Parallel Generators

Application & Installation Guide Generator Paralleling Switchgear
APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
GENERATOR PARALLELING
SWITCHGEAR
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
wide-ranging requirements and options for Switchgear with a focus on
Generator Paralleling Switchgear. Additional engine and generator systems,
components, and dynamics are covered in other sections of this Guide.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for all Switchgear. While much of the content of this guide is
applicable to all switchgear the primary focus of this guide is on the North
American generator paralleling switchgear market.
Contents
1 SWITCHGEAR.....................................................................9
1.1 Codes, Standards, and Terms ........................................9
1.1.1 IEEE1547..............................................................9
2 VOLTAGE CLASSIFICATIONS............................................. 10
3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES ........................................................ 10
3.1 Metal-Enclosed...........................................................10
3.2 Metal-Clad .................................................................11
3.3 Arc Resistant .............................................................12
3.4 Enclosure Ratings .......................................................12
3.4.1 Non-Hazardous Locations .....................................12
3.4.2 Hazardous Locations ............................................16
3.4.3 NEMA Enclosure Type Numbers vs.
IEC Enclosure Classification Designations........................17
4 POWER ASSEMBLY ........................................................... 18
4.1 Switchgear vs. Switchboard ........................................18
4.2 Switchgear Standards .................................................19
4.3 Switchgear Dimensions ...............................................20
4.3.1 Metal-Enclosed ....................................................20
©2007 Caterpillar®
2 All rights reserved.
4.3.2 Metal-Clad ..........................................................21

4.4 Switchgear Layout......................................................21
4.5 Busbar.......................................................................21
4.5.1 Skin Effect..........................................................22
4.5.2 Metal Selection ...................................................22
4.6 Wiring .......................................................................23
4.7 Transformers .............................................................23
4.7.1 Current Transformers ...........................................23
4.7.2 Voltage/Potential Transformers .............................24
4.7.3 Control Power Transformers .................................25
5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS .......................................................... 25
5.1 80% vs. 100% Rating ................................................28
5.1.1 NEC Requirements ...............................................28
5.2 Types of Circuit Breakers ............................................28
5.2.1 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers ................................28
5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case .............................29
5.2.1.2 Low Voltage Insulated Case...........................30
5.2.2 Low Voltage Power Breakers ................................30
5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers...........................31
5.2.3.1 Vacuum Circuit Breakers ...............................31
5.2.3.2 SF6 Circuit Breakers ......................................32
5.3 Trip Units ..................................................................33
5.3.1 Solid State Circuitry .............................................34
5.3.2 Long Delay (L) .....................................................34
5.3.3 Short Delay (S)....................................................34
5.3.4 Ground Fault (G)..................................................34
5.3.5 Anti-Pump ..........................................................35
5.4 Components ..............................................................35

5.4.1 Shunt Trip ..........................................................35
5.4.2 Under-Voltage Device ..........................................36
5.4.3 Auxiliary Contacts ...............................................36
5.4.4 Motor Operator ...................................................36
5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker Components .........36
5.5 Sizing Circuit Breakers ................................................37
5.6 Overload Protection ....................................................38
5.7 Short Circuit Protection ...............................................39
5.8 Control Power ............................................................40
5.8.1 Batteries .............................................................40
5.8.2 Battery Chargers .................................................40
6 CONTROLS....................................................................... 40
6.1 Components ..............................................................40
6.1.1 Control Relay ......................................................40
6.1.2 Programmable Logic Controller..............................41
6.1.3 Transducer..........................................................41
6.1.4 Operator Interface ...............................................41
6.2 Communications.........................................................41
6.2.1 Modbus ..............................................................41
6.2.2 Ethernet .............................................................42
6.2.3 Remote Monitoring and Control .............................42
6.2.3.1 Building Management/Automation System.......42
6.2.3.2 SCADA........................................................42
6.2.4 Human Machine Interface .....................................42
6.2.5 Reporting and Trending ........................................43
6.3 Master Controls..........................................................43
6.3.1 Load Sense/Demand ............................................43

6.3.2 Load Prioritization ................................................43
6.3.3 Load Shed/Add....................................................44
6.3.4 Dead Bus Arbitration ............................................44
6.3.5 System Level Testing ...........................................45
6.3.6 System Level Protective Relaying and Metering ......45
6.4 Generator Controls .....................................................45
6.4.1 Voltage Control ...................................................45
6.4.1.1 Voltage Regulators........................................45
6.4.2 Speed Control .....................................................45
6.4.3 Communication ...................................................45
6.5 Protective Relaying .....................................................45
6.5.1 Utility Intertie Protective Relays ............................49
6.5.1.1 Generator Protective Relays ...........................49
6.5.2 Test Blocks .........................................................50
6.5.3 Surge Protection..................................................50
6.5.3.1 Transient Low Voltage Surge Suppressor ........50
6.5.3.2 Surge Arrestors and Surge Capacitors.............50
7 METERING........................................................................ 51
7.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual Metering.............................51
7.2 Phase Selector Switch ................................................51
7.3 Ammeter ...................................................................51
7.4 Voltmeter ..................................................................51
7.5 Frequency Meter ........................................................51
7.6 Wattmeter .................................................................51
7.7 Kilowatt-Hour Meter ...................................................51
7.8 Power Factor Meter ....................................................51
7.9 Elapsed Time Meter ....................................................51

7.9.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual Metering:.....................52
8 ANNUNCIATION................................................................ 52
8.1 NFPA 99 ...................................................................52
8.2 NFPA 110 .................................................................53
8.3 Site Specific Components............................................53
9 PARALLEL OPERATION...................................................... 53
9.1 Isochronous ...............................................................53
9.2 Droop........................................................................53
9.3 Synchronizing ............................................................54
9.3.1 Rotation of Phases...............................................54
9.3.2 Voltage Match.....................................................55
9.3.3 Frequency Match.................................................56
9.3.4 Phase Angle Match ..............................................56
9.4 Methods of Paralleling.................................................57
9.4.1 Manual Paralleling ................................................57
9.4.2 Permissive Paralleling ...........................................59
9.4.3 Semiautomatic Paralleling .....................................59
9.4.4 Automatic Paralleling ...........................................59
9.5 Paralleling Components ...............................................59
9.5.1 Synchroscope .....................................................59
9.5.2 Sync Check Relay................................................60
9.5.3 Automatic Synchronizer .......................................60
9.5.4 Load Sharing Modules ..........................................60
9.6 Island Mode Operation ................................................61
9.6.1 Real (kW) Load Sharing ........................................61
9.6.2 Circulating Currents in Paralleled Generators...........62
9.6.2.1 Cross-current Compensation ..........................63

9.7 Utility Paralleled Operation...........................................65
9.7.1 Infinite Utility Bus ................................................65
9.7.2 VAR/Power Factor Regulation ...............................65
10 APPLICATIONS ............................................................... 66
10.1 Standby...................................................................66
10.1.1 Automatic Transfer Switch Integration.................67
10.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply Integration..............67
10.2 Parallel with Utility....................................................68
10.2.1 Base Load .........................................................68
10.2.2 Zero Import/Zero Export .....................................69
10.2.3 Peak Shaving ....................................................69
10.2.4 Zero Power Transfer ..........................................69
10.3 Prime ......................................................................70
11 MISCELLANEOUS............................................................ 70
11.1 Distributed Generation ..............................................70
11.2 Site Conditions .........................................................70
11.2.1 Altitude Correction.............................................70
11.2.2 Temperature Compensation ................................70
11.2.3 Humidity ...........................................................70
12 MAINTAINING SWITCHGEAR ........................................... 70
12.1 Planned Maintenance ................................................70
12.2 Spare Parts ..............................................................71
12.3 Safety .....................................................................71
12.3.1 NFPA 70E .........................................................71
13 GLOSSARY OF TERMS .................................................... 74
14 APPENDICES .................................................................. 77
14.1 Appendix A..............................................................77

14.2 Bibliography .............................................................79
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential. Discretion is

recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications are subject to change
without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, “Caterpillar Yellow” and the POWER EDGE
trade dress, as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of
Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
1 SWITCHGEAR • National Electrical Manufacturers

Association (NEMA).
Electric Power Generation systems
• American Bureau of Shipping
provide primary and backup electrical
(ABS).
power in installations around
the world. Generator Paralleling Switchgear installations in countries
Switchgear is an integral component other than the US are typically subject
in many of these installations to to requirements of the International
ensure optimal power generation Electro-Technical Commission (IEC)
and electrical distribution system or Underwriters Laboratory (UL) as
performance. well as the national agencies of the
country involved.
The term switchgear refers to the
combination of electrical disconnects, Marine installations in the US
fuses, and/or circuit breakers used are subject to and generally require
to isolate electric equipment and approval of various marine regulatory
distribute electrical power. The bodies such as the United States
primary functions of Generator Coast Guard and the American
Paralleling Switchgear are: Bureau of Shipping (ABS).
• Switching power source Marine applications often require
to the load. switchboard and complete shipboard
electrical systems to be furnished and
• Protecting the generator set.
installed according to IEEE Standard
• Metering output. 45 (IEEE Recommended Practice for
• Providing paralleling and load Electric Installations on Shipboard).
sharing capability. International marine applications
• Operating the generator set. must comply with other regulatory
bodies such as Lloyd’s, Bureau of
1.1 Codes, Standards, Veritas, Det Nork Veritas, and coast
and Terms guard requirements of other countries.
Within the United States, several 1.1.1 IEEE1547

organizations are responsible for IEEE1547 is a standard that
creating codes and standards establishes criteria and requirements
regarding switchgear construction. for interconnection of distributed
The main organizations are resources with electric power
systems (EPS).
• American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). This document provides a uniform
standard for interconnection of
• Institute of Electrical and
distributed resources with EPS.
Electronic Engineers (IEEE).
It provides requirements relevant
• Underwriters Laboratory (UL). to the performance, operation,
• National Fire Protection testing, safety considerations, and
Association (NFPA) – also maintenance of the interconnection.
sponsors the National Electrical
Code (NEC).
While uncommon in North America,

2 VOLTAGE it is possible to find requirements for
CLASSIFICATIONS medium voltage metal-enclosed
Switchgear systems are generally switchgear.
classified by voltage. Typical ranges
of paralleling switchgear voltages are 3.1 Metal-Enclosed
from 480V to 15kV and match the Metal-enclosed switchgear is
voltage ranges of the generators. commonly used in low voltage
Assemblies are also rated at specific applications.
voltages (i.e. 5kV, 15kV, 27kV,
38kV, etc.).
Rated Maximum Impulse
Figure 1 illustrates the most
Voltage (V rms) W ithstand (kV)
common voltage ranges for
switchgear. 254 2.2
Caterpillar Inc. denotes 15kV 508 2.2
generators as high voltage. The focus 635 2.2
of this documentation will be on the Figure 2 – LV AC Metal-Enclosed Switchgear
low and medium voltage ranges. Voltage and Insulation Levels
(IEE C37.20.1 –2002)
Voltage Nominal System Voltage
Metal-enclosed switchgear typically
Class 3-Wire 4-Wire
includes:
240/120 208Y/120
Low • Low voltage molded case or
240 240/120
Voltage power circuit breakers (fused
480 480Y/277
(LV) or unfused) in accordance
600 - with ANSI/IEEE C37.13.
2400 4160Y/2400
4160 8320Y/4800 • Bare bus bars and connections.
Medium 4800 12000Y/6930 • Instrument, control voltage,
Voltage 6900 12470Y/7200 and current transformers.
(MV) 13200 13200Y/7620 • Instruments and meters.
13800 13800Y/7970
• Relays, digital automation
14400
processors, and other logic
Figure 1 – Standard Nominal System
Voltages and Voltage Ranges devices.
(IEEE Standard 141-1993) • Control wiring, fuses, and
terminal blocks.
3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES
• Speed and voltage control
Three types of switchgear are components for the specific
available: metal-enclosed, metal-clad, generator set.
and arc resistant. Metal-enclosed
switchgear is primarily used for low • Feeder circuit breakers and
voltage applications while metal-clad power cable connections.
and arc resistant switchgear are most • Speed control components.
often used for medium voltage • Voltage control components.
switchgear.
Low voltage molded case or power Rated Maximum Impulse

circuit breakers are contained in metal Voltage (kV rms) W ithstand (kV)
compartments. These circuit
breakers can be manually operated 4.76 60
or electrically operated by local or 8.25 95
remote system controls. The circuit
15.0 95
breakers may be stationary or Figure 3 – MV AC Metal-Clad Switchgear
removable, plug-in for molded case Voltage and Insulation Levels
type, and draw-out for power type (ANSI/IEEE C37.20.2-1999)
circuit breakers. Medium voltage metal-clad
Indoor Switchgear: switchgear construction differs from
Metal-enclosed switchgear is metal-enclosed switchgear in several
enclosed on all sides, including the ways. The features that characterize
top, with sheet metal. Ventilating metal-clad switchgear are summarized
openings and inspection windows are in the following paragraphs.
not covered. The enclosure contains • The main switching and
the power switching or interrupting interrupting device is of the
devices with buses and connections, removable (draw-out) type
controls, instrumentation, metering, arranged with a mechanism for
and other auxiliary devices. Doors moving it physically between
and/or removable covers provide connected and disconnected
access to the interior of the positions. It is also equipped with
enclosure. self-aligning and self-coupling
Outdoor Switchgear: primary disconnecting devices and
control wiring connections capable
Outdoor metal-enclosed switchgear of being disconnected.
is similar to indoor switchgear except
it is also weatherproof. A walk-in • Major parts of the primary circuit,
outdoor enclosed switchgear such as the circuit switching or
assembly with an aisle in front of interrupting devices, buses,
the circuit breaker and instrument voltage transformers, and control
sections to protect workers and power transformers, are
equipment from weather during completely enclosed by grounded
maintenance and system operation metal barriers that have no
can be provided. intentional openings between
compartments. Specifically
3.2 Metal-Clad included is a metal barrier in
front of or a part of the circuit
Metal–clad switchgear is most interrupting device to insure that,
commonly used in medium voltage when in connected position, no
applications. Figure 3 shows the primary circuit components are
values for rated maximum voltage exposed by the opening of a door.
and impulse withstand for metal-clad • All live parts are enclosed within
switchgear. grounded metal compartments.
• Automatic shutters cover primary
circuit elements when the
removable element is in the benefits can be gained by using arc

disconnected, test, or removed resistant switchgear:
position. • Each compartment door and barrier
• Primary bus conductors and plate is designed to withstand
connections are covered with pressure surges due to internal
insulating material throughout. arcing.
• Mechanical or electrical interlocks • Hot gases and molten particles
are provided for proper operating escape through a specially
sequence under normal operating designed pressure relieve vent
conditions. located on the roof of the
• With the exception of short enclosure away from operating
lengths of wire such as at personnel.
instrument transformer terminals, • Closed door racking of circuit
instruments, meters, relays, breaker provides added safety.
secondary control devices, and • Viewing windows allow personnel
their wiring are isolated from all to observe the status of the circuit
primary circuit elements by breaker without opening the door.
grounded metal barriers.
• The low voltage compartment is
• The door through which the completely segregated to avoid
circuit-interrupting device is pressure buildup.
inserted into the housing may
• Arc resistant switchgear design
serve as an instrument or relay
should contain the damage within
panel and may also provide
the faulty compartment, reducing
access to a secondary or control
down time.
compartment within the housing.
3.3 Arc Resistant 3.4 Enclosure Ratings

