Sto

hasti Loewner Evolution

Gregory F. Lawler
Department of Mathemati s
Cornell University
Itha a, NY 14863-4201
lawlermath. ornell.edu

The sto hasti Loewner evolution or S hramm-Loewner evolution (SLE ) is a family of

random urves that appear as s aling limits of urves or luster boundaries of dis rete statis-
ti al me hani al models in two dimensions at riti ality. The sto hasti Loewner evolution
was introdu ed by Oded S hramm as a andidate for the limit of loop-erased random walk
and the boundary of per olation lusters, and it is now believed that SLE urves appear in
most planar riti al systems whose s aling limit satises onformal invarian e. The urves
are dened by solving a Loewner dierential equation with a random input.

1 Denition
There are three major one-parameter families of SLE urves, hordal, radial, and whole-
plane whi h orrespond to urves onne ting: two boundary points in a domain, a boundary
point and an interior point in a domain, and two points in C , respe tively. The parameter is
usually denoted  > 0. The starting point for dening SLE is to write down the assumptions
that one expe ts from a s aling limit, assuming that the limit is onformally invariant.
In the hordal ase, we assume that there is a family of probability measures fD (z; w)g,
indexed by simply onne ted proper domains D  C and distin t boundary points z; w 2 D,
supported on ontinuous urves : [0; t ℄ ! D with (0) = z; (t ) = w, that satises:
 Conformal invarian e: If f : D ! D0 is a onformal transformation, then the image of
D (z; w) under f is the same as D (f (z ); f (w)), up to a time hange.
0

 Conformal Markov property for D (z; w): Suppose [0; t℄ is known, and let gt be a
onformal transformation of the slit domain D n [0; t℄ onto D with gt( (t)) = z; gt(w) =
w. Then the onditional distribution on gt Æ [t; t ℄, given [0; t℄, is the same, up
to a hange of parametrization, as the original distribution. (Impli it in this is the
assumption that (t) is on the boundary of D n (0; t℄, whi h will be true, e.g., if is
non-self-interse ting and (0; t )  D.)
Using the Riemann mapping theorem, one an see that su h a family fD (z; w)g is
determined (up to reparametrization) by H (0; 1), where H = fx + iy : y > 0g denotes the
upper half plane. Suppose : [0; 1) ! C is a simple (i.e., no self-interse tions) urve with

1
 w w
γ(t)

gt

z
z = gt( γ (t))

(0) = 0, (0; 1)  H , and supt Im[ (t)℄ = 1. Let Ht = H n [0; t℄. There is a unique
onformal transformation gt : Ht ! H whose expansion at innity is
b(t)
g (z ) = z + t + O(jzj 2 ); z ! 1:
z
The oeÆ ient b(t), whi h is sometimes alled the half-plane apa ity of [0; t℄ and denoted
g
t

γ (t)

U0 Ut

h ap[ [0; t℄℄, is ontinuous, stri tly in reasing, and tending to 1. In fa t,

b(t) = ylim
!1
y E[Im[X ℄ j X0 = iy ℄;

where Xs denotes a omplex Brownian motion and  =  [0;t℄ is the rst time s su h that
Xs 2 R [ [0; t℄. By reparametrizing , we an make b(t) = 2t. With this parametrization,
the maps gt satisfy the Loewner dierential equation
g_ t (z ) =
2 ; g (z) = z;
gt (z ) Ut 0

where U : [0; 1) ! R is a ontinuous fun tion with U0 = 0. In fa t, Ut = gt( (t)). S hramm

observed that the measure H (0; 1), at least if it were supported on simple urves and the
urves were parametrized using half-plane apa ity, would produ e a random Ut. If the
assumptions above on fD (z; w)g are translated into assumptions on the \drivingp fun tion"
Ut , one shows readily that Ut must be a driftless Brownian motion, i.e., Ut =  Bt , for a
standard one-dimensional Brownian motion Bt.
2
 Chordal SLE (in H onne ting 0 and 1) is dened to be the random olle tion of
onformal maps gt obtained by solving the initial value problem
g_t (z ) =
2 p ; g (z) = z; (1)
gt (z ) Bt 0

