exploitation of the tenants by the landlords.
 To ensure rational or scientific use of the limited agricultural lands through ceiling on land
holdings, consolidation of land holdings and creation of economic land holdings.

Causes of Failure of Land Reforms in India:

There are so many causes for the poor performance of land reforms programmes in India.

 Lack of political will.

 Unorganised, Inarticulate and passive nature of agricultural workers.
 Apathetic attitude of the bureaucracy.
 Absence of up-to-date land records.
 Legal hurdles in the way of implementation of land reforms.
 Transfer of lands to family members.
 Lack of uniformity in Land Reform Laws.
 Limits for retention of land for personal cultivation.
 Role of the corrupt, Inefficient, ineffective administrative machinery.
 Lack of social consciousness among the tenants.
 Emergence of new agricultural technology.

Present Scenario/Recent Developments:

In the Eighth Five Year Plan, the Central Government had 1 II marked 1,087 crore rupees for the
effective implementation of the land reforms.

Two centrally sponsored schemes are administered by land reforms Division in the Department of
Land Resources.

 Computerisation of Land Records (CLR).

 Strengthening of Revenue Administration and Updating of Land Records (SRA and ULR).

To remove the problems inherent in the manual systems of maintenance and of updating of land
records. During Eighth Five year Plan, the scheme was approved as a separate centrally sponsored
scheme on computerization of land records. The total expenditure under the scheme during this plan
was Rs. 59.42 crore.

During Ninth Five Year Plan, Ministry of Rural development released a sum of Rs. 169.13 crore by
covering 259 more districts under the scheme. In 2007, the scheme is being implemented in 582
districts of the country leaving those districts where there are no proper land records.

Strengthening of Revenue Administration and Updating of Land Records (SRA and ULR) was started
in 1987. Initially, the scheme All’, approved for the states of Bihar and Orissa in 1987-88 and
extended to other states and union territories during 1989-90. This scheme was financed by the centre
and the state on 50: 50 sharing basis.

Union territories are provided full central assistance. Under this scheme, financial assistance is given
for purchase of modern survey equipment’s like Global Positioning System (GPS), work stations,
Theodolites, Aerial Survey, office equipment’s like laminating machines, binding machines etc. and
also construction/ repair/renovation of Training Institutes and equipment’s for training. Since the
inception of scheme, financial assistance of Rs. 324.89 crore has been provided to state governments
and union territories up to 31st March 2006 towards central share under the scheme.

India sets up Land Reforms Panels:

India is setting up a panel to resolve disputes over distribution and acquisition of land after protests by
farmers who fear losing their land. Land has been the issue at the centre of a stand-off between
fanners and government agencies trying to acquire farms for industrial development. The panel
announced to create policies, guide the states and monitor the progress of land distribution and quick
disposal of compensation disputes.

According to the current report, 40% of Indians are now landless and 23% of them are in abject
poverty. The new panel, whose recommendations will be non-binding, will include government
officials and independent experts on land reforms.

On October 29th 2007—The Government has decided to set up a National Land Reform Council to be
headed by the Prime Minister. The council will supervise the implementation of a new land reforms
policy. It will update and computerize all land records in the next five years. “There will be a
committee for land reforms and will work within the given time frame. One committee is for land
resources and the second one will be headed by the prime minister”. The rural development minister
himself will head another panel called the committee on State Agrarian Relations and Unfinished
Land Reforms.

In this recent development, not only it has been decided in theory, but also there is a hope for the time
frame to facilitate this. In one month the committee will be appointed. In three months the policy will
be formulated.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/infrastructure-sector-crucial-for-indias-economic-
growth-but-these-roadblocks-need-to-be-managed/2198533/
 https://www.ibef.org/industry/infrastructure-sector-india.aspx#:~:text=India%20plans%20to
%20spend%20US,railways%20infrastructure%20from%202018-30.
 https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/infrastructure-sector-in-india
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/india-2/land-reforms/land-reforms-meaning-importance-
and-present-scenario-india/66712
 https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/paper3/land-reforms-in-india