The National Electric Manufacturers
Conventional medium voltage metal-
Association (NEMA) provides
clad switchgear is not designed to
standards for enclosures to ensure
withstand high arc energy faults.
safe operation under various
Faults due to defective insulating
conditions. Two major categories
materials, improper bus joints, poor
of classification are for switchgear
maintenance, incorrect protective or
in non-hazardous locations and those
safety devices, human error, ingress
in hazardous locations.
of moisture, abnormal service
conditions, etc. could quickly develop 3.4.1 Non-Hazardous Locations
into a 3-phase fault. High arc energy In non-hazardous locations the
faults cause rapid temperature specific enclosure types, their
increases of the surrounding air applications, and the environmental
and rapid increases of pressure conditions they are designed to
inside the enclosure. protect against, when completely
Arc resistant switchgear is designed and properly installed, are as follows
to provide protection against internal (see Figure 4 and Figure 5):
arcing faults. The following safety
Type 1 Enclosures constructed Type 3X Identical to Type 3

for indoor use to provide a degree of with an additional level of protection
protection to personnel against access against corrosion and against the
to hazardous parts and to provide a external formation of ice on the
degree of protection to the equipment enclosure.
inside the enclosure against ingress of Type 3RX Identical to Type 3
solid foreign objects (falling dirt). except Type 3RX does not protect
Type 1A is similar to Type 1, but against ingress of solid foreign
also includes gasketing material. Type objects, may be ventilated, and
1A is not officially recognized but is provides an additional level of
often included in specifications. protection against corrosion and
against the external formation of
Type 2 Enclosures constructed
ice on the enclosure.
for indoor use to provide a degree of
protection to personnel against access Type 3SX Identical to Type 3 but
to hazardous parts; to provide a also provides additional protection
degree of protection to the equipment against corrosion and sleet, ensuring
inside the enclosure against ingress the external mechanism(s) remain
of solid foreign objects (falling dirt); operable when ice laden.
and to provide a degree of protection Type 4 Enclosures constructed
with respect to harmful effects on the for either indoor or outdoor use to
equipment due to the ingress of water provide a degree of protection to
(dripping and light splashing). personnel against access to hazardous
Type 3 Enclosures constructed parts; to provide a degree of
for either indoor or outdoor use to protection to the equipment inside
provide a degree of protection to the enclosure against ingress of solid
personnel against access to hazardous foreign objects (falling dirt and
parts; to provide a degree of windblown dust); to provide a degree
protection to the equipment inside of protection with respect to harmful
the enclosure against ingress of effects on the equipment due to the
solid foreign objects (falling dirt and ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow,
windblown dust); to provide a degree splashing water, and hose directed
of protection with respect to harmful water); and to remain undamaged by
effects on the equipment due to the the external formation of ice on the
ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow); enclosure.
and to remain undamaged by the Type 4X Identical to Type 4 but
external formation of ice on the also provides an additional level of
enclosure. protection against corrosion (usually
Type 3R Identical to Type 3 by incorporating stainless steel or
except Type 3R does not protect nonmetallic composites) and against
against ingress of solid foreign objects the external formation of ice on the
and may be ventilated. enclosure.
Type 3S Identical to Type 3 with Type 5 Enclosures constructed
additional protection against sleet, for indoor use to provide a degree of
ensuring the external mechanism(s) protection to personnel against access
remain operable when ice laden. to hazardous parts; to provide a
degree of protection to the equipment Type 12 Enclosures constructed

inside the enclosure against ingress of without knockouts for indoor use to
solid foreign objects (falling dirt and provide a degree of protection to
settling airborne dust, lint, fibers, and personnel against access to hazardous
flyings); and to provide a degree of parts; to provide a degree of
protection with respect to harmful protection to the equipment inside
effects on the equipment due to the the enclosure against ingress of solid
ingress of water (dripping and light foreign objects (falling dirt and
splashing). circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
flyings); and to provide a degree of
Type 6 Enclosures constructed
protection with respect to harmful
for either indoor or outdoor use to
effects on the equipment due to the
provide a degree of protection to
ingress of water (dripping and light
personnel against access to hazardous
splashing).
parts; to provide a degree of
protection to the equipment inside Type 12K Identical to Type 12 but
the enclosure against ingress of solid with the addition of being constructed
foreign objects (falling dirt); to provide with knockouts.
a degree of protection with respect to Type 13 Enclosures constructed
harmful effects on the equipment due for indoor use to provide a degree of
to the ingress of water (hose-directed protection to personnel against access
water and the entry of water during to hazardous parts; to provide a
occasional temporary submersion degree of protection to the equipment
at a limited depth); and to remain inside the enclosure against ingress of
undamaged by the external formation solid foreign objects (falling dirt and
of ice on the enclosure. circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
Type 6P Identical to Type 6 but flyings); to provide a degree of
also provides an additional level of protection with respect to harmful
protection against corrosion, ingress effects on the equipment due to the
of water (occasional prolonged ingress of water (dripping and light
submersion), and protection against splashing); and to provide a degree
the external formation of ice on the of protection against the spraying,
enclosure. splashing, and seepage of oil and
non-corrosive coolants.
Figure 4 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Non-Hazardous Locations

(NEMA 250-2003)
Figure 5 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Non-Hazardous

Locations (NEMA 250-2003)
3.4.2 Hazardous Locations Type 8 Enclosures constructed

Manufacturers who specialize in for either indoor or outdoor use in
hazardous location equipment should hazardous (classified) locations that
be used for consultation when is classified as Class I, Division 1,
selecting equipment for hazardous Groups A, B, C, and D as defined in
locations. NFPA 70.
In hazardous locations, when Type 9 Enclosures constructed
completely and properly installed and for indoor use in hazardous (classified)
maintained, Type 7 and 10 enclosures locations classified as Class II,
are designed to contain an internal Division 1, Groups E, F, or G as
explosion without causing an external defined in NFPA 70.
hazard. Type 8 enclosures are Type 10 Enclosures constructed
designed to prevent combustion to meet the requirements of the Mine
through the use of oil-immersed Safety and Health Administration, 30
equipment. Type 9 enclosures are CFR, Part 18.
designed to prevent the ignition of
combustible dust. Figure 6 summarizes the
requirements for enclosures in
Type 7 Enclosures constructed hazardous locations.
for indoor use in hazardous (classified)
locations classified as Class I, Division If the enclosure in a hazardous
1, Groups A, B, C, or D as defined in location is to be outdoors or additional
NFPA 70. protection is needed from Figure 4 or
Figure 5, a combination-type
enclosure is needed.
Figure 6 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations

(NEMA 250-2003)
3.4.3 NEMA Enclosure Type Numbers equated with the enclosure Type
vs. IEC Enclosure Classification numbers in this standard.
Designations The IEC designation consists of the
IEC Publication 60529, letters IP followed by two numerals.
“Classification of Degrees of The first numeral indicates the degree
Protection Provided by Enclosures,” of protection provided by the
provides a system for specifying the enclosure with respect to persons
enclosures of electrical equipment on and solid foreign objects entering
the basis of the degree of protection the enclosure. The second numeral
provided by the enclosure. indicates the degree of protection
IEC 60529 does not specify degrees provided by the enclosure with
of protection against mechanical respect to the harmful ingress of
damage of equipment, risk of water.
explosions, or conditions such as Figure 7 provides an equivalent
moisture, corrosive vapors, fungus, conversion from the enclosure Type
or vermin. The NEMA Standard for numbers in this standard to the IEC
Enclosures for Electrical Equipment enclosure classification designations.
does test for environmental conditions The enclosure type numbers meet or
such as corrosion, rust, icing, oil, and exceed the test requirements for the
coolants. For this reason and because associated IEC Classification; for this
the test and evaluations for other reason Figure 7 cannot be used to
characteristics are not identical, the convert from IEC classifications to
IEC enclosure classification enclosure Type numbers.
designations cannot be exactly
Figure 7 – IEC Enclosure Classification

A shaded block in the “A” column indicates that the NEMA enclosure type
exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529 IP first character
designation. The IP first character designation is the protection against access
to hazardous parts and solid foreign objects.
A shaded block in the “B” column indicates that the NEMA enclosure type
exceeds the requirements for the respective IEC 60529 IP second character
designation. The IP second character designation is the protection against the
ingress of water.
panel boards. The ratings for these
4 POWER ASSEMBLY breakers range from 15A to 3,000A.
4.1 Switchgear vs. Insulated case breakers typically
Switchboard range from 400A to 5,000A. These
breakers are available as options for
The terms switchgear and switch- switchboards and can be designed
board are often used interchangeably as fixed or drawout systems.
when referring to low voltage circuit
Power circuit breakers typically
breaker distribution equipment.
range from 800A to 5,000A. They are
However, there are significant connected to the bus in a drawout.
differences in components, standards,
applications, configurations, selection Switchgear is larger than
criteria, and reliability between these switchboards and requires front and
two types of power distribution rear access. Drawout breakers in
equipment. switchgear will require more clearance
in the front. Front accessible
The major differences between switchboards have the smallest
switchgear and switchboard are the
space requirements.
types of circuit breakers used. A more
detailed discussion of circuit breakers Further details about circuit
can be found in Section 5. breakers, switchboard, and
switchgear standards can be found in
Molded case circuit breakers are Figure 9.
the most common, used in all types
of low voltage switchboards and
Switchgear Switchboard
Figure 8 – Switchgear and Switchboard
4.2 Switchgear Standards

The two main standards for low standards is shown in Figure 9
voltage switchgear are UL 1558 and photos of the switchboard and
and UL 891; a comparison of the switchgear are shown in Figure 8.
Category UL 1558 UL891

Name Switchgear Switchboards
Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power
ANSI Reference No ANSI Standard Reference
Circuit Breaker Switchgear
Front Access or Front and Rear
Access Front and Rear Access
Access
Application Standards NEMA SG3, SG5, ANSI C37.20.1 NEMA PB2
Molded Case or Insulated Case
Circuit Breakers Power Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breakers
Fixed Mounted (Some Mains May
Usually Draw-Out Mounted
be Draw-Out)
Mounting Group Mounted (can be
Individually Mounted Individually Mounted in some
cases)
Ambient Air Temperatures and
Service Conditions Service conditions not addressed
Altitude Specified
Determined by testing at 635V for 4 Determined by testing at 600V for
Short Circuit Ratings
cycles at 60 Hz 3 cycles at 60 Hz
Phase to neutral only required
Requires phase to neutral and
Short Circuit Bus Testing under certain conditions and
phase to ground
phase to ground not required
Requires indoor finish to pass 24
Requires finish to pass 200 hour
Enclosure Finish hour salt spray test. Outdoor
salt spray test
finish must pass 600 hour test
Requires barriers between breakers
Barriers Does not require internal barriers
and bus and between breakers
Requires barriers isolating service
requires barriers for "Line of
Service Entrance entrance bus from serviceable load
Sight" contact
connections
Requires Mechanical means to trip Does not require mechanical
Means of Trip
E.O. Breakers tripping of E.O. breakers
Production Tests Requires 7 production tests Requires 3 Production tests
Figure 9 – UL 1558 and UL 891 Comparisons
breakers are permissible in a unit,

4.3 Switchgear Dimensions although in some cases three may
4.3.1 Metal-Enclosed be furnished. Also with one 3200A
For switchgear located indoors, the breaker, two or three smaller breakers
room should be designed to allow may be supplied in the vertical
ample space for the switchgear and section.
provide adequate ventilation. To Breakers with frame sizes of
estimate space requirements, 4000 or 6000A require units 36 to
manufacturer catalogs usually provide 44 inches wide, depending on the
information used to plan the layout. manufacturer. Usually, only one of
Breakers up to 3200A frame size will these breakers can be furnished with
be in units of 18 or 22 inches wide a unit.
and can typically be stacked four units
Fused breakers in 225, 600, and
high. Usually only two 3200A
1600A frame sizes are supplied in
units of the same width as unused from 28 to 50 inches wide, an aisle

breakers of the same frame size. is also required on the rear of the
When fuses are used in series with switchgear for use in maintenance;
3000A and above breakers, they a 36 inch wide aisle is usually
are occasionally in a separate recommended. NEC working
compartment directly above or directly clearance dictates width.
below the breaker. However, at least Auxiliary units are commonly the
one manufacturer can offer 3000 and same size as breaker units except in
4000A breakers with integrally special situations, such as power
mounted fuses and no increase in company metering units. When such
space requirements. cubicles are required, they should be
Depth of indoor switchgear ranges constructed to the power company’s
from 54 to 90 inches, depending on specifications and drawings of the
the manufacturer. However, this units should be approved by the
depth may not allow enough space power company before manufacture.
for outgoing cables, so it may be Outdoor switchgear units are the
necessary in some cases to add a same width as the indoor units of the
section on the rear of one or more same rating and they will be
units to provide sufficient space. If somewhat taller, since a sloping roof
overhead breaker lifting devices and is usually supplied. The depth of the
ventilation is excluded, the height of outdoor unit will depend on the width
the indoor switchgear will be of the sheltered aisle (if any) and
approximately 90 inches. whether standard aisle or common
Depth of outdoor switchgear is aisle type of construction is used.
approximately 72 to 94 inches; the Aisle spaces usually range from
height of outdoor gear is 112 inches. 70 to 110 inches wide.
All dimensions given here are to be
used for preliminary estimates only. 4.4 Switchgear Layout
4.3.2 Metal-Clad The size of a switchgear group will
In medium voltage metal-clad vary slightly with the manufacturer.
switchgear, breakers are not stacked When outdoor switchgear is used,
as they are in low voltage switchgear. space is not often the most critical
Each breaker unit will contain only one consideration, so the product of any
or two breakers. manufacturer can be used. However,
the pad should not be poured until
Indoor 5kV metal-clad switchgear
certified drawings have been received
units for 1200 to 2000A breakers are
from the manufacturer to be sure that
26 to 36 inches wide with height
it will be the proper size and shape.
varying from 72 to 95 inches,
depending on supplier; depth varies
from 56 to 96 inches. Aisled or
4.5 Busbar
Aisless units may be used. For aisled When several control panels are
units an unobstructed work space located adjacent to one another in
(aisle) is required on the breaker a floor-standing assembly, a set of
drawout side wide enough to permit common conductors is used on the
removal of the breaker and may be load side of the circuit breaker. These
conductors consolidate the output bolted or clamped connections. Often

of all the operating generators and joints between high-current bus
conduct the total output to the sections have matching silver-plated
distribution system. The bus may be surfaces to reduce the contact
cables joining the respective terminal resistance; a conductive joint
lugs or it may be rigid, bare bars of compound may also be used to
aluminum or copper suitably insulated increase conductivity and reduce
from the structure of the switchboard. thermal stress at the joint.
The size of the busbar is important Low voltage switchgear is not
in determining the maximum amount typically required to have insulated
of current that can be safely carried. busbars. If insulation is required,
Busbars are typically either flat strips additional cost will be incurred.
or hollow tubes as these shapes allow Splice plates allow for field
heat to dissipate more efficiently due interconnection of the main bus of
to a high surface area to cross- two adjacent floor-standing panels.
sectional area ratio. The skin effect In low voltage applications these are
(see section 4.5.1) makes alternating typically used when additional
electric current (AC) busbars more structures are added to an existing
than ½” thick inefficient, so hollow switchgear lineup or to limit main bus
or flat shapes are prevalent in high sections to a practical length to
current applications. A hollow section accommodate shipping splits. Metal-
is stiffer than a solid rod which allows clad medium voltage switchgear
for a greater span between busbar structures are manufactured with
supports. modular main bus sections and
A busbar may either be supported normally require splice plates between
on insulators or insulation may each adjacent section.
completely surround it. Busbars are
protected from accidental contact by 4.5.1 Skin Effect
a metal enclosure or by elevation out Skin effect is the tendency of an
of normal reach. Phase busbars may alternating electric current (AC) to
be insulated while ground busbars are distribute itself within a conductor so
typically bolted directly onto a metal the current density at the surface of
chassis of the enclosure. the conductor is greater than at its
core. Thus, the electric current tends
Busbar insulation is a requirement of to flow along the “skin” of the
metal-clad switchgear and is provided conductor.
to minimize the possibility of
communicating faults and to prevent Silver plating on buswork is used to
development of bus faults which mitigate skin effects and provide more
would result if foreign objects even conductivity.
momentarily contacted the bare 4.5.2 Metal Selection
bus. Further information on busbar Copper is preferred over aluminum,
insulation can be found in ANSI except where corrosive atmospheres
Standard Z244.1. may have an adverse affect on
Busbars may be connected to each the copper. Copper has a higher
other and to electrical apparatus by conductivity than aluminum, it is
more easily plated, and bolted joints if stranded wire is used. Flexible wire
are made more easily. The melting must be used for wiring across a
point of copper is higher than hinge to a panel.
aluminum so less damage is done The insulation on the wire must
to copper busses in case of an meet the requirements for Type TA,
arcing fault. TBS, or SIS as described in the
In most cases, copper is a more National Electrical Code.
expensive metal. If aluminum is used,
joints may be welded, making field 4.7 Transformers
changes difficult. Copper joints must
A transformer is a device that
be silver-plated; aluminum bolted
transfers electrical energy from one
joints may be silver-plated or tin-
circuit to another through a shared
plated. Where bolted joints are
magnetic field. A changing current in
necessary, as at shipping splits,
the primary circuit creates a changing
aluminum may be welded to copper.
magnetic field, which induces a
Bolted joints should be made to
voltage in the secondary circuit.
minimize the tendency to cold flow
The secondary circuit mimics the
(permanently deform due to constant
primary circuit but with different
stress) and to maintain a tight clamp
current and voltage.
in the case of some cold flow or
stretching of the bolt over a period 4.7.1 Current Transformers
of time. Current transformers (CTs) are
designed to provide a current in its
4.6 Wiring secondary conductor proportional to
When determining wiring, applicable the current flowing in its primary
standards must be used to determine conductor. Current transformers can
the following: safely isolate measurement and
control circuitry from high voltages
• Size of wire. and currents present in the circuit
• Insulation material. while giving an accurate measurement
of the primary current. Figure 10
• Terminal types. shows a picture of current
• Terminal insulation. transformers.
A detailed wiring diagram is required
to show the relative location of
terminals on various devices and
terminal blocks. Referring to this
diagram can identify when trouble-
shooting or making changes Figure 10 – Current Transformers
to wiring.
The current transformer ratio is
Secondary wiring in metal-clad generally selected so the maximum
switchgear must be enclosed in metal load current will read about 70% full
channels or in conduit to isolate it scale on a standard 5A coil ammeter.
from the primary circuits. The wire Therefore, the current transformer
should not be smaller than 16 AWG
primary rating should be 140-150% set of two line-to-line voltage trans-

of the maximum load current. formers. If line-to-ground potential is
also required for a directional ground
4.7.2 Voltage/Potential Transformers relay, a set of three line-to-ground
Voltage transformers (VT’s) or voltage transformers can be used to
potential transformers (PTs) are used provide both line-to-line potential for
between the phase voltage of the the 2 element watt-hour meter and
generator and the various instruments line-to-ground potential for the
and apparatus to reduce the voltage ground relay.
to standard 120V instrument voltage.
A picture of a voltage transformer is A 3-phase, 4-wire solidly grounded
shown in Figure 11. system usually requires three line-to-
ground voltage transformers for 2-1/2
or 3 element metering
Where synchronizing of generators
or systems is necessary, it is
recommended that only line-to-line
potential be used.
Figure 11 – Medium Voltage Switchgear