where Bt is a standard one-dimensional Brownian motion. This equation is often given in

terms of the inverse ft = gt 1 ,
f_ (z ) = f 0 (z )
t t p2 :
z Bt
This equation des ribes a random evolution of onformal maps ft from H into subdomains
of H . For ea h z 2 H , the solution of (1) is dened up to a time Tz 2 [0; 1℄ with Tz > 0 for
z 6= 0. For xed t, gt is the unique onformal transformation of Ht := fz 2 H : Tz > tg onto
H with expansion
2t
g (z ) = z + +


; z ! 1:
t
z
The hordal SLE path is the random urve : [0; 1) ! H su h that for ea h t, Ht is the
unbounded omponent of H n [0; t℄. It is not immediate from the denition that su h a
urve exists, but its existen e has been proved. If Gt = gt=, then we an rewrite (1) as
a
G_ t (z ) = ; (2)
Gt (z ) + Wt
where a = 2= and Wt := pBt= is a standard Brownian motion. Then Ztz := Gt(z) + Wt
satises the Bessel sto hasti dierential equation
dZtz = Zaz dt + dWt; Z0z = z: (3)
t
This equation is valid up to time  Tz , whi h is the rst time that Ztz = 0.
Although hordal SLE is dened with a parti ular parametrization, one generally thinks
of it as a measure on urves modulo reparametrization. The s aling properties of Brownian
motion imply that this measure is invariant under dilations of H . If D is a simply onne ted
domain and z; w are distin t boundary points of D, hordal SLE in D onne ting z and
w is dened to be the onformal image of SLE in H from 0 to 1 under a onformal
transformation of H onto D taking 0 to z and 1 to w. There is a one-parameter family of
su h transformations, but the s ale invarian e of SLE in H shows that the image measure
is independent of the hoi e of transformation.
The geometri and fra tal properties of the urve vary greatly as the parameter 
hanges.
 If   4, is a simple urve.
3
  If 4 <  < 8, has self-interse tions, but is not spa e-lling.
 If   8, is a spa e-lling urve.
To see this, one notes that the onformal Markov property implies that there an be double
points with positive probability if and only if Tx < 1 o urs with positive probability for
x > 0. Also, the urve is spa e-lling if and only if Tz < 1 for all z and Tw 6= Tz for
w 6= z . The problem is then redu ed to a problem about the Bessel equation (3) for whi h
the following holds:
 If a  1=2 and z 6= 0, the probability that Tz < 1 is zero. If a < 1=2, this probability
equals one.
 If 1=4 < a < 1=2, and w; z are distin t points in H , then there is a positive probability
that Tw = Tz .
 If 0 < a  1=4, then with probability one Tw 6= Tz for all w; z.
This kind of argument is typi al when studying SLE |geometri properties of the urve are
established by analyzing a sto hasti dierential equation. The Hausdor dimension of the
path is given by
n o
dim[ [0; 1)℄ = min 1 + 8 ; 2 :
The radial Loewner equation des ribes the evolution of a urve from the boundary of
the unit disk D = fz : jzj < 1g to the origin. Suppose : [0; 1) ! D is a simple urve
with (0) = 1; (0; 1)  D n f0g and (t) ! 0 as t ! 1. Let gt be the unique onformal
transformation of D n [0; t℄ onto D su h that gt (0) = 0; gt0 (0) > 0. One an he k that gt0 (0)
is ontinuous and stri tly in reasing in t, and hen e we an parametrize so that gt0 (0) = et.
Using this reparametrization, there is a ontinuous Ut : [0; 1) ! R with U0 = 0 su h that
gt satises the radial Loewner equation
eiU + gt (z )
g_ t (z ) = gt (z ) iU ; g0 (z ) = z:
t

t e gt (z )
If z 6= 0, we an dene ht(z) = i log gt(z) lo ally near z, and this equation be omes
 
