1.

Mechanical & Metallurgical Failure

For All Industries

Damage Temperature Affected Inspection &

Description of Damage Prevention Appearance
Mechanisms Range Materials monitoring

Causing loss in strength, Full thickness

Graphiti- Some grades of CS Using Cr containing low
ductility and/or creep 427°C to 593 °C sample N/A
zation resistance.
and 0.5Mo steels alloy steel
metallography

Softening Field
CS and low alloys
May cause a loss in strength Minimize exposure to metallography or
(Spheroidi- and/or creep resistance. 440°C to 760°C incl. 1Cr-0.5Mo
elevated temps removal of
N/A
zation) until 9Cr-1Mo
samples

Mostly pre-1980’s No issue for newer steels

Results in an increase in
carbon steels with with enough Al for
Strain hardness and strength with Intermediate
large grain size and deoxidizer; None N/A
Aging a reduction in Temperature
C-0.5 Mo low alloy Apply PWHT to weld
ductility and toughness
steel repair or "Butter"

Brittle fracture is the sudden

rapid fracture under stress Material selection; Cracks typically straight,
CS and low alloys None to minimize;
(residual or applied) where Temperatures below Minimize pressure at non- branching, with no
Brittle esp. prior to 1987; Susceptible
the material exhibits ductile-to- brittle ambient temperatures; plastic deformation;
Fracture little or no evidence of transition temp
400 SS also
PWHT; "Warm" pre-stress
vessels inspect for
Limited intergranular
susceptible pre-existing flaws
ductility or plastic hydrotest cracking
deformation.

SEE Table 4-2 for

At high temperatures, metal
Threshold Temp:
Creep and components can slowly Minimize temperatures; Combination of Noticeable deformation
C.S. --> 700ºF
deform under load below All metals and Higher PWHT may help; techniques; Tubes may be observed; May
Stress the
C-1/2 Mo --> 750ºF
alloys Minimize hot spots in bulging, sagging, have significant bulging
Rupture 1.25Cr thru 9Cr -->
yield stress. Deformation heaters diametric growth before final fracture occurs
800ºF 304H --> 900ºF
may lead to rupture
347H --> 1000ºF
 2. Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness
For All Industries

Damage Temperature Affected Inspection &

Description of Damage Prevention Appearance
Mechanisms Range Materials monitoring

More active material

occur at the junction of
All metals with the Design; Differing alloys can suffer generalized
Galvanic dissimilar metals when Visual and UT
N/A exception of most not in intimate contact; loss in thickness or
Corrosion they are joined together
noble metals Coatings
Thickness
crevice, groove or
in a suitable electrolyte
pitting corrosion

General or localized;
occurs from moisture Corrosion rates
Atmospheric CS, low alloys, and Surface prep and proper Normally a distinctive
associated with increase with temp VT and UT
Corrosion atmospheric conditions up to about 250°F.
copper alloyed Al coating iron oxide (red rust)
scale forms

May be highly localized;

Corrosion Under resulting from water More severe 212°F - CS, low alloys, 300 Selection of insulation Strip insulation; VT, Loose, flaky scale
trapped under type; Maintain coatings
Insulation (CUI) insulation or fireproofing 250°F for CS SS and duplex SS
and insulation
UT, IR, etc. covering the corroded
component

Design process inlet <

General corrosion,
caused by dissolved Process side > 135°F; Operation; pH; Oxygen
CS, all grades of SS, localized underdeposit,
Cooling Water salts, gases, 140°F; Brackish and Chemical treatment; content; Outlet
copper, Al, titanium pitting, MIC, SCC,
Corrosion organic compounds or salt water outlet >
and Ni base alloys
Maintain water temps; EC/IRIS
fouling, grooving along
microbiological activity. 115°F velocities; Avoid ERW tubes
ERW tubes
tubes