Voltage Transformer
Voltage transformers are designed
to present negligible load to the
supply being measured and to have
a precise voltage ratio to accurately
step down high voltages so metering
and protective relay equipment can
be operated at a lower potential.
Selection of the ratio for the voltage
transformer is seldom a question since
the primary rating should be equal to
or higher than the system line-to-line Figure 12 – Open Delta Voltage
voltage. The type of system and the Transformer Diagram
relaying determines the number of
potential transformers per set and the
connection and metering required.
A 3-phase, 3-wire system with 2
element watt-hour meters requires a
drawout primary fuse drawer

above 15kVA.
Figure 14 – Medium Voltage CPT
5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Figure 13 – Wye Voltage Transformer The circuit breaker is an integral
Connection
component in switchgear, opening
4.7.3 Control Power Transformers and closing a circuit by non-automatic
Control power transformers (CPTs) means and opening the circuit
are used for auxiliary power to space automatically on a predetermined
heaters, lights, and receptacles and over-current level without damage.
control of electrically operated Circuit breakers are located between
breakers when external auxiliary the power source and the load and
power sources are unavailable. play a crucial role in two of the main
CPTs, when used for control of functions of switchgear:
electrically operated breakers, should • Switching the load to and from
be connected on the source side of the generator.
the main breaker so the control power
is available to close the main breaker. • Protecting the generator from
short circuits and overloads.
Some of the main features of CPTs
are listed below: All circuit breakers have the
following common design and
• Step the primary voltage down
functional characteristics:
to 120/240VAC.
• Frame.
• Provide 120/240VAC power
for heaters, lights, and breaker • Contacts and operating
control. mechanisms.
• Mounted in a drawout auxiliary • Trip units.
drawer up to 15kVA. • Arc extinguishing methods.
• Fix mounted in the rear of the • Mounting methods.
structure and provided with a
• For low voltage CBs. • For medium voltage CBs,

application/circuit specific compliance to application/circuit
standards must meet the specific standards does not
requirements of UL 1066 (used apply. Medium voltage CBs can
in UL 1558 switchgear) or UL be rated using the ANSI C37.06
489 (used in UL 891 switch- rating structure.
gear). For a comparison of UL
1066 and UL 489 see.
Required Ratings UL 1066 UL 489

Typically used with LV Typically used for LV
Name
Switchgear Switchboards
Rated (Maximum) 254V, 508V, 635V or 600V for integrally 120, 120/240, 240, 277, 347, 480Y/277,
Voltage fused CB’s 480 600Y/347 or 600 Vac
Rated Frequency dc, 60 Hz/ 50 Hz. dc, 50 or 60 Hz or 400 Hz
Frame sizes: 800-6000A, other ratings

Rated Continuous Frame sizes: 15-6000A
are available from combinations of
Current sensors and trip units
Rated Short - Time Carry for (2) 0.5 sec. periods (1 second Not specified
Current withstand)
Short-Circuit O -15 sec. - CO
O - (2 to 60 min.) - CO
Operating Duty
e.g. 4000A frame – 1,500 open/close
500 Drawout Operations
operations
Mechanical e.g. 800A Frame – 12,500 open/close
800A frame – 3,500 open/close
Endurance operations with maintenance every
operations
1,750 operations
No maintenance possible
4000A frame 400 open/close operations 4000A frame – 400 open/close

under load operations under load
Electrical Endurance 800A frame 2,800 open/close 800A frame 500 open/close operations
operations under load under load
Continuous - Current
UL 1066 UL 489
Test Requirements
Enclosure Required Optional
100% of continuous current in air. 80%

Must carry 100% of continuous current
Current Level within enclosure (100% rated)
of continuous current in enclosure.
(Optionally can be 100% rated)
Allowable
Temp. Rise Total Temp Temp. Rise Total Temp
Temperature Limits
Internal Circuit Limit = Insulating Materials Capability
85ºC 125ºC
Breaker Contacts
Connections 85ºC 125ºC Limit = Insulating Materials Capability
At Terminal
55ºC 95ºC 50ºC 90ºC
Connection
Insulating Materials C37.13, Table 2 Table 7.1.4.1.1
Figure 15 – Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Standards Comparison
5.1 80% vs. 100% Rating labeled with special wiring and
installation.
All circuit breakers are tested
to carry their full current rating 5.1.1 NEC Requirements
indefinitely. However, the NEC With regards to the issue of over-
requires that circuit breakers and current protection, Section 210.20
circuit conductors be sized at 125% of the NEC states:
of their applied, continuous loads. The “Branch-circuit conductors and
purpose of this requirement is to build equipment shall be protected by
a “safety factor” into installations. over-current protective devices
Standard (80%) rated circuit that have a rating or setting that
breakers are tested in open air at complies with 210.20(A) through (D).
40°C ambient and required to carry (A) Continuous [loads lasting longer
their rated current without tripping than 3 hours] and Non-continuous
within specific operating temperature Loads. Where a branch circuit supplies
guidelines. However, in actual continuous loads, or any combination
installations, circuit breakers are often of continuous and non-continuous
installed in equipment with little or no loads, the rating of the over-current
ventilation. If the breaker carries its device shall not be less than the non-
full current rating, the temperature continuous load plus 125 percent of
inside the equipment (at the breaker, the continuous load. Exception: Where
and on the conductors) could be the assembly, including the over-
higher than rated limits. By restricting current devices protecting the branch
the amount of current flowing in each circuit(s), is listed for operation at
device, the NEC limits the heat to safe 100% of its rating, the ampere rating
levels. of the over-current device shall be
permitted to be not less than the sum
Both the NEC and UL489 (Molded of the continuous load plus the non-
Case Circuit Breaker Test Standard) continuous load.”
allow for testing and usage at 100%
current rating if the breaker, It is important to note that installing
conductors and enclosure are tested a 100% rated breaker in an assembly
and certified to make sure that the does not necessarily mean that the
temperature inside the enclosure will entire assembly is 100% rated. An
not exceed limits. The test is assembly may only be listed for 100%
conducted with the Circuit breaker operation after it has successfully
installed in the smallest enclosure they passed separate testing by UL, as
could be used in and the breaker must an assembly, per UL requirements.
carry 100% rated current until
maximum temperatures are reached. 5.2 Types of Circuit
The circuit breaker cannot trip and the Breakers
temperature rise at the customer
connection cannot exceed 60° C 5.2.1 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
above ambient. If the temperature rise Low voltage circuit breakers are
exceeds 50°C, the breaker must be available in molded-case, insulated
case, and power type. When
specifying circuit breakers, the
required frame size and desired trip electrically operated. A comparison of

rating must be determined. The choice low voltage circuit breaker types are
must be made between draw-out and shown below:
stationary, and manually operated or
Power Circuit Insulated Case Molded Case Circuit
Breaker Circuit Breaker Breaker
Fully Replaceable: Arc chutes may be
No internal maintenance
- arc chutes replaceable
Maintainability Circuit breakers are
- contacts depending on the
sealed
- springs manufacturer
ANSI C37.16 UL 489
Certification UL 489
UL1066 (or UL1066)
Mounting Drawout Drawout or Fixed Fixed
Two-Step Stored Two-Step Stored
Energy Energy Toggle
Operation Electrically Operated Electrically Operated Typically Mechanically
or Mechanically or Mechanically Operated Only
Operated Operated
Thermal Magnetic or
Trip Unit Type Electronic Electronic
Electronic
Typicallly 80% rated
100% Rated Yes Yes 100% optional with
electronic trip unit
Instantaneous Yes Yes
Optional
Override Trip ~ 13 times rating ~ 10 times rating
Yes Yes
30-Cycle Withstand Up to Full Interrupt Less than Full No
Rating Interrupt Rating
Figure 16 – Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Comparison
5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case • Contacts – carry current.

Molded case circuit breakers are a • Arc extinguishers – confine and
fixed mount, completely sealed extinguish the arc which will be
design, primarily intended for wire drawn between contacts each
protection. Molded case circuit time they interrupt current.
breakers can be bolt-on or plug-in • Trip elements – monitor
mounted. current and trip the operating
Molded case circuit breakers mechanism and open the
typically have a maximum voltage contacts in the event of
limit of 600V and feature the a fault condition.
following main components: • Terminal connectors - connect
• Molded case - a housing the circuit breakers to the power
of insulating materials. source and the load.
• Operating mechanism - opens Short time current ratings on molded

and closes the breaker. case circuit breakers are much lower
than their interrupting ratings.
Selective tripping is available over a

small range well below kAIC ratings.
They are typically operated via a
mechanical over-center toggle; add-on
motor operators are available. Low
voltage molded case circuit breakers
exhibit the following characteristics:
• Must be certified to the UL 489
standard.
• No internal maintenance required Figure 18 – Insulated Case Circuit Breaker
due to circuit breaker being 5.2.2 Low Voltage Power Breakers
sealed. Power circuit breakers are designed
• Can be thermal-magnetically to be connected to busbars in
tripped or electronically tripped. switchgear. They may be manually
• 10X instantaneous override trip. operated or electrically operated.
They have fully replaceable (field
• Voltage limit of 600V.
maintainable) arc-chutes, contacts,
and springs. Low voltage power
breakers exhibit the following
characteristics:
• Must be certified to UL 1066
standards.
• Must be drawout mounted.
• Electronically tripped.
• 30-cycle withstand up to full
interrupt rating.
Figure 17 – Molded Case Circuit Breakers
• Perform fast re-closure to
5.2.1.2 Low Voltage Insulated Case maintain high continuity of
Insulated case circuit breakers service.
exhibit the following characteristics:
• Trip unit is integrally mounted
• Must be certified to the UL 489 on the circuit breaker.
standard.
Some of the advantages of power
• Can be fixed-mounted or circuit breakers are
drawout-mounted.
• High interrupting ratings.
• Electronically tripped.
• High short time ratings.
• 13X Instantaneous override trip.
• Speed of operations:
• 30-cycle withstand less than full
Remote open/close
interrupt rating.
operation.
Fast re-closing.
Transfer loads while 5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit

maintaining continuity Breakers
of service: Two types of medium voltage circuit
o Used for paralleling breakers are typically used: vacuum
switch gear. circuit breakers and SF6 circuit
breakers. In North America vacuum
o Used in main-tie-main
circuit breakers are typically used;
transfer schemes.
internationally SF6 circuit breakers
• Coordination/selectivity. are commonly found.
• Maintainability. 5.2.3.1 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
The vacuum interrupter (Figure 20)
is a pair of separable contacts
enclosed in a vacuum-tight envelope.
The envelope itself is a ceramic
material with a metal end plate brazed
to each end. The metal plates seal the
ends and provide support for the parts
inside.
Figure 19 – Power Circuit Breakers
Vacuum
Interrupter
Primary
Disconnects
Figure 20 – Vacuum Breaker Rear View
Of the two contacts inside, one is provide different types of protection

fixed and the other is movable to interrupter parts.
through a bellows type connection. When the circuit breaker is closed,
Various shields inside the envelope the contacts within the interrupter
touch, allowing current to flow.
When a fault occurs and interruption dielectric can withstand without

is required, the contacts are quickly breaking down. The transient recovery
separated and an arc forms. An arc voltage is the most severe wave form
is formed because the voltage tries to the interrupter will have to withstand.
keep the current moving. This is why the speed of the dielectric
recovery and the strength of the
dielectric inside the interrupter are
critical issues for successful circuit
interruption. If the dielectric does not
reach sufficient strength fast enough,
the arc will re-ignite.
Vacuum interrupters for circuit
breaker duty must be capable of
interrupting currents of 12-50kA
and up at voltages up to 38kV.
Figure 21 – Interrupter Cut Away View

The arc burns in the metal vapor
evaporated from hot spots on the
contact surfaces. This metal vapor Figure 22 – Vacuum Circuit Breaker
continuously leaves the contact region 5.2.3.2 SF6 Circuit Breakers
and re-condenses on the contact Popular outside of the United States
surfaces and surrounding metal shield is SF6 technology. It is specifically
which protects the ceramic envelope. associated with European
At current zero the arc extinguishes, manufacturers of medium and
contact vapor production stops, and higher voltage circuit breakers.
the original vacuum condition is In an SF6 circuit breaker the main
restored. Current zero is a point in the contacts are enclosed in a chamber
AC current sine wave where the value of SF6 gas, a good dielectric. The arc
is zero. interruption technology results in arc
The vacuum in the envelope is energy being used and absorbed while
considered a dielectric. The dielectric the arc is simultaneously cooled.
strength is the maximum voltage the
There are several types of SF6 cooler gas to help cool the arc.
interrupter designs; the two most Contact erosion is also reduced
common types are: due to the rapid arc movement.
• Puffer. At current zero, the arc is cooled
• Rotary arc. and extinguished.
Puffer: 5.3 Trip Units
The puffer-type interrupter is more
complicated than the rotary arc-type. Trip units are most commonly found
on low voltage applications. The trip
units serve as the logic control for the
During current interruption a piston
breaker. There are two types of trip
compresses the SF6 gas in a cylinder,
units:
all of which is contained in an epoxy-
type enclosure. After the main • Thermal magnetic.
current-carrying contacts separate • Electronic.
the current transfers to the arcing
Thermal magnetic units offer a
contacts. Once the arcing contacts
delay in the event of overload while
separate the SF6 gas in the
responding quickly to excessive
compression chamber blasts the arc
current. Magnetic-only units are
through the nozzle. The heat created
mainly used to protect motors and
by the arc breaks the SF6 molecules
fire pumps in a high-heat application.
into fluorine and sulfur. Arc energy
is absorbed and the arc is cooled. Electronic trip units provide more
sophisticated protection and monitor-
As current zero is approached the
ing by measuring and comparing
heat energy subsides as more SF6
actual current with a reference table
gas flows through the nozzle and
of values to determine the appropriate
extinguishes the arc.
response. A variety of settings make
Rotary Arc:
it possible to adapt the breaker to the
The rotary arc technology is less precise characteristics of the
complicated than the puffer type; protected circuit.
however, it is not effective over as
wide a range of short circuit currents In addition, electronic trip units offer
and voltages as the SF6 puffer or communication and monitoring
vacuum CBs. capabilities. Current demand and
ground fault current can be monitored
As the contacts separate the arc
as well as breaker status, settings of
transfers from the main contacts to
protection functions, and trip history.
an annular contact; this causes the
current to switch into the coil behind Residual current devices that provide
it. The coil’s magnetic field, produced earth leakage protection are also
by the load current, causes the arc to available, as well as a broad range
rotate rapidly. The arc is cooled by of accessories.
moving through the SF6 gas. Four trip unit protective functions
The SF6 gas is normally at rest inside exist:
the interrupter. The arc’s movement 1. Long Delay (L).
acts like a mixer, mixing hotter and
2. Short Delay (S). There are two types of responses