_ht(z) = ot ht(z) Ut :
2
Radial SLE ( onne ting 1 and 0 in D ) is obtained by setting Ut = p Bt. If D is a
simply onne ted domain, z 2 D; w 2 D, then radial SLE in D onne ting w and z is
obtained by onformal transformation using the unique transformation f of D onto D with
f (0) = z; f (1) = w. Again, we think of this as being dened modulo time hange. If a = 2=
and vt = hat=2, then
 
a vt (z ) + Wt
v_ t (z ) = ot : (4)
2 2
4
where Wt := p Bt= is a standard Brownian motion. If Lzt = vt(z) + Wt, we get
 z
a L
dLt = ot t dt + dWt :
z
2 2
Radial and hordal SLE are losely related. In fa t, if is a hordal SLE path in H from
0 to innity; ~ is a radial SLE path in D from 1 to 0; and  = i log ~, then for small t the
distribution of  is absolutely ontinuous to the distribution of a (random time hange of) .
Showing this involves understanding the behavior of the Loewner equation under onformal
transformations. Suppose ; ~ have been parametrized as in (2) and (4) with a = 2=. Let
gt be the onformal transformation of H n  [0; t℄ onto H su h that
a(t)
tg  (z ) = z +
z
+


; z ! 1;
and let U 
t be the Loewner driving fun tion su h that
a_  (t)
g_ t (z ) =  :
gt (z ) Ut
Here a(t) = h ap[[0; t℄℄. If we onsider a time hange  su h that a((t)) = at and let
Ut = U~(t) be the time- hanged driving fun tion, It^o's formula an be used to show that
1
dUt = (1 3a) Ft dt + dW ~ t; (5)
2
where the Ft in the drift term depends on [0; t℄ and is independent of a, and W~ is a
standard Brownian motion. Girsanov's Theorem implies that Brownian motions with the
same varian e but dierent drifts have absolutely ontinuous distributions. In parti ular,
qualitative properties su h as existen e of double points or Hausdor dimension of paths are
the same for radial and hordal SLE. Ut is a driftless Brownian motion if a = 1=3;  = 6.
Whole-plane SLE from 0 to 1 is a path : ( 1; 1) ! C with ( 1) = 0; (1) = 1,
su h that given ( 1; t℄, the distribution of (t; 1) is that of radial SLE from boundary
point (t) to interior point 1 in the domain C n [ 1; t℄. One an dene whole-plane SLE
onne ting two distin t points in C by onformal transformation.

2 Lo ality and restri tion

There are two spe ial values of :  = 6; a = 1=3 that satises the lo ality property and
 = 8=3; a = 3=4 that satises the restri tion property. Suppose is a hordal SLE urve
from 0 to 1 in H parametrized as in (2). Suppose  : N ! H is a onformal map taking
a neighborhood N of 0 in H to (N ) and that lo ally maps R into R. Let ~(t) =  Æ (t),
whi h is dened for suÆ iently small t. Let gt be the onformal transformation of H n ~[0; t℄
onto H with
a(t)
gt (z ) = z +
z
+


;
5
and let U~t be the driving fun tion su h that
a_  (t)
g_t (z ) =  :
gt (z ) U~t
Here a(t) = h ap[~ [0; t℄℄. If we hange time, t = ~(t), so that a((t)) = at, then an
appli ation of It^o's formula shows that Ut := U~(t) satises
dU  =
1 (3a 1) 00(t)(W(t)) dt + dW~ :
t 2 0(t)(W(t)) t