Boiler Water General corrosion and Primarily CS; Some Oxygen: pitting
Oxygen scavenging Water analysis;
pitting in the boiler low alloy, 300 SS anywhere in the
Condensate system and condensate
N/A
and copper based
treatment; Amine Dearator cracking
system; CO2: smooth
Corrosion inhibitor treatment WFMT
return piping. alloys grooving
 3. High Temperature Corrosion
For All Industries
Damage
Description of Damage
Mechanisms
Oxygen in air reacts with significant > 1000°F;
Oxidation carbon steel and other
alloys at high temperature
scaling > 1500°F.
Corrosion of carbon
steel and other alloys
Sulfidation resulting from their
reaction with sulfur
compounds in high-T
Carbon is absorbed into a
material at elevated
Carburization temperature while in
contact with a
carbonaceous material
A condition where steel
loses strength due the
Decarburi- removal of carbon and
zation carbides leaving only an
iron
matrix.
is form of carburization
Metal Dusting resulting in accelerated
localized pitting
Temperature Affected Inspection &
Prevention Appearance
Range Materials monitoring
Oxidation of CS Upgrade alloy;
CS and low alloys; All Monitor process General thinning;
Addition of Cr
300 SS, 400 SS and Ni conditions and Usually covered on
300 Series SS
base alloys oxidize to
primary element
temperatures; UT for the outside surface
susceptible to for oxidation
varying degrees thickness loss with an oxide scale
resistance
Monitor process Most often uniform
CS, low alloys, 300 SS Upgrade to higher conditions and thinning but may
and 400 SS; Ni base Cr; Al diffusion temperatures; UT for be localized;
> 500°F
alloys; Copper base treatment of low thickness loss; Sulfide scale will
alloys alloys Proactive and usually cover the
retroactive PMI surface
Alloy selection (Si & Hardness/Field
CS and low alloys, 300
Al oxidizers); Lower metallography if
SS and 400 SS, cast SS, In advanced stage
temperatures and process side
> 1100°F Ni base alloys with
higher accessible; RT, UT,
may be a
significant Fe content volumetric increase
oxygen/sulfur MT for cracking in
and HK/HP alloys
partial pressures. advanced stages
Control chemistry
Field metallography;
Elevated of gas phase; Cr
CS and low alloys Hardness tests for N/A
temperatures and Mo form more
softening
stable carbides
Protective layer of Compression wave Low alloys can be
All; No known alloy sulfur (usually as UT for heater tubes; uniform but usually
900°F - 1500°F immune under all H2S); Material RT for small pits filled
conditions selection; Al pitting/thinning; VT if with crumbly
diffusion treatment ID is accessible residue;
 4. Environment Assisted Cracking
For All Industries
Damage Description of Temperature Affected Inspection &
Prevention Appearance
Mechanisms Damage Range Materials monitoring
Due aqueous
chloride
Chloride environment. 300 SS; Ni 8% - 12%
Stress Material selection; Low VT in some cases, "spider web"; Branched,
The most
chloride water for hydro PT (surface prep transgranular, and may
Corrosion presence of > 140°F susceptible; Ni > 35%
test; Coatings under may be necessary), have "crazecracked"
Cracking dissolved oxygen highly resistant, Ni >
insulation; ECT, UT appearance
(Cl-SCC) increases 45% nearly immune
propensity for
cracking.
cracks develop
under the "rabbit ears";
inhibitors, material selection,
Corrosion combined effects Transgranular but not
N/A All metals and alloys coatings, BFW chemical UT, MT
Fatigue of cyclic loading
control, etc.); PWHT;
branched, often
and multiple parallel cracks
corrosion
surface-initiated
WFMT, EC, RT,
Caustic Stress cracks that "spider web";
Increasing ACFM for crack
Corrosion occur in piping and CS, low alloys and PWHT at 1150°F for CS; Alloy Predominantly
temps detection; PT not
equipment 300 SS; Ni base upgrade to Ni based alloys; intergranular, parallel to
Cracking exposed to caustic,
increase
alloys more Design/operation of
effective (tight,
weld in adjacent base
(Caustic likelihood and scale-filled cracks);
primarily adjacent resistant. injection system; metal but can occur in
Embrittlement) to non-PWHT’d severity SWUT for crack
the weld or HAZ
depth
welds.

Ammonia Copper alloys with Copper - monitor Cu: bluish corrosion

Due to aqueous aqueous ammonia Copper - prevent ingress of pH, ECT or VT on products at surface
Stress Any
streams containing and/or ammonium air, upgrade to 300 SS or Ni tubes for cracking; cracks, single or highly
Corrosion ammonia
temperature
compounds; CS in alloys; CS - PWHT CS - WFMT, AET, or branched, either trans
Cracking anhydrous ammonia External SWUT or intergranular

A loss in ductility
CS, low alloys, 400 Use lower strength steels; MT or PT for Can initiate sub-surface,
Hydrogen due to the
SS, Precipitation PWHT; Low hydrogen, dry surface cracks; UT but in most cases is
penetration of Ambient -
Embrittlement atomic hydrogen 300°F;
Hardenable SS, electrodes, and preheat for may be helpful; RT surface breaking; Higher
(HE) some high strength welding; Bake out at 400°F not sensitive strength steels cracking
can lead to brittle
Ni base alloys. or higher; enough is often intergranular
cracking
 1. Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness
For Refinery Industry