in long delay pickup:
3. Instantaneous (I).
1. l2t response
4. Ground Fault (G).
a. l2t in: for coordination with
In applications, the trip functions other circuit breakers with
afforded by the trip unit of the breaker electronic trip devices and
are abbreviated in the form of L, S, I, for coordination with
and G. i.e. a trip unit with long delay, thermal magnetic circuit
short delay, and instantaneous breakers.
functions would be abbreviated
2. l4t response
as LSI.
a. l4t out: for coordination
5.3.1 Solid State Circuitry with fuses and upstream
Conventional breakers are available transformer damage curves.
with either fixed or interchangeable
electromechanical trip units depending 5.3.3 Short Delay (S)
on the breaker and frame size. Short delay pickups determine or set
Although trip units can be changed, the level of fault current at which the
failure to correctly tighten the short time trip delay countdown is
electrical connections is a frequent actuated. Short delay sets the amount
cause of circuit breaker problems of time the breaker will carry both low
in the field. level and high fault currents before
tripping.
Most manufacturers offer molded
case breakers with current There are two types of short delay
transformers and solid-state circuitry responses:
in place of the conventional thermal 1. Flat response
magnetic trip units. This offers a. l2t out: for coordination with
advantages including: other circuit breakers with
• Quickly modified overload electronic trip devices.
protection rating by changing 2. l2t response
a rating plug (versus changing
a. l2t in: for coordination with
the entire trip unit).
fuses and thermal magnetic
• Adjustable instantaneous or
breakers.
short circuit trip rating capability
to selectively trip other breakers 5.3.4 Ground Fault (G)
in the system through Ground fault is defined as an
incorporation of a time delay in unintentional electric path between
the instantaneous or short circuit a source of current and a grounded
trip. surface. Ground faults occur when
current is leaking and electricity
5.3.2 Long Delay (L)
is escaping into the ground.
Long delay pickup determines the
continuous ampere rating of the Ground faults may be divided into
breaker. It also determines the amount three classes:
of time the breaker will carry a low 1. A bolted fault.
level overload before tripping.
2. Faults resulting from insulation or 2-phase connected current

depreciation starting as what may transformers and one zero-sequence
be considered a leakage from current transformer. Separate sets of
10 to 250mA. Such a breakdown current transformers are required
may be observed in equipment for differential relays.
such as motors and transformers. The minimum pickup of a ground
3. Faults resulting from immediate relay in the residual of 3-phase
insulation breakdown producing connected current transformers is
an arc. primarily determined by the current
The NEC creates specific standards transformer ratio. Adding one residual
for ground fault protection which connected auxiliary current trans-
should be used when designing a former can reduce the relay pickup.
system. This connection is desirable on main
incoming and tie circuits of low
The rating of the service disconnect
resistance grounded circuits.
is considered to be the rating of the
largest fuse that can be installed or 5.3.5 Anti-Pump
the highest continuous current trip An anti-pump is a device that
setting for which the actual over- prevents a circuit breaker from
current device installed in a circuit repeatedly opening and closing with
breaker is rated or can be adjusted. both open and closed signals applied
Ground fault trip units can be pre- simultaneously.
selected to either trip the main Without the anti-pump the breaker
contacts or to leave the main contacts would be destroyed; as soon as the
closed and annunciate the ground breaker trips the motor operator re-
fault condition. closes the breaker, the breaker
The zero-sequence current immediately trips again, and the cycle
transformer (CT) is used for sensitive of tripping and re-closing continues.
ground fault relaying or self-balancing
primary current type machine 5.4 Components
differential protection. In a zero- 5.4.1 Shunt Trip
sequence CT, the three-core cable A shunt trip is a solenoid device
or three single cores of a three phase used to trip a breaker from a remote
system pass through the inner location.
diameter of the CT. When the system
is fault free, no current flows in the
secondary of the zero-sequence CT.
When there is a fault, the residual
current of the system flows through
the secondary of the zero-sequence
CT which operates the relay.
The minimum number of current
transformers for circuit relaying and
instruments is three current trans-
formers, one for each phase Figure 23– Shunt Trip
5.4.2 Under-Voltage Device moves the breaker handle to the on

An under-voltage device will trip or off position as required.
the breaker when the voltage falls
It is not recommended that motor
below a predetermined level. Usually
operators be used for paralleling
mounted in place of the shunt trip,
operations. Electrically operated
these units include a spring and
breakers with closing speeds of
solenoid.
approximately 5 cycles or less are
preferred for paralleling operations.
Figure 24 – Under-Voltage Device

Figure 26 – Motor Operator
5.4.3 Auxiliary Contacts
An auxiliary switch controls normally Functions of the motor operator are:
open and/or normally closed contacts • Switching the load to and from
which open and close with the the generator.
breaker. It can be used with indicating • Protecting the generator from
lights to show breaker status. short circuits and overloads.
5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker
Components
The primary components of a
medium voltage breaker pan
assembly (Figure 27) are:
• Code Plates
Prevent insertion of a lower
rated breaker into a higher
rated cell.
Figure 25 - Aux Contact • Ground Bar
Keeps the breaker grounded
5.4.4 Motor Operator at all times.
A motor operator allows remote • Levering Mechanism
opening and closing of the breaker. Used to rack the breaker
It consists of an actuating motor with in and out.
an operating arm and attaches to the
• Mechanism Operated Cell
breaker operating mechanism. When
(MOC) Switch.
the motor operator is energized from
Auxiliary contacts that
a remote location, the operating arm operate when the breaker
opens or closes.
• Truck Operated Cell (TOC) Auxiliary contacts that

Switch. operate when the breaker is
levered into or out of the cell.
MOC & TOC
Code Plates
Levering Mechanism
Ground Bar
Figure 27 – Medium Voltage Breaker Pan Assembly
Where:
5.5 Sizing Circuit Breakers
kW = net rating of the generator
A circuit breaker is required to set
connect or disconnect the electrical Volts = system voltage, phase-to-
load to and from the generator. To phase or line-to-line
size the circuit breaker and switchgear
pf = power factor of the system
the following formula should be used:
load
Breaker Size (in amperes) Constants:
1000 – to convert kW to watts
1.732 – for three-phase system
0.9 – temperature compensation expansion) banded together. Heat due

and overload margin for the to excessive current will cause the
circuit breaker bimetal to bend or deflect; the amount
of deflection is dependent
This formula can be simplified to read: on the amount of heat, which is
Breaker Size (in amperes) a function of current and time.
5.6 Overload Protection

Though circuit breakers are designed
to protect against overloads, they
should not trip open instantaneously
when current limits are exceeded;
this would result in nuisance tripping.
Breakers should trip before the cable Figure 29 – Thermal Magnetic Breaker
insulation is damaged. On sustained overload, the deflected
In an overload condition, heating in bimetal element will cause the
a cable is a function of the current operating mechanism to trip.
level and time. Time delay on tripping
should be quite long for slight
overloads but Ohm’s Law states that
the heating effect varies with the
square of the current, so the delay
must be reduced rapidly as the
overload increases.
Figure 30 – Overload Protection/ Tripped

A 100A breaker might trip in 30
minutes when carrying 135% of its
rated current, but might trip in ten
seconds when carrying 500% of its
rating. Using these values, a thermal
trip curve can be constructed as
shown in Figure 31.
Figure 28 – Overload Trip Curve
Using a bimetal element heated by
the load current provides overload or
thermal protection. A bimetal element
is made of two strips of metal (each
with a different rate of thermal
When a short circuit occurs, the

fault current passing through the
circuit energizes the electromagnet
and causes the trip to open the
breaker. The only delay in this action
is time required for the breaker
contacts to open and extinguish the
arc, which takes place in less than
one cycle (0.016 seconds for 60Hz,
0.02 seconds for 50Hz).
Figure 31– Thermal Trip Curve
5.7 Short Circuit Protection

A short circuit is an accidental
or unplanned connection of low
resistance between two points that
are normally separated by a high
resistance. It results in an immediate
flow of current at abnormally high Figure 33 – Short Circuit Protection / Open
levels. The heat generated by this Breaker
condition can cause severe damage This instantaneous tripping is
to wiring and other components in illustrated in a typical magnetic trip
a short period of time. curve, shown in Figure 34.
In a short circuit condition, the
system cannot wait for an element
to heat up before the breaker opens;
the breaker must open as quickly as
possible. This is achieved by using
an electromagnet in series with the
load current.
Figure 34 – Magnetic Trip Curve

The breaker will trip as soon as
the fault current exceeds value A.
The magnetic trip element is often
adjustable to allow for varying the
Figure 32 – Short Circuit Protection/Closed
fault current level at which the
Breaker
breakers will trip instantaneously; • Peak inverse voltage must be

this allows for varying motor starting considered.
inrush current levels.
Combining the features of the
thermal overload protection and the
magnetic short circuit protection, a
typical thermal magnetic circuit
breaker can be constructed. The
thermal and magnetic trip curves can
then be combined.
In this typical example, if there were
an overload of 250% of the rated Figure 35 – Best Battery Diode Circuit
current, the breaker will trip in 60
seconds due to thermal action. 5.8.2 Battery Chargers
Utility power is typically used to
If instead of the overload there recharge the batteries using battery
were a short circuit of 40 times the chargers. Input power to the battery
breaker rating, the breaker would trip charger is typically 120 VAC single
in approximately one cycle. So the phase.
thermal magnetic trip will not trip
immediately if the overload is not 6 CONTROLS
dangerous, but will trip on heavy
short circuit current. 6.1 Components
5.8 Control Power 6.1.1 Control Relay
A control relay is an
5.8.1 Batteries electromechanical device consisting of
Circuit breaker control power may a coil and sets of contacts used for a
be derived from a combination of a number of functions including:
station battery and engine cranking
batteries (24 VDC) connected • Closing or tripping circuit
together through a best battery diode breakers.
circuit. AC power derived from utility • Discrete status of devices
and/or generator source may also be • Turning on or off other control
used for circuit breaker control power. devices.
The best battery diode circuit is Control relays have only two
necessary to avoid connecting starting possible operating states: on and off.
batteries directly in parallel and A control relay is essentially a switch;
prevents cranking the engines with control relays use one or more pairs of
the station battery. contacts to make or break circuits.
When designing a best battery Multiple control relays can be grouped
diode circuit: together in a ladder logic configuration
to accomplish more complex
• Size diodes to allow proper functions.
forward current and to
prevent reverse current. Programmable logic controllers and
digital automation processors have for
the most part replaced control relays • Current.

in more complex circuitry due to • Power.
improvements on space savings,
flexibility, and speed. • Frequency.
• Fuel Levels.
Control relays are still a necessary
device due to higher current ratings of • Temperature.
their contacts. In these instances, the • Pressure.
control relay will be acting as a pilot Transducers will convert these
relay to switch higher voltage and/or parameters into signal level
current to a particular device. See information which can be used by a
Figure 36. PLC or other control device for
processing.
6.1.4 Operator Interface
The operator interface allows the
operator of a machine to monitor and
control devices in the system. The
operator can view and adjust the
following system parameters:
• Electrical metering.
Figure 36 – PLC/Control Relay
• Engine metering.
6.1.2 Programmable Logic Controller • Protective relay settings.
A programmable logic controller
(PLC) is a microprocessor-based • Annunciators.
electronic device used for automation. • Synchronize and parallel.
Unlike general-purpose computers, the • Set modes of operations.
PLC is designed for multiple inputs
• Voltage and frequency
and output arrangements, extended
adjustments.
temperature ranges, immunity to
electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to
control machine operation are typically
6.2 Communications
stored in battery-backed or non- 6.2.1 Modbus
volatile memory system. A PLC is an Modbus is a serial communications
example of a real time system since protocol published by Modicon for
output results must be produced in use with its programmable logic
response to input conditions within a controllers. This protocol allows for
bounded time, otherwise unintended communication between multiple
operation will result. devices connected to the same
network and is often used to connect
6.1.3 Transducer
a supervisory computer with a remote
A transducer is a device that
terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory
converts one form of energy to
control and data acquisition (SCADA)
another. Transducers typically
systems.
convert:
• Voltage.
Versions of the Modbus protocol 6.2.3.1 Building Management/

exist for serial port (e.g. Modbus RTU) Automation System
and Ethernet (e.g. Modbus TCP). A Building Management System
Every Modbus network consists of (BMS) or Building Automation System
one master device and at least one (BAS) is a computer software program
slave device. All devices on the used to control, monitor, and manage
network are daisy-chained using a all the equipment installed in the
twisted pair cable, with each slave building. Customers frequently
device assigned a factory default integrate the monitoring and control
unique address for each Modbus card; of the emergency power system
this address enables the master to components with the BMS/BAS. The
distinguish between the various slaves BMS can also be used to incorporate
on the network. It also allows the electrical, HVAC, fire safety,
master device to send a query elevator/escalator, etc. into one
command to the addressed slave. system.
When the addressed slave receives To accomplish this integration, a
this command it will send back an means by which to communicate
appropriate response to the master. electric power systems (EPS)
6.2.2 Ethernet parameters to their system is required.
Ethernet is a large, diverse family Typically a dedicated PLC on the
of frame-based computer networking switchgear master controls is used
technologies that operates at many for integrating with the BMS.
speeds for local area networks 6.2.3.2 SCADA
(LANs). For switchgear it provides Supervisory Control and Data
a way for individuals to remotely Acquisition (SCADA) systems are
monitor and/or control the switchgear typically used to perform data
with a computer. collection and control at the
supervisory level. The supervisory
6.2.3 Remote Monitoring and Control
control system is a system that is
The system/group monitoring
placed on top of a real time control
systems most commonly used are the
system to control a process external
Building Management System (BMS),
to the SCADA system.
Building Automation System (BAS),
and Supervisory Control and Data The SCADA system can utilize
Acquisition (SCADA). either the Modbus connection or the
Implementing monitoring systems Ethernet connection to monitor and
with devices that are equipped with control the switchgear and automatic
Ethernet or Modbus communication transfer switch.
abilities enables integration of the 6.2.4 Human Machine Interface
electric power system controls with Human machine interface (HMI)
the building equipment controls for a refers to a touch-screen used by the
single application to control all operator for interfacing with the
systems within a building. paralleling generator system. The
system provides the user a means of:
• Input: Allowing the users to • Reporting, trending, and

manipulate the system. alarming.
• Output: Allowing the system to • System level metering and
display the effects of the users’ protective relaying.
manipulation.
6.3.1 Load Sense/Demand
6.2.5 Reporting and Trending Load sense/demand, also referred
Trending is the capability of to as “generator demand priority
reporting a set of given data over control,” “bus optimization,”
a period of time. “generator load based sequencing,”
or “load demand sensing” is a feature
Switchgear controls may contain
whereby the optimum number of
functions which will allow reporting
generators is paralleled, serving
and trending of data such as:
facility loads to maintain peak fuel
• Frequency. efficiency with adequate reserve
• Voltage. available.
• Current. Load sense/demand typically will
• Temperatures. have user selected set points to
set the level for spinning reserve.
• Fuel Consumption.
Spinning reserve is the amount of
• Pressures.
total additional generator unused
• Typically, engine and generator capacity available on the load bus.
set information communicated to
the switchgear can be trended Upon entrance into a load
with reported time sense/demand mode of operation
and a date data all generators will be started and
paralleled to the bus. After a given
6.3 Master Controls time delay generators are removed
from the bus as a function of a
Master controls contain system generator loading percentage set
level functionality not specific to point. Generators should be removed
any individual generator set. Typically, from the bus in descending priority.
integration with other building
Should the generator loading
systems will occur at the master
percentage increase to a pre-selected
controls.
generator add limit, the next priority
They could contain additional generator will be started,
controls for paralleling with utility grid synchronized, and paralleled to the
or other systems across a point of bus. Generators should be added to
common coupling (PCC). Examples the bus in ascending priority order.
of master controls functionality are:
6.3.2 Load Prioritization
• Load sense/demand. Prioritization is the process by which
• Load shed/add. the customer identifies what electrical
• Dead bus arbitration. loads are needed and in what priority.
• Integration with BMS. The highest priority loads are
powered first; the first generator set
• System level testing.
ready to accept the load takes the and the contingency outages under
first priority loads. As capacity which a system may be designed
becomes available, the next highest to operate satisfactorily.
prioritized load is powered. This For those conditions where the
process repeats until all loads are systems capability is exceeded,
applied. processes must be in place to
Smaller load steps equate to smaller automatically monitor power systems
transients, which result in smoother loading levels and reduce loading
transitions. For example, a medical when required. A load-shed system
center might prioritize lifesaving automatically senses overload
equipment as the number one need. conditions and sheds enough load to
relieve the overloaded generator sets
That equipment (or special outlets
before there is loss of generation, line
for that equipment) is the first
tripping, equipment damage, or a
supplied with electricity from the first
chaotic random shutdown of the
available generator set. Lights may
system.
be identified as the second most
important need and handled by the For example, in a factory all welding
second load step. equipment and other machines may
be operated at capacity at the same
When starting generator sets
time between 10 am and 12 noon and
without a preferred load order it is
then again between 1 pm and 3 pm.
suggested that the largest loads are
During these times the load to lights
started first.
in the lunchroom and parking lot
The largest transient will occur would be shed because they are less
before the system is heavily loaded. of a priority.
These large loads will have the least
Conversely, load-add circuits
effect on the rest of the system.
serve to bring loads online based
6.3.3 Load Shed/Add on available capacity of the power
When speaking of load system. Prioritization will dictate
shedding/adding this document is the order the loads come online.
referring to local loads served by
6.3.4 Dead Bus Arbitration
the switchgear and generator power
When multiple generators are
system. The utility industry uses
simultaneously started, their outputs
the term load shedding to mean
are not synchronized when they reach
disconnecting their service to users
rated speed and voltage. If more
as a means to manage capacity.
than one generator is allowed to
Power systems are designed and simultaneously close to the de-
operated so that for any normal energized (dead) bus, an out of phase
system condition, including a defined paralleling situation occurs. Therefore,
set of contingency conditions, there one generator must be selected to
are adequate generating and close to the dead bus prior to the
transmission capacities to meet load other generators initiating
requirements. However, there are synchronization.
economic limits on the excess
capacity designed into a system
Failure of the control system electromechanical mechanism or