Here W~ t is a standard Brownian motion, t = gt Æ  Æ gt 1, and gt is the onformal map

asso iated to . In parti ular, if a = 1=3;  = 6, Ut is a standard Brownian motion, and
hen e, ~ has the distribution of SLE6. The lo ality property for SLE6 an be stated as
\the onformal image of SLE6 is (a time hange of) SLE6." Intuitively, the SLE6 path
in a restri ted domain does not feel the boundary of the domain until it rea hes it. Radial
SLE6 satises a similar lo ality property. Moreover, (2) shows that the image of hordal
SLE6 under the exponential map is the same (for small time t) as radial SLE6. The lo ality
property explains why SLE6 is a natural andidate for the boundary of per olation lusters.
If   4, SLE paths are simple, i.e., have no self-interse tions. Suppose A  H n f0g
is a ompa t set su h that H n A is simply onne ted. Let denote a hordal SLE in H
onne ting 0 and 1 and let EA be the event EA = f (0; 1) \ A = ;g: Let A : H n A ! H
be the unique onformal transformation with A (0) = 0; A (1) = 1; 0A(1) = 1. On the
event EA , we an dene ~(t) = A Æ (t). Chordal SLE is said to satisfy the restri tion
property if the onditional distribution of ~ given EA is the same as (a time hange of) .
The only   4 that satises this property is  = 8=3. The proof of this fa t also establishes
the formula: if is a hordal SLE8=3 urve in H from 0 to 1, then
Pf (0; 1) \ A = ;g = 0A (0)5=8 : (6)
There is a similar formula for radial SLE8=3 whi h establishes a radial restri tion property.
Suppose A  D n f0; 1g is a ompa t set su h that D n A is simply onne ted. Let A be
the unique onformal transformation of D n A onto D with A (0); 0A(0) > 0. Then, if is
a radial SLE8=3 urve from 1 to 0 in D ,
Pf (0; 1) \ A = ;g = 0A (0)5=48 j 0A (1)j5=8:
The restri tion property makes SLE8=3 the andidate for the s aling limit of self-avoiding
walks.

3 Relation to onformal eld theory

The S hramm-Loewner evolution is one of the tools used to prove rigorously predi tions
made using powerful, yet nonrigorous, arguments of onformal eld theory. In onformal
6
eld theory, there is a parameter , alled the entral harge, whi h lassies theories. To
ea h  1, there orresponds a   4 and a \dual" 0 = 16=  4,
=  =
(8 3)( 6) :
2
In parti ular  = 8=3; 0 = 6 orresponds to entral harge zero. It is expe ted, and has
been proved in a number of ases, that SLE or SLE urves will appear in s aling limits
0

of systems with entral harge . These systems an also be parametrized by the boundary
s aling exponent or onformal weight

 =  =
6 :
2
For  = 8=3,  = 5=8 whi h is the exponent in (6).
In studying the relationship between SLE and onformal eld theories, two other prob-
abilisti obje ts arise, restri tion measures and the (Brownian) loop soup. An H -hull ( on-
ne ting 0 and 1) is an unbounded, onne ted, losed set K  H with K \ R = f0g and
su h that H n K onsists of two onne ted omponents, one whose boundary in ludes the
positive reals and the other whose boundary in ludes the negative reals. A ( hordal) restri -
tion measure on hulls K is a probability measure with the property that for any A as in
(6), the distribution of A Æ K given fK \ A = ;g is the same as the original measure. The
(Brownian) loop measure is a measure on unrooted loops derived from Brownian bridges. It
is the s aling limit of the measure on random walk loops that gives ea h unrooted simple
random walk loop of length 2n measure 4 2n . The loop measure in a bounded domain is
obtained by restri ting to loops that stay in that domain. We an onsider this as a measure
on \hulls" by lling in the bounded holes (so that the omplement of the hull is onne ted).
By doing this we get a family of innite measures on hulls, indexed by domains D, and
this family satises onformal invarian e and the restri tion property. The loop soup with
parameter  is a Poissonian realization from this measure with parameter .
The set of all restri tion measures is parametrized by   5=8; the -restri tion measure
has the property that
PfK \ A 6= ;g = 0A (0) :
For  = 5=8, K is given by the path of SLE8=3. For integer , the hull K an be onstru ted
by taking  independent Brownian ex ursions in H (Brownian motions starting at 0 ondi-
tioned to stay in H for all times), and letting K be the hull obtained by taking the union of
the paths and lling in the bounded holes. If   8=3;   0, then the restri tion measure
with exponent   5=8 an also be onstru ted as follows: take a hordal SLE path and
an independent realization of the loop soup with intensity  =  ; add to the SLE path
all the loops in the soup that interse t the SLE urve; and then ll in all the bounded hulls.
The limiting ase  = 5=8;  = 0 gives the only measure supported on simple urves that is
also a restri tion measure, SLE8=3.
7
 For 8=3 <   4; 0 <   1, it is onje tured, and proved for small  , that SLE urves
an be found by taking a loop soup with parameter  =  and looking at onne ted urves
in the fra tal set given by the omplement of the union of all the hulls generated by the
loops.