Damage Description of Temperature Affected Inspection &

Prevention Appearance
Mechanisms Damage Range Materials monitoring

occurs principally on
Increases with
carbon Proper operation; Avoid
increasing temps; VT and UT thickness General uniform
steel in amine
Amine treating processes
Above 220°F can Primarily CS; 300 SS
buildup of HSAS; Design
should control local
internal; UT scans or thinning, localized
Corrosion due to amine &
result in acid gas highly resistant pressure drop to minimize profile RT for external; corrosion or localized
flashing and severe flashing; Corrosion coupons underdeposit attack
dissolved acid gases
localized corrosion
(CO2 and H2S)

Ammonium corrosion occurring Symmetrical/balanced flow Frequent UT and RT

Bisulfide in hydroprocessing
CS; 300 SS, duplex SS, in and out of air cooled profile thickness; IRIS
General loss in
reactor effluent exchangers; Maintain thickness with
Corrosion streams and in units < 150°F Al alloys and Ni base velocities 10 to 20 fps for and ECT tubes;
potential for high
alloys more resistant CS, resistant materials > 20 Monitor water
(Alkaline Sour handling localized rates;
fps; injection
Water) alkaline sour water.

RT or UT Thickness;
Pitting resistant alloys Monitor feed streams;
Ammonium occurring under
< 300°F; May corrode more have improved
ammonium chloride All commonly used Corrosion coupons Possible fouling or
Chloride or amine salt
well above water
materials;
resistance; Limit chlorides;
may be helpful if salts corrosion
dewpoint of 300°F Water wash; Filming
Corrosion deposits inhibitors deposit on the
element

Hydrochloric Increases with Upgrade CS to Ni base can AUT or RT for

General uniform
Caused by aqueous increasing temp up to All common materials help; Remove chlorides thinning, localized
Acid (HCl) HCl point where water of construction (neutralize, water wash,
thickness; Corrosion
corrosion or
coupons; Check pH
Corrosion vaporizes absorb, etc.); underdeposit attack

presence of
High Temp hydrogen in H2S- Order of increasing Use alloys with high UT, VT and RT for
Uniform loss in
containing resistance: CS, low chromium content; 300 SS thickness from the
H2/H2S hydrocarbon streams
> 500°F
alloys, 400 SS, and are highly resistant at
thickness; Verify
process side with an
operating temps;
Corrosion caused in a uniform 300 SS service temps iron sulfide scale
loss in thickness
 2. Environment Assisted Cracking
For Refinery Industry
Damage Description of Temperature Affected Inspection &
Prevention Appearance
Mechanisms Damage Range Materials monitoring

normally occurring Material selection;

Polythionic Acid during shutdowns, Sensitized austenitic Flush with alkaline or
Flapper disc sanding
Intergranular; Quite
startups or during Sensitization occurs SS; 300 SS, Alloy soda ash to neutralize localized; Typically
Stress Corrosion operation when sulfur 750°F - 1500°F 600/600H, and Alloy or purge with
to remove deposits
next to welds, but
Cracking (PASCC) acid, air and moisture and PT
800/800H nitrogen or may be in base metal
are present nitrogen/ammonia;

Occurs in aqueous
Crack detection best
Amine Stress alkanolamine systems Surface cracking on
PWHT all CS welds; with WFMT or ACFM;
used to ID primarily in HAZ,
Corrosion remove/absorb H2S
N/A CS and low alloys Material selection PT usually not
but also in weld or
Cracking (clad or solid); effective; SWUT crack
and/or adjacent to HAZ;
depths; AET
CO2

Four type of damages Monitor free water

Blistering, HIC
can occurs: Blistering, HIC, and phase; Crack
Coatings or alloy "stepwise cracking",
- Blistering SOHIC ambient to detection best with
Wet H2S Damage - HIC 300°F or higher; SSC
CS and low alloys cladding; Water wash
WFMT, EC, RT or
SOHIC stacked arrays,
to dilute HCN SSC through thickness
- SOHIC < 180°F ACFM; SWUT for crack
potentially
- SSC sizing; AET

PWHT; Weld hardness

< 200 HB and no
Hydrogen Stress Cracking as a result of Aqueous HF localized zones > 237 WFMT for cracks; Surface breaking
exposure to aqueous CS and low alloys
Cracking - HF HF acid environments environments HB; CS with Carbon Hardness testing intergranular cracks
Equivalent < 0.43;
B7M Bolts;
occur adjacent to
carbon steel welds Generally no Monitoring of pH and "spider web"; Parallel
under the combined temperature ranges; PWHT at 1150°F; CO3 to weld in adjacent
Carbonate Stress -2
action of tensile However, > 200°F if Material selection; concentration; WFMT base, but also in weld
Corrosion stress in systems CO2
CS and low alloys
Coatings or alloy or HAZ;
Cracking or ACFM for crack
containing a free > 2% in gas scrubbing cladding; detection; SWUT for Predominantly
water phase with units crack depth; AET intergranular
carbonate