to allow only one generator to passive/active electronic components;
exclusively close to the dead bus it may be used to regulate one or
could result in extensive damage more AC or DC voltages.
to the generator sets. Voltage regulators (with the
Automatic circuit breaker closure is exception of shunt regulators) operate
inhibited to all units except one. The by comparing actual output voltage
one that is selected is typically the to an internal fixed reference voltage.
first generator to reach rated speed Any difference between the voltages
and voltage. is amplified and used to control the
regulation element.
6.3.5 System Level Testing
Certain emergency power systems 6.4.2 Speed Control
are required to be tested periodically. Speed is controlled to adjust the
It may be necessary to perform these frequency and load level of the
tests automatically. The master generator set. Speed must also be
control may be configured with an controlled for proper synchronization.
automatic or manual test switch to Speed is controlled by adjusting fuel
initiate various system level function throttle position. For additional
tests with or without load. In addition information on speed control, see
to an overall system level test, the the Governor Section of Engine A&I
generator sets may be exercised Guide.
periodically to maintain proper fluid
circulation. 6.4.3 Communication
Communication is the means by
6.3.6 System Level Protective which switchgear communicates with
Relaying and Metering the engine generation set. This could
Protective relaying is a system of include discrete outputs from the
relays used to protect service from generator set indicating common
interruption or to prevent or limit alarm, common shutdown, etc. It also
damage to apparatus. could include data from the engine
generator set such as engine
System level metering may include:
temperatures, pressures, fuel
• Totalized kW metering from consumption, etc.
the load bus.
• kW-hr metering for purposes 6.5 Protective Relaying
of revenue metering.
There are a number of faults which
• Utility grade metering. could have serious impacts on service
reliability. To detect and
6.4 Generator Controls reduce/eliminate the impacts of these
6.4.1 Voltage Control faults, a variety of relay configurations
are used.
6.4.1.1 Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an electrical Possible faults are shown under the
regulator designed to automatically IEEE Device Numbering system in
maintain a constant voltage level. Appendix A. More detailed
The voltage regulator may use an
descriptions of important relays 38 - A Bearing Protective Device is

are shown below. a device that functions on excessive
bearing temperature or other abnormal
25 - T The Synch Check
mechanical conditions associated with
(Synchronizing or Synchronism Check)
the bearing, such as undue wear
Relay is a relay that functions when
which may eventually result in
two AC circuits are within the desired
excessive bearing temperature or
limits of frequency, phase angle and
failure. Thermocouple or resistive
voltage, to permit or to cause the
temperature device sensors are used
paralleling of these two circuits. The
to detect this condition. When a pre-
Synch Check Relay is used to prevent
programmed temperature limit is
out of phase closure when paralleling
reached, the relay energizes its
generators to each other or when
output accordingly.
paralleling generators to another
source. A resistive temperature device
(RTD) supplies a constant current
27 - The Under-Voltage Relay is a
to a resistive element located on
device that functions on a given value
the bearing housing and senses the
of under-voltage. This device protects
temperature of the bearing by
equipment that would otherwise be
measuring the voltage across the
damaged from operating at voltages
resistive element.
less than what is specified. The
device also protects the generator A thermocouple is a device in which
from operating at low voltage output the temperature difference between
which by Ohm’s Law would require the ends of a pair of dissimilar metal
a higher current output for the same wires is deduced from a measurement
power (kW) output. of the difference in the thermoelectric
potentials developed along the wires.
32 - The Reverse (or Directional)
Power Relay is a relay that functions 40 - The Loss of Field Relay is a
on a desired value of power flow in relay that functions on a given or
a given direction. The Reverse Power abnormally low value or failure of
Relay is used to prevent power flow machine field current, or on an
in the reverse direction; this function excessive value of the reactive
protects the generator from becoming component of armature current in an
motorized and damaging the prime ac machine indicating abnormally low
mover. field excitation. Loss of Field is used
to prevent reverse reactive power
32RV - The Reverse Power
flow to the generator that would
(reactive/kVAR) Relay is a relay
cause excessive heat build up and
that functions on a desired value
damage the alternator windings.
of reactive power flow in a given
direction. 32RV is used to prevent 46 - Reverse Phase or Phase Balance
reactive power flow in the reverse Current Relay functions when the
direction. This prevents reverse polyphase currents are of the reverse
reactive power flow to the generator phase sequence, or when the
that would cause excessive heat build polyphase currents are unbalanced
up and damage the machine. or contain negative phase-sequence
components above a given amount.
The 46 responds to the negative an AC power circuit under normal

phase sequence current which flows conditions or to interrupt this circuit
during unbalance faults or loads on under fault or emergency conditions.
a power system; this will protect Further details can be found in
machines against excessive heating Section 5.
damage due to prolonged current 59 - The Over-Voltage Relay is a
unbalance. relay that functions on a given value
47 - The Phase Sequence Voltage of over-voltage. This protects
Relay functions upon a predetermined equipment from being damaged by
value of three-phase voltage in the long-term high voltage conditions and
desired phase sequence. This relay protects the generator windings and
is used to detect under-voltage field from overheating and over
conditions and / or incorrect phase excitation.
sequence of the incoming utility. 67 - An AC Directional Over-Current
When this relay operates it starts Relay functions on a desired value of
the process of causing the system AC over-current flowing in a
to enter Emergency Mode. predetermined direction. This is
49 - A Machine (Generator) or commonly used across the point of
Transformer Thermal Relay is a relay common coupling (PCC) such that no
that functions when the temperature real current will be exported to the
of a machine armature winding grid/utility.
(stator) or other load-carrying winding 81 - The Under/Over-Frequency
or element of a machine exceeds a Relay responds to the frequency of
predetermined value. Thermocouple or an electrical quantity, operating when
RTD sensors function as described in the frequency or rate of change of
Type 38. frequency exceeds or is less than a
50 - The Instantaneous Over-Current predetermined value.
Relay functions instantaneously on an 86 - The Lockout Relay is an
excessive value of current or on an electrically operated, hand or
excessive rate of current rise, thus electrically reset, relay that functions
indicating a fault in the circuit or to shutdown and holds equipment out
apparatus being protected. of service on the occurrence of
51 - The Timed Over-Current Relay abnormal conditions.
is a relay with either a definite or 87 - The Differential Relays have
inverse time characteristic that many applications in power systems.
functions when the current in a circuit The basic principle is that the current
exceeds a predetermined value. flowing into the relay must equal the
This relay functions the same as the current flowing out of the relay. The
long time trip in a breaker trip unit. three types of differential relays are
This relay is also used in conjunction described below.
with a grounding resistor to detect 87B - The Differential Bus Relay
excessive ground circuit. operates on the same principle as the
52 - An AC Circuit Breaker is a Generator Differential Relay. The sum
device used to close and interrupt of all currents entering and leaving the
bus must be equal to zero under elements, or zones, of AC power

normal conditions or if the fault is systems. The selectivity of differential
outside the protected zone. If there is relaying is based on the ability of the
a fault on the bus there will be a net relay to distinguish between an
flow of current to the bus and the internal fault (within the protected
differential relay will operate. zone) and an external fault. Under
87T - The 87T is a Transformer normal operating conditions the
Differential Relay designed as primary current into the protected zone equals
protection for power transformers the current out of the protected zone
against internal faults. This relay with a net operating current equal to
compares the currents entering and zero. Internal faults upset this balance
leaving the protected transformer. and result in a difference between the
If any imbalance is detected that is input and output currents. External
not attributable to other factors the faults have relatively little effect on
relay provides a contract closure to the balance, because the current in
isolate the power transformer and still equals the current out of the
limit damage. protected zone. Therefore, by
comparing the currents on both sides
of the protected element or zone and
detecting when these currents are not
equal, a differential relay acts to
isolate the element or zone from the
system.
The 87G typically trips a lockout
relay (Device number 86) which in
turn trips the generator breaker. For
the protective scheme in Figure 38,
6 current transformers are required.
3 CTs must be mounted on the
generator leads in the generator
housing and 3 CTs must be mounted
on the load side of the switchgear
generator circuit breaker. It is
necessary for these CTs to be sized
identically and recommended that
they be sourced from the same
manufacturer.
Figure 37 – 87T Protective Relay Scheme

87G - The 87G is a Variable
Percentage Differential Relay designed
to provide selective, high speed,
differential protection for generators.
Differential relaying is the most
selective form of fault protection
that may be applied to the individual
Figure 38 –Typical 87G Protective Relay

Scheme
6.5.1 Utility Intertie Protective Relays

Utility Intertie Protective Relays are
intended to protect the utility from Figure 39 – Utility Intertie Protective Relay
having generators operating in an Scheme
unintentional island mode while still 6.5.1.1 Generator Protective Relays
connected to the utility grid at the Generator protective relaying
PCC. This protection is accomplished schemes typically contain the
by monitoring the intertie (PCC) to the following features:
utility for abnormal voltage, abnormal
frequency, and excessive power • Over-voltage (59).
import/export, which can indicate a • Under-voltage (27).
loss of the utility supply.
• Reverse power (32).
The relay should also provide
• Voltage restrained time over
detection of phase and ground faults
current (51V).
as well as current and voltage
imbalance of the utility system. • Under-frequency (81U).
A sync check function may also be • Over-frequency (81O).
applied to supervise the closure of
the intertie breaker. An example of a Generator
Protective Relay scheme is shown
See a typical example of a Utility in Figure 40.
Intertie Protective Relay scheme in
Figure 39.
Either the utility or the authority
having jurisdiction (AHJ) will specify
the exact site requirements.
an AC cycle. These high-energy

power spikes can damage sensitive
electronic equipment such as
computers, instrumentation, and
process controllers.
Surge suppressors are designed to
divert high-energy power away from a
load by providing a lower impedance
path to common point ground. Surge
suppressors used most often for
panel-board protection have metal
oxide varistors (MOVs) connected
in parallel.
6.5.3.2 Surge Arrestors and Surge
Capacitors
For medium voltage applications
surge arresters and capacitors are
used to prevent large surges from
power inconsistencies, lightning, etc.
from reaching electronic instruments
and ensure the safety of individuals
Figure 40 – Generator Protective Relay
nearby.
Scheme A surge arrester is used to
6.5.2 Test Blocks prevent large surges from power
Test blocks are intended to simulate inconsistencies, lightning, etc. from
a fault condition so it can test the reaching electronic instruments and
protective relay and its ability to ensure the safety of individuals
operate. Test blocks are mounted nearby. Surge arrestors are connected
on switchboard panels for use in between each electrical conductor in
conjunction with proper test a power system and the ground which
equipment to facilitate testing of provides a short circuit to the ground.
AC instruments, meters, and relays. Surge arresters use spark gaps or
non-conductive materials to prevent
6.5.3 Surge Protection regular electric flow from being
6.5.3.1 Transient Low Voltage Surge grounded. If a surge occurs, the surge
Suppressor is safely shunted to the ground and
A Transient Voltage Surge the electrical equipment downstream
Suppressor (TVSS) is a device that is protected.
attenuates (reduces in magnitude)
Ceramic capacitors can also be used
random, high energy, short duration
for protection. In these devices, the
electrical power anomalies caused by
spark gap is simply an air gap
utilities, atmospheric phenomena, or between to lead wires that connect
inductive loads. Such anomalies occur a capacitor to the circuit. A voltage
in the form of voltage and current surge causes a spark, which jumps
spikes with durations of less than half
from lead wire to lead wire across where the CTs are located. With AC
the air gap. generators the ammeter usually has a
Surge arrestors function best when 5A movement and must be used with
located close to generator output a current transformer.
leads.
7.4 Voltmeter
7 METERING Used to measure voltage, the
It is essential that critical values be voltmeter is often designed for 120V
measured and displayed for reference full-scale deflection and must be used
and control purposes. For switchgear with potential transformers (PTs). The
typical metering parameters are: voltmeter designed for wall-mounted
• Utility metering. switchgear can take the full voltage of
the system up to and including 600V.
• Trip unit metering. On floor-standing switchgear, the
• Generator/generator set voltmeter works on full voltage of
metering. 208V maximum. For voltage beyond
• System metering. 208V, PTs are used.
• Revenue metering.
7.5 Frequency Meter
7.1 Discrete Analog vs. This monitors the frequency of the
Virtual Metering AC sine wave of the source or bus.
Virtual metering has primarily taken 7.6 Wattmeter

the place of discrete analog metering.
Instead of having numerous analog The wattmeter indicates
meters an operator can use the HMI instantaneously the kilowatt load
to view a variety of meters on one of the source, bus, or load.
interface.
7.7 Kilowatt-Hour Meter
• Analog metering devices are
typically either + 2% or + 1%, Similar to the unit used by utility
while digital metering accuracies companies, this component maintains
are +1/2% or +1/4% a running total of the power produced
or consumed by the source or the
7.2 Phase Selector Switch load.
The phase selector switch allows 7.8 Power Factor Meter

one meter to monitor all three phases
of generator output. The phase This indicates the instantaneous
selector switch can be set to ratio between true power in kilowatts
voltmeter, ammeter, or a combination (kW) to apparent power in kilovolt
of the two. amperes (kVA).
7.3 Ammeter 7.9 Elapsed Time Meter

The ammeter indicates the electrical This is used to total the hours of
current flowing through the phases equipment operation.
7.9.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual electrical distribution systems. These

Metering: requirements are much more stringent
Virtual metering has primarily taken than commercial or industrial facilities.
the place of discrete analog metering.
Health care electrical systems
Instead of having numerous analog
usually consist of two parts:
meters, an operator can use the HMI
to view a variety of meters on one 1. Non-essential or normal electrical
interface. systems.
Analog metering devices are 2. Essential electrical systems.
typically either + 2% or + 1% while All electrical power in a health care
digital metering accuracies are facility is important though some
+1/2% or +1/4%. loads are not critical to the safe
operation of the facility. Non-essential
8 ANNUNCIATION loads such as general lighting, general
Annunciation is the means by which lab equipment, non-critical service
a system notifies the user/operator of equipment, etc. are not required to
critical system operations and alarms be fed from an alternate source of
when conditions are approached power.
which could result in system failure. NFPA 99 breaks health care facilities
In addition to audible alarming a into three types:
variety of techniques are used for • Type 1 - essential electrical
annunciation including the following: systems.
• LED annunciation.
• Type 2 and type 3 - type 1
• Remote alarm annunciation. requirements meet or exceed
• Lamp display annunciation. the requirements for type 2 and
Several standards exist that require type 3 facilities.
annunciation to identify specified Description Definition EES Type
system conditions; the most
Hospitals NFPA 99 Chap. 13 Type 1
commonly used are NFPA 99 and Nursing Homes NFPA 99 Chap. 17 Type 2
NFPA 110. Limited Care
Facilities NFPA 99 Chap. 18 Type 2
8.1 NFPA 99
Ambulatory
NFPA 99 Chap. 14 Type 3 1
NFPA 99 is the standard for heath Surgical Facilities
care facilities. Health care facilities are Other Health
NFPA 99 Chap. 14 Type 3 1
defined as “buildings or portions of Care Facilities
buildings in which medical, dental, 1) If electrical life support or critical care areas are
psychiatric, nursing, obstetrical, or present, then facility is classified as type 1.
Figure 41 – NFPA 99 Health Care Facility
surgical care are provided.” Due to
Types
the critical nature of the care being
provided at these facilities and their The NFPA 99 standard should be
increasing dependence on electrical consulted for the most up to date
equipment for preservation of life, requirements for system annunciation.
health care facilities have special
requirements for the design of their
8.2 NFPA 110 accommodate additional parallel-