4 Examples
The s aling limit of simple random walk, Brownian motion, is known to be onformally
invariant. A two-dimensional Brownian bridge or loop is a Brownian motion, Bt; 0  t  1;
onditioned so that B0 = B1. The frontier or outer boundary of the Brownian motion is
the boundary of the unbounded omponent of the omplement. Benoit Mandelbrot rst
observed numeri ally that the outer boundary of Brownian motion had fra al dimension
about 4=3. Gregory Lawler, Oded S hramm, and Wendelin Werner used SLE to prove that
the boundary has Hausdor dimension 4=3. In fa t, the outer boundary an be onsidered
as an SLE8=3 loop.
SLE6 and SLE8=3 arise in the s aling limit of riti al per olation on the triangular latti e.
Suppose that ea h vertex in the upper half-plane triangular latti e is olored bla k or white
ea h with l probability 1=2. Suppose the real line is give a boundary ondition of bla k on
the negative real line and white on the positive real line. Then if we represent the verti es in
the latti e as hexagons as in the gure, a urve is formed whi h is the boundary between the
bla k and white lusters. This urve is alled the per olation exploration pro ess. Stanislav

Smirnov proved that the s aling limit of this urve is onformally invariant, and from this
it an be on luded that the urve is hordal SLE6. In parti ular, the Hausdor dimension
is 7=4 and the s aling limit has double points. In the s aling limit, the \outer boundary"
of this urve has Hausdor dimension 4=3 and its dimension is absolutely ontinuous with
respe t to that of SLE8=3. While this result is expe ted for other riti al per olation model,
8
su h as bond per olation in Z2 with riti al probability 1=2, it has only been proved for
the triangular latti e. Per olation has entral harge 0 and the \lo ality" property an be
seen in the latti e model. The outer boundary of the urve has the same distribution as the
outer boundary of a Brownian motion that is re e ted at angle =3 o the real line. Lo ally,
the outer boundary of per olation, the outer boundary of omplex Brownian motion, and
SLE8=3 all look the same, and it is expe ted that this will also be true for the s aling limit
of self-avoiding walks.
There are three models derived in some way from simple ranodm walk that have been
proved to have s aling limits of SLE . The loop-erased random walk (LERW) in a nite
subset V of Z2 onne ting two distin t points is obtained by taking a simple random walk
from one point to the other and erasing loops hronologi ally. The LERW is losely related
to uniform spanning trees; in fa t, if one hooses a spanning tree of V from the uniform
distribution on all spanning trees, then the distribution of the unique path onne ting the
two points is exa tly that of the LERW. Another des ription of the LERW is as the Lapla ian

random walk: the LERW from z to w in V hooses a new step weighted by the value of the
fun tion that is harmoni on the omplement of w and the path up to that point with
boundary values 0 on the path and 1 on w. The LERW in the dis rete upper half-plane an
be obtained from erasing loops from a simple random walk ex ursion. The LERW and the
uniform spanning tree are systems with entral harge = 2. It has been proved that the
s aling limit of the LERW is SLE2, and hen e the paths have Hausdor dimension 5=8.
There is another path asso iated to spanning trees given by the one-to-one orresponden e
between spanning trees and Hamiltonian walks on a orresponding dire ted (Manhattan)
latti e on the dual graph. If the spanning trees, or equivalently the Hamiltonian walks, are
hosen using the uniform distribution, then the s aling limit of this walk is the spa e-lling
urve SLE8. Note that 2 and 8 are the dual values of  asso iated to = 2.
Another dis rete pro ess derived from simple random walk, the harmoni explorer, has
a s aling limit of SLE4. There is a parti ular property of SLE that leads to the denition
of this dis rete pro ess. Consider a hordal SLE urve, let z 2 H , and let Ztz be as in (3)
with a = 2=. It^o's formula shows that t := arg(Ztz ) satises
 