operated generators can help keep
NFPA 110 is the standard for the cost down for adding generators
emergency and standby power if they are initially planned.
systems. This standard controls
The most important reason for
the assembly, installation, and
paralleling in a standby system is
performance of electrical power
increased reliability. When a part of
systems used to supply critical and
the emergency load is deemed critical
essential needs during outages of
it may be desirable to have more
the primary power source.
than one generator capable of being
The NFPA 110 standard should be connected to that load. When
consulted for the most up to date there is a normal source outage all
requirements for system annunciation. generators in the system are started.
The probability of having a generator
8.3 Site Specific set start and achieve nominal voltage
Components and frequency is increased in
proportion to the number of sets
In addition to the standard available. The first set ready to handle
requirements there are number of the essential load does so. As
other components the customer may additional generators are running and
want to annunciate. This could connected to the bus, the remaining
include parameters of a fuel tank, loads are connected in declining order
generator temperature metering, of priority.
remote circuit breaker positions, fire
detection systems, and security 9.1 Isochronous
systems.
Isochronous means having an
9 PARALLEL OPERATION equal time difference or occurring
simultaneously. For electric power
Many situations can be optimally
generation isochronous is considered
handled by operating two or more
generators sets in parallel on a flat frequency or 0% generator droop.
common bus instead of dispersed
multiple single units or a central,
9.2 Droop
larger, single unit. An existing Droop has many uses and
distribution system itself may not applications in the control of engines.
lend itself to being split into several In non-isochronous speed control
sections and handled by separate non- systems, engine-speed control would
parallel units. Also, when loads are be unstable without some form of
expected to increase substantially, droop.
provisions can be made to add more
Droop is defined as a decrease in
generator sets in parallel as the loads
speed setting as the load increases.
increase. The cost of switchgear for
parallel operation of multiple Droop is expressed as a percentage
generators is greater per generator of the original speed setting from
than for single generators; however, no load to full load. The normal
a common master section that will recommended percent of droop is 3%
to 5%; a minimum of 2.5% is required are set for isochronous (zero speed
to maintain stability in a speed-droop droop) operation, except with an
governor. Droop is calculated with the electric load-proportioning governor
following formula: (see 9.5.4).
No _ Load _ Speed − Full _ Load _ Rated
% Droop = X 100
Full _ Load _ Rated _ Speed 9.3 Synchronizing
If, instead of a decrease in speed
Synchronization, as applied to the
setting an increase takes place, the
electric power generation, is the
governor shows negative droop.
matching of the output voltage
Negative droop will cause instability
waveform of one alternating current
in a governor.
electrical generator with the voltage
Simple hydro-mechanical governors waveform of another alternating
have the droop function built in and current electrical system. For two
always operate in droop. More systems to be synchronized, five
complex governors include temporary conditions must be matched:
droop which returns the speed setting • The direction of rotation of these
to its original speed setting after the phases.
engine has recovered from a change • The voltage amplitudes of the
in speed or load. The temporary droop two systems.
is known as “compensation.”
• The frequencies of the two
Why Is Droop Necessary? systems.
In a system without droop, a load • The phase angle of the voltage
increase will cause the engine to of the two systems.
slow down.
The first two conditions are
The governor will respond by determined when the equipment is
increasing the fuel until the engine specified, installed, and wired. A
speed has returned to the original voltage regulator usually controls
speed. the output voltage of a generator
Due to the combined properties automatically. The last two
of inertia and power lag, the engine conditions, frequency matching and
speed will continue to increase phase matching, must be accounted
beyond the original speed setting, for each time the tie-breaker is closed,
causing an overshoot in speed. paralleling the generator sets or
The governor again will respond to systems.
decrease speed to correct for the 9.3.1 Rotation of Phases
overshoot. It will over-correct the Each generator set or system being
speed in the other direction causing paralleled must be connected so all
undershoot. This overcorrection of phases rotate in the same direction.
speed in both directions (instability) If the phase rotation is not the same,
will amplify until the engine shuts no more than one phase can be
down on over-speed. synchronized (see Figure 42).
It is impossible to have stable
parallel operation if two or more units
GENERATOR A 120
120 120
C
0° 120° 200°
A C B
A 120 B
120 120
Figure 42 – Phase Rotation
9.3.2 Voltage Match A) Generator

The voltages generated by generator Resulting
sets or systems being paralleled must Voltage
B) Generator
be within a small percentage of the
same value, usually 1% to 5%.
Changing the excitation voltage can
control the output voltage of a
synchronous generator (normally done
by the voltage regulator.)
If two synchronous generators of
unequal voltage are paralleled, the Figure 43 – Voltage Difference in Generator
combined voltage will have a value to Generator
different from the voltage generated If, on the other hand, a synchronous
by either of the generators. The generator is paralleled to a larger
difference in voltages results in system such as a utility, a difference
reactive currents and lowered system in voltages before paralleling will not
efficiency (see Figure 43). change the voltage of the bus (see
Figure 44).
In this instance, the power factor of
the generator will be changed. If the
generator voltage is much lower than
the bus voltage, the generator could
be under excited causing generator
stator heating. An induction generator
needs no voltage regulator because its
output voltage will automatically
match the voltage of the system
supplying its field voltage.
Resulting Voltage synchronous speed prior to breaker

and Bus Voltage closure. A speed below synchronous
Generator Voltage will cause the oncoming generator to
act as a motor and a speed over 1.5%
above synchronous will cause the
induction machine to generate at full
capacity.
9.3.4 Phase Angle Match
The phase relationship between
the voltages of the systems to be
Figure 44 – Voltage Difference in Generator paralleled must be very close prior
to Bus
to paralleling. This match usually
9.3.3 Frequency Match is within plus or minus 10 degrees.
The frequency of the oncoming If the oncoming generator is a
generator must be nearly identical synchronous type, phase matching,
to that of the system it is being like frequency matching, is
paralleled with, usually within 0.2% accomplished by controlling the speed
(see Figure 45). of the oncoming generator’s prime
mover. If the machine to be paralleled
with the system is an induction
Generator generator, the phase match will
Bu be automatic, since the system is
supplying the generator field voltage
Bus
Figure 45 – Frequency Difference

If the oncoming generator is a
Generator
synchronous type, this match is
normally accomplished by controlling
the speed of the prime mover driving Figure 46 – Phase Angle Match
the oncoming generator. For the synchronous generator,
voltage, speed/frequency, and phase
If the oncoming unit is an induction
must be matched each time before
generator, frequency is determined
the paralleling breakers are closed.
automatically by the generator field
If the oncoming generator is an
voltage. Field voltage is supplied by
induction-type with the armature
the system to which the generator set
rotating at synchronous speed, no
is being paralleled; however, the field
difficulties will occur when the
voltage is not applied to the generator
paralleling breakers are closed.
until the generator breaker is closed.
The generator must be kept close to
Currently, most installations prevent expensive down time and

use synchronous generators. replacement costs.
The advantage of synchronous
over induction generators is that 9.4 Methods of Paralleling
synchronous systems allow
Where two generator sets are in
independent operation without a utility
parallel, they must have the same
or other AC power source. Induction
voltage, phase sequence frequencies,
generators cannot operate without
and their output voltages must be in
an external AC source.
phase. When paralleling is required
Why Is Synchronization Important? and current will exceed 1200A, the
When two or more electrical floor-standing control panel is the
generating sets or systems are proper switchgear choice. Four
paralleled to the same power methods of paralleling are available for
distribution system, the power the floor-standing panel, ranging from
sources must be synchronized completely manual to automatic.
properly. Without proper
9.4.1 Manual Paralleling
synchronization of the oncoming
This system consists of a governor
unit or system, power surges and
speed toggle switch (on units
mechanical or electrical stress will
equipped with synchronizing motors),
result when the paralleling breaker is
two synchronizing lamps, an on/off
closed. Under the worst conditions,
toggle switch, and reverse power
the voltages between the two
relay.
systems can be twice the peak
operating voltage of one of the As stated in the synchronization
systems, or one system can place a section for proper paralleling:
dead short on the other. Extremely 1. Phase sequence must be the same.
high currents can result from this,
2. Frequencies must be the same.
which put stress on both systems.
3. Voltages must be the same.
These stresses can result in bent
drive shafts or broken couplings. 4. Engine governors must have
Under some conditions, power surges speed droop of which one can be
can be started which will build on isochronous. The exception to this
each other until both generating is electronic load sharing
systems are disabled; these conditions governors.
are extreme. Stress and damage 5. Generators must have voltage
can occur in varying degrees. The droop or cross-current
degrading effects depend on the type compensation.
of generator, the type of driver, the The condition of the units being
electrical load, and how poorly the correctly phased or operating with
systems are synchronized when the voltages in phase means that the
breakers are closed. individual sine waves appear in
Modern systems often supply power sequence. Voltages must be capable
to sophisticated and sensitive of being superimposed so
electronic equipment. Accurate instantaneous voltage differences do
synchronization is necessary to
not exist in the same phase of units an offline unit with an online
being paralleled. generator are shown below.
To meet the second and fourth
conditions the engine governors must
be adjusted to give similar frequency
under conditions of proportionate load
sharing. If one set is trying to operate
at a lower frequency than the others
the active or kW load will not be
proportionately shared and motoring
current will flow to the lower
frequency machine to make it
run at synchronous speed.
There are many manual-paralleling
methods in use; a common method of Figure 47 – Synchronizing Lights
manual paralleling is through the use 1. The online circuit breaker should
of synchronizing lamps. be closed and the offline
(incoming) circuit breaker should
To parallel a generator set with one
be open.
or more generator sets already on the
line, the first three conditions must 2. With the incoming unit governor
first be met. If there is a difference control lever in the full-governed
between the frequencies or voltages speed position, turn on the
of the generators being paralleled synchronizing lamps switch
there will be an undesirable line and observe the lamps for the
voltage disturbance when the frequency at which they flash.
incoming generator circuit breaker is By means of the governor control
closed. Extensive damage may result vary the incoming engine speed
if generators are paralleled while the until the synchronizing lamps
voltages are out of phase. In order to come on and fade out about six
manually parallel generator sets, it is to ten times a minute. Always
necessary to use one of two methods: have the incoming generator
(1) synchronizing lamps or (2) a initially slightly higher in
synchroscope. frequency; doing this will assure
that the incoming generator set
Example – Synchronizing Lamps: will absorb a small amount of
The dark lamp method is most load instead of consuming power
commonly used as the indicator of when initially connected to the
when to close the incoming circuit bus.
breaker. This method lights the 3. To put the generator set online
synchronizing lamps when there is a and in-sync with the online
potential between the phases of the source wait until the lamps are
incoming and the online generators. dark and then very quickly, while
This means that when all the lamps the lamps are still dark, close the
are dark the generators are circuit breaker. The incoming
synchronized. Steps for synchronizing
generator is now in parallel with switch in its closed position. When

the bus and online generator. conditions for paralleling are verified
the synchronizing check relay provides
9.4.2 Permissive Paralleling a signal causing the circuit breaker to
This option includes manual automatically close.
paralleling, a synchronizing check
relay, an under-voltage trip on the 9.4.4 Automatic Paralleling
breaker (instead of a shunt trip), Automatic paralleling combines the
and a ready-to-close indicating lamp. functions described in sections 9.4.1,
9.4.2, and 9.4.3 and accomplishes
This attachment allows
them without operator intervention.
inexperienced operators to parallel
This is accomplished through the use
generator sets only when the
of automatic synchronizing devices.
incoming generator and the live bus
are within predetermined limits. The
incoming generator set is started by
9.5 Paralleling Components
an operator and brought up to 9.5.1 Synchroscope
operating frequency and voltage as A synchroscope (shown in
determined by the panel meters. Figure 48) is an instrument used for
The operator then places the indicating whether two AC generators
synchronizing switch in its on or other AC voltage sources are
position, energizing the synchronizing synchronized in time phase with
relay and the synchronizing lamps. each other. The indicator is typically a
The synchronizing relay compares rotating pointer device on a 360
voltage, frequency, and the phase degree scale. The direction the pointer
angle of the incoming generator set rotates indicates whether the
with the live bus. It also provides a frequency of the incoming generator is
signal to illuminate the ready-to-close slower or faster than the frequency of
lamp and energize the circuit breaker the online generator. Similarly, the
under-voltage device to prevent the frequency at which the pointer rotates
circuit breaker from tripping open. indicates the magnitude of difference
in speed between the generator sets.
9.4.3 Semiautomatic Paralleling For paralleling, engine speed is
This group includes all the changed until the synchroscope
equipment found in the manual pointer rotates very slowly (less than
paralleling option plus a synchronizing 10 rpm), again keeping the incoming
check relay, circuit breaker position generator set faster than the online
indicating lamps, electric motor generator set. When the pointer is at
operator on the molded case circuit the 0 position, the circuit breaker can
breaker (with power provided from be closed (the units are synchronized).
the generator potential), and circuit
breaker open/close toggle.
The semiautomatic paralleling
functions are essentially the same as
permissive paralleling. With electric
motor operated breakers the operator
places the circuit breaker control
determines that proper phase angle

and voltage exist prior to closing
the circuit breaker.
Sync check relays will only allow
circuit breakers to close once
specified phase angle conditions have
been satisfied for a set period of time.
9.5.3 Automatic Synchronizer
An automatic synchronizer closes
the generator breaker at the point of
Figure 48 – Synchroscope synchronism. It initiates the close
Rotation of the indicator in the slow command in advance of phase
(counterclockwise) direction indicates coincidence using breaker closing
the oncoming generator set is at a time and slip frequency.
lower frequency than the online 9.5.4 Load Sharing Modules
supply. If the indicator is rotating The function of a load-sharing
in the fast (clockwise) direction it module is to proportionally share real
indicates the oncoming (paralleling) load between two or more generator
generator set is at a higher frequency sets while the system frequency is
than the online supply. held constant. The load-sharing
9.5.2 Sync Check Relay module provides isochronous and
A sync check relay monitors voltage droop load-sharing capability for
on both sides of a circuit breaker and engines in a generator set application.
Figure 49 – Typical System Using a Load Sharing Module
reactive (kVAR) load sharing control

9.6 Island Mode Operation system must be used.
When multiple generators are
9.6.1 Real (kW) Load Sharing
paralleled on a common bus and
The control system receives input
isolated from the utility, the individual
from current transformers (CTs) and
engine governors are tasked with
potential transformers (PTs) to
maintaining system frequency while
calculate real (kW) power output from
the individual generator voltage
the generator.
regulators are tasked with maintaining
system voltage. As load is applied to the generator
alternating current flows through the
This is different from the scenario
generator cables and induces current
where the generators are paralleled to
into the CTs. The current in the CTs
an infinite bus (see Section 9.7.1) in
increases proportionally with the load
which the utility grid sets system
on the generator (see Figure 50). The
frequency and voltage.
generator voltage regulator maintains
In a system with multiple paralleled constant voltage throughout the load
generators the independent controls range.
for speed and voltage would
counteract each other and decrease
system stability so a real (kW) and
5 Amps generators and a load. If the open

circuit voltage is exactly the same on
both generators they will divide the
load equally when they are paralleled
Current (Figure 51). Differences between open
From circuit generator voltages will, upon
CTS paralleling, result in circulating
currents (Figure 52).
IL = 100A
I1 = 50A I2 = 50A
0 Load on Generator 100%

Generator Generator
Load
G1 G2
Figure 50 – Current Sensing 1 MW
480 Volts 480 Volts
The control system generates an

output which biases the speed
control. The bias signal is fed into the
closed loop governor speed control to
Figure 51 – Paralleled Generators –
balance real power proportionally Balanced Voltage
among all paralleled generators. I3 = 100A
9.6.2 Circulating Currents in Paralleled I1 = 50A I2 = 150A
Generators
Generator Generator
Circulating currents exist in G1 G2
Load
1 MW
paralleled generators when multiple 479 Volts 481 Volts
generators are attempting to operate
at different voltages although they are
connected through the common bus.
This current will exist when the Figure 52 – Paralleled Generators –
internal excitation voltage produced Unbalanced Voltage
by each generator is slightly different In practice the manual, precise
but the terminal or bus voltage is the matching of voltages is not possible.
same. These circulating currents Some means must be provided to
reduce the effective excitation of one make load sharing between paralleled
or more generators and increase the generators simple to control.
effective excitation of others.
Because circulating current or load
Generator voltage is directly related
unbalance is the result of voltage
to exciter output; hence an attempted
mismatch, the voltage regulator will
generator voltage difference is the
act as the control system using
result of different exciter output.
paralleling compensation circuits
The voltage regulator controls exciter
called reactive droop compensation or
output. Control of circulating currents
reactive cross-current compensation.
is accomplished by biasing the voltage
regulator. The principle of operation of the
reactive droop circuit can be described
An example to illustrate the effect of
by the curve in Figure 53.
the voltage regulator on the generator
system can be seen using two
IL = 100A
I1 = 50A I2 = 50A
Generator Generator
Load
G1 G2
100 A
480 Volts 480 Volts
Figure 53 – Reactive Droop Curves

Figure 54 – Paralleled Generators –
Using a regulator designed to Balanced Voltage
maintain precise voltage regulation a
With voltages balanced (Figure 54)
circuit is added that accepts a current
and 100A load, each generator will
signal derived from the generator’s
supply its share of the load. If G2
output. This current signal is
voltage is increased its output current
combined with the generator’s will try to increase. This increase
sensing voltage signal to develop a
will cause a voltage droop which
vector-summed voltage proportional
counteracts the voltage increase.
to reactive load.
G1 will see its output current
For example, if voltage decreases decrease resulting in a droop circuit
from 480V to 458V from no load action to increase voltage. The result
to rated reactive (kVAR) load, the is a load balance control action that
voltage droop is –4.3% droop. If two works to hold loading balanced when
generators are operated in parallel two or more generators are operating
with their droop curves set the same in parallel.
and their voltage set points adjusted
9.6.2.1 Cross-current Compensation
to proportionally share the reactive
Cross-current compensation is a
load, any unbalance that would
method of controlling the reactive
increase the load on one machine and
power supplied by AC generators in a
decrease the load on the other would
paralleling system so they share
cause the droop circuits to change the
equally the total reactive load on the
voltage set points in a direction to
bus without significant voltage droop.
bring the load back into balance.
With droop compensation, the bus For droop operation, the droop
voltage will droop with changing adjustment is used so each generator
reactive load. droops similar amounts at its rated
load; then the generators can be
By building this characteristic into
paralleled and each generator can be
the regulator of each generator
adjusted
operating in parallel, sharing of the to carry its proportional share of the
load is controllable.
reactive load.
To parallel two generators voltage
For generators paralleled with
should be matched prior to closing the
reactive differential compensation,
breaker to minimize the current surge equal currents are needed to cancel
at breaker closing. opposite currents so that no droop in
the generating system is present.
The unequal currents presented by resistor should only be adjusted for

the current transformers will force the a small amount.
cross-current loop to operate at an Decreasing the burden resistance
imbalance and maintain circulating causes the response of the generator
currents. To decrease the imbalance to be less sensitive to imbalances in
of current through the cross-current the loop due to reactive loading.
loop, all burden resistors should be set The burden resistor should only be
at maximum resistance; the burden adjusted a small amount so as to
resistor across the current transformer maintain proper control of circulating
with the smallest secondary current currents and also to decrease the
should be adjusted for a smaller current imbalance of the loop due
resistance so more current can flow to the current transformers.
through the resistor. The burden
Figure 55 – Cross-Current Compensation
generators to supply more VARs into

9.7 Utility Paralleled the utility bus to meet the demands
Operation of the system. Depending upon the
impedance of the transmission or
9.7.1 Infinite Utility Bus
distribution line at the area of the local
One way to simplify the analysis of
generating station and the voltage
utility parallel operation is to adopt the
regulation of the system bus, a
concept of an “infinite bus” for the
smaller generator tied into the utility
utility grid. This assumption can be
bus can become severely overloaded
used if the capacity of the utility grid
or under excited. The severity
at a point of interconnection is at
depends upon the magnitude and
least 10 times greater than the
direction of the system voltage
capacity of equipment connected at
change.
PCC. The concept holds true when
the utility voltage and frequency are The regulator’s ability to
not changed when real and reactive compensate for large changes in
currents change at the PCC. bus voltage can be exceeded.
Two examples serve to illustrate
An example is a generator
typical problem areas:
connected to a utility grid with a
generator size of 100kW and the 1. A generator equipped with a
connection point being an industrial voltage regulator adjusted for 4%
plant served by a 10MVA transformer. droop can have a variation in VAR
With the transformer being fed from a (volt amperes reactive) load from
line having a capacity of 150MVA any 0 to 100% with a 4% decrease in
changes in load flow caused by fuel or bus voltage. Further decreases in
excitation changes at the 100kW bus voltage would overload the
generator will have no measurable generator.
effect on the voltage and frequency 2. An increase in bus voltage can
of the transformer secondary. This is cause leading power factor
also referred to as the stiffness of the conditions with the associated
grid. danger of the machine pulling out
of synchronization.
9.7.2 VAR/Power Factor Regulation
When synchronous generators are To minimize the possibility of either
tied to a utility bus conditions may scenario occurring, the voltage
occur where the transmission or regulator is often adjusted for
distribution voltage may be sensitive operation in a “safe” region rather
to local load fluctuations. The bus than a region that utilizing the
voltage may be normal in the early generator's full kVA capability.
morning but then drops progressively
through the day as system loading VAR/power factor (PF) controllers
increases. In other cases high regulate VAR flow or power factor
reactance in the transmission and when operating in parallel with
distribution line can cause undesirable another power system. The excitation
voltage drops with increased system is adjusted automatically to
loading. This reduces the available compensate for bus voltage changes.
voltage at the load forcing local area
The VAR/PF controller senses until the programmed reactive load

generator output voltage and current current is attained. When the power
and provides an output signal that is factor is controlled, the regulator
electronically injected into the voltage changes the excitation until the
regulator. selected power factor is obtained.
The VAR/PF controller has two A sample generator capability
modes of operation: (reactive capability) curve showing
• VAR mode. the engine limits with relation to
• Power Factor mode. VAR and PF is shown in Figure 56.
When VARs are controlled the
voltage regulator changes its output
Figure 56 – Generator Capability Curve
of a power outage, the standby

10 APPLICATIONS switchgear effectively switches from
utility power to generator power.
10.1 Standby Standby generators are typically
Standby switchgear is used for operated isochronously.
backup power generation. In the event
Figure 57 – Typical Emergency Power System with ATS & UPS
10.1.1 Automatic Transfer Switch load circuits back to the normal

Integration source.
The automatic transfer switch (ATS) An ATS may include discrete or data
is a device that transfers electrical communications to the switchgear for
loads between two independent annunciation of status and integration
sources of power by using either of control including:
automatic or manual controls.
• Timer settings.
The ATS includes sensing circuits to • Pickup/dropout settings.
detect when a failure of the normal
power source occurs. The ATS • Testing functions.
controls include a contact used to • Alarm functions.
start the engine when the emergency • Transfer-inhibit control.
power source is an engine generator.
When the generator reaches the rated 10.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
voltage and frequency the ATS Integration
switches its main contacts from the An uninterruptible power supply
normal source to the emergency (UPS) system is an assembly of
source. When the normal source equipment used with electrical
is restored the ATS re-transfers the loads sensitive to power source
disturbances or that require absolute A bank of storage batteries “floats”

continuity of power. The UPS can online to provide seamless DC power
store energy for a period of time to the inverter in the event of power
during power outages. The UPS source loss to the rectifier. The
continually conditions power and batteries get their restoring charge
if the normal power source is not and standby float charge from the
available the UPS provides power rectifier’s DC output.
to the critical load until the standby The DC output of the rectifier
power generation can come online. provides two functions during the
The generator set should be sized time when an AC power source is
to the UPS rating, not the load. available at its terminals:
Continuity and isolation from power
• It provides regulated DC to
source disturbances can be assured
the inverter for powering the
by using either a rotary or a static
critical load.
UPS system.
• It maintains the “state of
Rotary systems use a motor-
charge” on the bank of DC
generator set to isolate the critical
batteries, including recharging
load combined with kinetic inertia
if the state of charge has
storage technique or batteries to carry
been depleted by a recent
the critical load while cranking a diesel
normal power outage.
engine.
Static systems isolate critical load 10.2 Parallel with Utility
through solid-state devices which use
batteries to bridge power interruptions Paralleling generators with the grid
is typically done for economic
until a generator set is available to
power the system. reasons. Paralleled generators can
also be used as standby.
UPSs can also be used to perform
an orderly engine shutdown to Common applications/modes of
minimize restart damage. operation include:
Static UPS systems use static • Base load.

components to provide quality power • Import/export.
to critical equipment independent of • Peak shaving.
the quality or availability of the normal
• Zero power transfer.
power source. The simplest systems
consist of a rectifier (converter), a DC 10.2.1 Base Load
storage battery bank, and an inverter. The least demanding power
The rectifier, sometimes called a management type on an engine is
converter, is a device that converts base loading. The generator operates
AC current to DC current. at a constant load and the utility
imports power when the load exceeds
The inverter uses solid state the generator output. The user can
technology to convert DC to a also export power to the utility if
waveform that is then filtered so it is the load is below the output of the
suitable for powering the critical load. generator. Figure 58 shows a base
loading system and indicates when

power would be imported or exported.
Since overloads are handled by the
utility and the generator set is
operating at a constant load, size and
engine response time are not as
crucial as in peak shaving.
Figure 59 – Zero Import/Zero Export Control
10.2.3 Peak Shaving

Figure 60 shows how a utility
customer can qualify for a discounted
rate by not allowing the power
demand to be above 500kW. Any
power generated over 500kW is
Figure 58 – Base Loading
supplied by the customer’s generator.
Thus, the customer “shaves” the
10.2.2 Zero Import/Zero Export peaks from the utilities’ responsibility.
The load management type (in Peak shaving can be very demanding
which the customer supplies all the on an engine; it must be able to start
electrical needs to the facility), while quickly and automatically parallel to
still paralleling with the utility, is the utility. The response time of the
called “zero import/zero export engine is crucial because of the load
control” or “import tracking”. Refer fluctuations.
to Figure 59 for an illustration of this
control. If the power requirements
fluctuate widely a series of generator
sets can be used and brought online
as required. Since the customer
remains paralleled to the utility the
demands made on the engines for
this type are similar to base loading.
Reliability is the chief concern for
these customers; utilities will often
invoke demand charge penalties each
time they are called upon to supply Figure 60 – Peak Shaving
power. 10.2.4 Zero Power Transfer
Zero power transfer is the action of
opening the point of common coupling
with no power flow going through it.
The entire load is transferred from one
power source to the other: standby to
normal or normal to standby.
10.3 Prime Various manufacturers market

insulating sprays to prevent corrosion
In a prime power application where and other sprays to remove moisture
there is no other source of power and terminals.
available, the generator sets are the
only source of power. Generators are 11.2.3 Humidity
operated isochronously. High humidity has a deteriorating
effect on instruments, apparatus, and
11 MISCELLANEOUS insulation in generator control panels.
As mentioned above, insulating sprays
11.1 Distributed Generation are available from the factory to
remove moisture and protect
Distributed generation produces switchgear equipment.
electricity from many small energy
sources. It has also been called onsite In addition to insulating sprays,
generation, dispersed generation, space heaters are often used to
embedded generation, decentralized reduce moisture inside generators,
generation, decentralized energy, or switchgear, and control panels.
distributed energy. These space heaters commonly
use thermostats or humidistats to
Distributed generation reduces the automatically reduce moisture and
amount of energy lost in transmitting are typically connected to the
electricity because the electricity is normal AC power source.
generated very near where it is used,
perhaps even in the same building. 12 MAINTAINING
Typical distributed power sources SWITCHGEAR
have low maintenance, low pollution
To ensure trouble free and reliable
and high efficiencies.
operation, switchgear should be given
care, and a regular maintenance
11.2 Site Conditions
program should be established per
11.2.1 Altitude Correction manufacturers' maintenance
Above 3000 feet both insulation and schedules and procedures.
current carrying capacity are affected.
For such applications, the published 12.1 Planned Maintenance
ratings of circuit breakers are
Frequency of maintenance
modified by using factors found
operations will depend on the location
in manufacturers’ technical
and the frequency of operation of the
specifications or in NEMA standards.
circuit breakers. In extremely dirty
11.2.2 Temperature Compensation atmospheres it may be advisable to
Temperature affects the point at clean and inspect the equipment every
which the thermal-type circuit breaker one to two months. Under normal
trips on overload’ the higher the conditions a semi-annual inspection of
ambient temperature the lower the the equipment is satisfactory although
current at which the breaker trips. if the circuit breakers are operated
frequently it may be advisable to
Extremely high temperatures can
also damage the control panels.
inspect and service them more very little equipment. Devices are
frequently. available from manufacturers which
can also be used to check calibration
Routine maintenance of the
and timing; these devices are
switchgear should involve cleaning
relatively inexpensive. Equipment for
of the structure and especially the
testing magnetically operated trip
insulating supports for the bus.
devices is much more expensive. For
• All electrical connections should this reason, testing of these magnetic
be checked to make sure that bolts trip devices often is not practical;
and terminal screws are tight. however, they should be inspected
• Relays should be tested in to see that parts move freely.
accordance with the Where dashpots are used for timing,
manufacturer’s instructions. they should be inspected to be sure
• Megohmeter tests may be made to that the oil is clean and it flows freely
check the insulation of both the through the orifice.
primary circuits and the control
circuits. Records of these readings 12.2 Spare Parts
should be kept; a low megohmeter Depending on the criticality of the
reading may not indicate trouble application, ample supply of spare
but a reading which has been parts may be recommended.
falling steadily over a period of
time indicates that trouble is 12.3 Safety
developing and corrective action
should be taken. Safety is one of the most important
considerations with switchgear
Care of the circuit breakers involves
planning and maintenance. It requires
periodic inspection, cleaning, and
a periodic review of all equipment
lubrication. Frequency of servicing
and operations by a qualified, safety-
will depend on conditions of the
minded, and trained team. The team
atmosphere and frequency of
must know and be familiar with all of
operation. Breakers, which are
the equipment they operate.
operated several times daily, should
be serviced more frequently. Whether high-voltage lines or
However, breakers which are not feeders should be grounded after
required to be operated for long being de-energized so that men can
periods of time should be opened and safely work on them depends upon
closed several times every two or the qualifications of the men doing
three weeks to burnish the contacts the grounding, since it is necessary
and make sure that all moving parts for the line to be dead before it is
operate freely. When servicing, make grounded. The hazards are great
sure all bolts are tight. and the consequences are very
serious if energized.
When possible, check the over-
current trip devices to be sure they 12.3.1 NFPA 70E
are operating properly. With static trip NFPA 70E is the Standard for
devices, a function test of the over- Electrical Safety Requirements for
current trip device can be made with Employee Workplaces. This standard
gives guidelines, which should be the equipment, or a failure of the

used to protect work personnel from equipment may cause a phase-to-
shock and arc flash/blast. ground and/or a phase-to-phase fault.
Shock: Arc temperatures can reach up to
35,000F. Affects of arc flash on
Shock can cause immediate:
personnel can be:
• Muscle contraction.
• Radiation burns.
• Tingling.
• Arc eye.
• Pain.
• Hearing/brain function damage.
• Difficulty in breathing.
• Shrapnel injuries.
• Dizziness.
NFPA 70E is designed to protect
• Surface burns. personnel when equipment is under
• Internal tissue burns. normal conditions:
Shock can also cause long term: 1. Panel covers are in place.
• Memory loss. 2. Equipment plugged in normally.
• Nervous disorders. 3. Designed protection in place.
• Chemical imbalances. NFPA 70E defines boundaries around
equipment with personnel restrictions
• Damage to vital organs.
for each level of boundaries. The
Surface burns are caused by boundaries defined are:
entrance and exit of electrical currents
1. Limited approach boundary.
through the body resulting in 1st to 3rd
degree burns. Internal tissue burns are a. Entered only by qualified
3rd degree burns caused by current, in persons or unqualified
excess of 1.5 amps, flowing through persons that have been
organs of the body. This affects the advised and are escorted by
internal organs and is typically fatal. a qualified person
The primary means NFPA 70E uses 2. Restricted approach boundary.
to prevent shock is: a. Entered only by qualified
1. Placing circuits in electrically persons required to use
safe working conditions by shock protection techniques
locking out and tagging out and personnel protective
all sources equipment (PPE).
2. Verifying that no electrical 3. Prohibited approach boundary.
energy is present in the circuits. a. Entered only by qualified
Arc Flash/Blast: persons requiring same
protection as if direct
Arc flash/blast occurs when
contact with live part.
insulation or isolation between
electrical conductors is breached and 4. Flash protection boundary.
can no longer withstand the applied a. Linear distance to prevent
voltage. As personnel work on or near any more than 2nd degree
energized conductors or circuits, burns from a potential
movement near, or contact with arc-flash.
For compliance with NFPA 70E,

flash hazard analysis must be
conducted on the system. The
analysis shall determine operating
voltage, personnel protective
equipment, and the shock protection
boundaries by using tables within the
standard.
Other important standards outlined
in NFPA 70E are:
1. Labeling equipment.
2. Equipment de-energization.
3. Personnel protection
safeguards.
in parallel is typically less than

13 GLOSSARY OF 100 milliseconds.
TERMS DGPS (Distributed Generation
Alternator: Power System):
A device for converting mechanical Typically a local engine generator
energy into alternating current set and automation connected to the
electrical energy; it may also be called utility system to peak shave or export
an AC or synchronous generator. power.
Arc Extinguishers: EPS (Emergency Power System):
Confine and extinguish the arc which Provides emergency power sources
will be drawn between contacts each and emergency distribution to down-
time they interrupt current. stream loads.
ATS (Automatic Transfer Switch) Emergency Standby Power
A switch designed to sense the loss Application:
of one power source and
Typical usage is 50 hours per year
automatically transfer the load
with a maximum of 200 hours per
to another source of power.
year. Generators can be applied at
Bias Control: their standby rating with a typical
Bias is direct current (DC) signal variable load factor of 70%.
applied between two points for the Feeder Breaker Controls:
purpose of controlling engine speed Automation controls to allow control
or generator voltage. of the distribution feeder devices for
Circuit Breaker: load shed/load add control and
monitoring.
A mechanical switching device
capable of making, carrying, and Generator:
breaking currents under normal circuit A machine for converting
conditions. It is also capable of mechanical energy into electrical
making and carrying for a specified energy. The electrical energy may
time and breaking currents under be direct current (DC) or alternating
specified abnormal circuit conditions current (AC).
such as those of a short circuit. Generator Demand Priority:
Closed-Transition Transfer (Make- These controls automatically match
Before-Break): the online engine generator capacity
A transfer between sources that to the load to avoid unnecessary
provides momentary paralleling of engine generator set operation when
both power sources during a transfer loads are low. This is alternatively
in either direction. This results in no called Load Sense Load Demand.
interruption of power to the loads Governor:
during the transfer. The closed
A device that regulates prime mover
transition transfer is only possible
speed by adjusting the fuel input to
when the sources are properly
maintain constant speed.
synchronized and interfaced. The
duration of the two sources being
HMI Human Machine Interface: Normal power system. The utility

Typically a touch-screen used by service entrance equipment and
the operator for interfacing with distribution circuits to downstream
the paralleling generator system. loads.
Impulse Withstand: Operating Mechanism:
An impulse-withstand voltage Opens and closes the breaker.
assigned by the manufacturer Over-currents:
to the equipment, or to a part of it, Any current in excess of the rated
characterizing the specified withstand current of the equipment or the amp
capability of its insulation against capacity of a conductor.
over-voltages.
Paralleling:
Interrupting Capacity: The procedure of connecting two
The maximum short circuit current or more generators or other power
that the breaker can safely interrupt. sources of the same phase, voltage,
Load Shed/Load Add: and frequency characteristics that
Automated controls for distribution supply the same load.
devices when only partial emergency Peak Shaving:
engine generator sets are available
Process by which the utility
for duty. The task is typically
customer minimizes utility charges
accomplished by assigning priority
by either a) generating power and
levels to each controlled distribution
eliminating excessive demand
device.
charges or b) by shedding load.
Master Controls:
All processors, HMI, and Point of Common Coupling (PCC):
programming to implement the Used to refer to the point where the
desired modes of operation of electrical facilities or conductors of
engine generator sets in a paralleling the wire owner are connected to the
switchgear system. power producer’s facilities or
Molded Case: conductors, and where any transfer
of electric power between the power
A housing of insulating materials
producer and the wire owner takes
NFPA 70: place.
A US standard for the safe installation Prime Power Application:
of electrical wiring and equipment.
Unlimited hours of usage. Requires
NFPA 99:
generators to be applied at their prime
Requirements for emergency systems power rating with a typical load factor
in health care facilities. of 70%.
NFPA 110: Processor:
Standard for the assembly, A specially configured logic
installation, and performance of controller with appropriate input-
electrical power systems to supply output capability and programming.
critical and essential needs during
outages of the primary power source.
NPS (Normal Power System):
Shore Power: Terminal Connectors:

Typically used to reference utility Used to connect the circuit breaker
power. to the power source and the load.
Short-time Rating (aka Withstand Tie Breaker:
Rating): A breaker that is used to connect or
Defines the ability of the breaker separate/isolate between two different
to remain closed when a high fault generation systems.
current exists. Trip Elements:
Station Battery: Monitor current, trip the operating
A power supply utilized for control mechanism, and open the contacts in
of switchgear. event of a fault connection
Synchronizer: Utility Protection:
A device which will synchronize an A collection of protective relays or
oncoming electric generator set with a multi-function relay required by the
the bus or another electric generator utility to detect abnormal conditions
set and allows multiple power sources and open the utility breaker.
in be connected in parallel.
VARs:
Synchroscope: The combination of volts and amps
This instrument provides a visual acting in a reactive circuit; that is, one
indication of proper closing time for that is either inductive, as in the case
the breaker when manually of a motor load, or capacitive, as in
synchronizing generators to connect the case of some forms of electronic
them in parallel with another source. loads. VARs are like kilowatts but
since the volts and amps are out of
phase, the product of the two is not
the same as if they were acting on a
non reactive circuit.
25 SYNCHRONIZING OR
14 APPENDICES SYNCHRONIZM-CHECK DEVICE is
a device that operates when two
14.1 Appendix A AC circuits are within the desired
Device Number Function and limits of frequency, phase angle,
Description or voltage to permit or to cause
1 MASTER ELEMENT is the initiating the paralleling of these two
device, such as a control switch, circuits.
voltage relay, float switch, etc. 27 UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAY is a
which serves either directly or device that functions on a given
through such permissive devices value of under-voltage.
as protective and time-delay relays 32 DIRECTIONAL POWER RELAY is a
to place a piece of equipment in or device that functions on a desired
out of operation. value of power flow in a given
2 TIME-DELAY STARTING OR direction or upon reverse power.
CLOSING RELAY is a device 38 BEARING PROTECTIVE DEVICE
which functions to give a desired is a device that functions on
amount of time delay before or excessive bearing temperature
after any point of operation in a or on other abnormal mechanical
switching sequence or protective conditions associated with the
relay system, except as bearing such as undue wear, which
specifically provided by device may eventually result in excessive
functions 48, 62, and 79. bearing temperature or failure.
Also known as a Timer.
39 MECHANICAL CONDITION
12 OVER-SPEED DEVICE is usually MONITOR is a device that
a direct-connected speed switch functions upon the occurrence of
which functions on machine over- an abnormal mechanical condition
speed. Generally covered within (except those associated with
the protective scheme of the bearings as covered under device
generator controller or engine function 38) such as excessive
controller device. vibration, eccentricity, expansion,
15 SPEED OR FREQUENCY shock, tilting or seal failure.
MATCHING DEVICE is a device 40 FIELD RELAY is a relay that
that functions to match and hold functions on a given or abnormally
the speed or frequency of a low value or failure of machine
machine or of a system equal to, field current, or on an excessive
or approximate to, that of another value of the reactive component
machine source or system. Also of the armature current in an AC
known as a Synchronizer. machine indicating abnormally low
21 DISTANCE RELAY is a relay field excitation.
that functions when the circuit 41 FIELD CIRCUIT BREAKER is a
admittance, impedance, or device that functions to apply
reactance increases or decreases or remove the field excitation
beyond pre-determined limits. of a machine.
43 MANUAL TRANSFER OR an AC power circuit under normal

SELECTOR DEVICE is a manually conditions or to interrupt this
operated device that transfers the circuit under fault or emergency
control circuits in order to modify conditions.
the plan of operation of switching 59 OVER-VOLTAGE RELAY is a relay
equipment or of some of the that functions on a given value of
devices. over-voltage.
46 REVERSE-PHASE OR PHASE- 60 VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
BALANCE CURRENT RELAY is BALANCE RELAY is a relay that
a relay that functions when the operates on a given difference in
polyphase currents are of the voltage, or current input or
reverse phase sequence, or when output, of two circuits.
the polyphase currents are
62 TIME-DELAY STOPPING OR
unbalanced or contain negative
OPENING RELAY is a time-delay
phase-sequence components
relay that serves in conjunction
above a given amount.
with the device that initiates the
47 PHASE-SEQUENCE VOLTAGE shutdown, stopping or opening
RELAY is a relay that functions operation in an automatic sequence
upon a predetermined value of or protective relay system.
polyphase voltage in the desired
64 GROUND PROTECTIVE RELAY is
sequence.
a relay that functions on failure of
49 MACHINE OR TRANSFORMER the insulation of a machine,
THERMAL RELAY is a relay that transformer, or other apparatus
functions when the temperature to ground, or on flashover of a
of a machine armature winding or DC machine to ground.
other load-carrying winding or
Note: This function is assigned only
element of a machine or power
to a relay that detects the flow of
transformer exceeds a
current from the frame of a
predetermined value.
machine or enclosing case or
50 INSTANTANEOUS OVER- structure of a piece of apparatus
CURRENT OR RATE-OF-RISE to ground, or detects a ground on
RELAY is a relay that functions a normally un-grounded winding or
instantaneously on an excessive circuit. It is not applied to a device
value of current or when an connected in the secondary circuit
excessive rate of current in an AC of a current transformer, or in the
circuit exceeds a predetermined secondary neutral of current
value. transformers, connected in the
51 AC TIME OVER-CURRENT RELAY power circuit of a normally
is a relay with either a definite or grounded system.
inverse time characteristic that 65 GOVERNOR is the assembly of
functions when the current in an fluid, electrical, or mechanical
AC circuit exceeds a control equipment used for
predetermined value. regulating the flow of water, steam,
52 AC CIRCUIT BREAKER is a device or other medium to the prime
that is used to close and interrupt mover for such purposes as
starting, holding speed or load, or apparatus, such as a feeder or motor

stopping. or generator, it is common practice, in
67 AC DIRECTIONAL OVER- order to retain maximum simplicity in
CURRENT RELAY is a relay that device function identification, not to
functions on a desired value of add the respective suffix letter F or M
AC over-current flowing in a or G to any of the device function
predetermined direction. numbers.
79 AC RE-CLOSING RELAY is a relay Some commonly utilized suffix
that controls the automatic re- designations are the following:
closing and locking out of an AC A AUTOMATIC
circuit interrupter. M MANUAL
81 FREQUENCY RELAY is a relay that 27R VOLTAGE RESTRAINT
operates on a predetermined value
27C VOLTAGE CONTROLLED
of frequency (either under or over
or on normal system frequency) or R REVERSE
rate of change of frequency. RV REVERSE VARS
86 LOCKING-OUT RELAY is an G GENERATOR OR GROUND
electrically operated hand, reset T TRANSFORMER
relay or device that functions to
shutdown or hold equipment out 14.2 Bibliography
of service (or both), when
1. On-Site Power Generation: A
abnormal conditions occur.
Reference Book, Electrical
87 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIVE Generating Systems Association,
RELAY is protective relay that 1990.
functions on a percentage or
2. Smeaton, Robert W., Switchgear
phase angle or other quantitative
and Control Handbook, McGraw
difference of two currents or of
some other electrical quantities. Hill Book, First Edition.
3. 2006 Consulting Application
SUFFIX LETTERS permit a manifold
Guide, Cutler-Hammer, June 2006.
multiplication of available function
designations for the large number 4. American National Standard for
and variety of devices used in the Switchgear – Medium Voltage
many types of equipment. They Metal-Clad Assemblies –
may also serve to denote individual Conformance Test Procedures,
or specific parts or auxiliary ANSI C37.55-2002.
contacts of these devices or certain 5. Recommended Practice for
distinguishing features, Protection and Coordination of
characteristics, or conditions which Industrial and Commercial Power
describe the use of the device or its Systems, IEEE Buff Book,
contacts in the equipment. Standard 242-1975.
Letter suffixes should, however, be 6. Recommended Practice for
used only when they accomplish a Emergency and Standby Power
useful purpose. For example, when all Systems for Industrial and
of the devices in equipment are Commercial Applications,
associated with only one kind of
IEEE Orange Book, ANSI/IEEE Lockout/tagout of Energy Sources

Standard 446-1980. – Minimum Safety Requirements,
7. Recommended Practice for American National Standards
Electric Systems in Health Care Institute, ANSI Z244.1.
Facilities, IEEE White Book, 17. Governing Fundamentals and
IEEE Standard 602-1986. Power Management, Woodward
8. Standard for Safety, Transfer 2004.
Switch Equipment, Underwriters 18. Eberly, Thomas W. and Schaefer,
Laboratories, Inc., Fifth Edition, Richard C., Voltage versus
1996. VAR/Power Factor Regulation on
9. Enclosures for Electrical Synchronous Generators, Basler
Equipment, National Electrical Electric Company.
Manufacturers Association, 19. Horak, John and Dalke, Gerald,
NEMA Standard 250-2003. Breaker Monitoring with Number
10. Motors and Generators, National Relays, Basler Electric Company,
Electrical Manufacturers 2005.
Association, NEMA Standard 20. Hornak, Donald L. and Chau,
MG 1-1998. N.H., Distributed Generation
11. Standard for AC High-Voltage Interconnections: Protection,
Circuit Breakers on a Symmetrical Monitoring, and Control
Current Basis-Preferred Ratings Opportunities, Basler Electric
and Related Required Capabilities, Company.
The Institute of Electrical and 21. Rockefeller, George, Generator
Electronics Engineers, Inc., IEEE Protection Application Guide,
C37.06-2000. Basler Electric Company, 2001.
12. Standard for Metal-Enclosed 22. Introduction to Synchronizing,
Low-Voltage Power Circuit Automatic Synchronizing
Breaker Switchgear, The Institute Considerations and Applications,
of Electrical and Electronics Basler Electric Company.
Engineers, Inc., IEEE C37.20.1- 23. Finley, David J. and Horak, John,
1993. Load Shedding for Utility and
13. Standard for Metal-Clad Industrial Power System Reliability,
Switchgear, The Institute of Basler Electric Company.
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 24. Parallel Operation with a Network
Inc., IEEE C37.20.2-1999. System, Basler Electric Company.
14. Standard for Health Care 25. Voltage Regulator and Parallel
Facilities, National Fire Protection Operation, Basler Electric
Association, NFPA 99, 2005. Company.
15. Standard for Emergency and 26. Gharpure, Vasudev, Shulim, Boris
Standby Power Systems, and Horak, John. Bus Protective
National Fire Protection Relaying, Methods and
Association NFPA 110, 2005. Application, Basler Electric
16. American National Standard Company, 2005
for Personnel Protection –
LEBW7543-00 ©2007 Caterpillar ©2007 Caterpillar® Printed in U.S.A.

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Application & Installation Guide Generator Paralleling Switchgear

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

4.3.2 Metal-Clad ..........................................................21

5.4 Components ..............................................................35

6.3.1 Load Sense/Demand ............................................43

7.9 Elapsed Time Meter ....................................................51

9.6.2.1 Cross-current Compensation ..........................63

14.1 Appendix A..............................................................77

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential. Discretion is

1 SWITCHGEAR • National Electrical Manufacturers

Within the United States, several 1.1.1 IEEE1547

While uncommon in North America,

Low voltage molded case or power Rated Maximum Impulse

removable element is in the benefits can be gained by using arc

3.3 Arc Resistant 3.4 Enclosure Ratings

Type 1 Enclosures constructed Type 3X Identical to Type 3

degree of protection to the equipment Type 12 Enclosures constructed

Figure 4 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Non-Hazardous Locations

Figure 5 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Non-Hazardous

3.4.2 Hazardous Locations Type 8 Enclosures constructed

Figure 6 – Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations

Figure 7 – IEC Enclosure Classification

4.2 Switchgear Standards

Category UL 1558 UL891

breakers are permissible in a unit,

units of the same width as unused from 28 to 50 inches wide, an aisle

conductors consolidate the output bolted or clamped connections. Often

primary rating should be 140-150% set of two line-to-line voltage trans-

Figure 11 – Medium Voltage Switchgear

drawout primary fuse drawer

Figure 14 – Medium Voltage CPT

• For low voltage CBs. • For medium voltage CBs,

Required Ratings UL 1066 UL 489

Rated Frequency dc, 60 Hz/ 50 Hz. dc, 50 or 60 Hz or 400 Hz

Frame sizes: 800-6000A, other ratings

4000A frame 400 open/close operations 4000A frame – 400 open/close

100% of continuous current in air. 80%

required frame size and desired trip electrically operated. A comparison of

5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case • Contacts – carry current.

• Operating mechanism - opens Short time current ratings on molded

Selective tripping is available over a

Transfer loads while 5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit

Figure 19 – Power Circuit Breakers

Figure 20 – Vacuum Breaker Rear View

Of the two contacts inside, one is provide different types of protection

When a fault occurs and interruption dielectric can withstand without

Figure 21 – Interrupter Cut Away View

2. Short Delay (S). There are two types of responses

2. Faults resulting from insulation or 2-phase connected current

5.4.2 Under-Voltage Device moves the breaker handle to the on

Figure 24 – Under-Voltage Device

• Truck Operated Cell (TOC) Auxiliary contacts that

0.9 – temperature compensation expansion) banded together. Heat due

5.6 Overload Protection

Figure 30 – Overload Protection/ Tripped

When a short circuit occurs, the

Figure 31– Thermal Trip Curve

5.7 Short Circuit Protection

Figure 34 – Magnetic Trip Curve

breakers will trip instantaneously; • Peak inverse voltage must be

the most part replaced control relays • Current.

Versions of the Modbus protocol 6.2.3.1 Building Management/

• Input: Allowing the users to • Reporting, trending, and

Failure of the control system electromechanical mechanism or