dt =
1 a
sin(2t) dt sin t dW :
2 jZtz j2 jZtz j t
9
In parti ular, t is a martingale if and only if a = 1=2;  = 4. The probability that a omplex
Brownian motion starting at z 2 H rst hits R on the negative half-line an be shown to be
arg(z). If   4, we an see that 1 equals 0 or , depending on whether z is on the right
or left side of the path (0; 1). For the martingale ase  = 4, t represents the probability
that z is on the left side of (0; 1) given (0; t℄. The harmoni explorer is a pro ess on the
hexagonal latti e dened to have this property. In a way similar to the per olation pro ess,
the walk is dened as the boundary between bla k and white hexagons on the triangular
latti e. However, when an unexplored hexagon is rea hed in the harmoni explorer, it is
olored bla k with probability q where q is the probability that a simple random walk on the
triangular latti e starting at that hexagon ( onsidered as a vertex in the triangular latti e)
hits a bla k hexagon before hitting a white hexagon. It is not diÆ ult to show that this
pro ess has the property that for z away from the urve, the \probability of z ending on the
left given the urve of n steps" is a martingale.
There are many other models for whi h SLE urves are expe ted in the limit but it has
not been established. The hardest part is to show the existen e of a limit that is onformally
invariant. One example is the self-avoiding walk (SAW). It is an open problem to establish
that there exists a s aling limit of the uniform measure on SAWs and to establish onformal
invarian e of the limit. However, the nature of the dis rete model is su h that if the limit
exists, it must satisfy the restri tion property. Hen e, under the assumption of onformal
invarian e, the only possible limit is SLE8=3. Numeri al simulations strongly support the
onje ture that SLE8=3 is the limit of SAWs, and this gives strong eviden e for the onformal
invarian e onje ture for SAWs. Criti al exponents for SAWs (as well as riti al exponents
for many other models) an be predi ted nonrigorously from rigorous s aling exponents for
the orresponding SLE paths.

5 Generalizations
One of the reasons that the theory of SLE is ni e for simply onne ted domains is that a
simply onne ted domain with an ar onne ted to the boundary of the domain removed is
again simply onne ted. For non-simply onne ted domains, it is more diÆ ult to des ribe
be ause the onformal type of the slit domain hanges as time evolves. In the ase of
10
a urve rossing an annulus this an be done with an added parameter referring to the
onformal type of the annulus (two annuli of the form fz : rj < jzj < sj g are onformally
equivalent if and only if r1=s1 = r2=s2). It is not immediately obvious what the orre t
denition of SLE should be in general domains, and more generally, on Riemann surfa es.
One possibility for   4 is to onsider a ongurational (equilibrium statisti al me hni s)
view of SLE . Consider a family of measures fD (z; w)g where D ranges over domains and
z; w are distin t boundary points at D is lo ally analyti , supported on simple urves from
z to w (modulo time hange). Let #D (z; w) = D (z; w)=jD (z; w)j be the orresponding
probability measures, whi h may be dened even if D is not smooth at z; w. Then the
following axioms should hold:
 Conformal invarian e: if f : D ! D0 is a onformal transformation, f Æ #D (z; w) =
#D (f (z ); f (w)).
0

 Conformal Markov property.

 Perturbation of domains: Suppose D1  D and D1, D agree near z; w. Let Y denote
the Radon-Nikodym derivative of D (z; w) with respe t to D (z; w). Then
1

Y ( ) = 1f (0; t )  D1 g J ( ; D; D1 ) ;
where J ( ; D; D1) denotes the probability that there is a loop in the Brownian loop
soup in D that interse ts both and D n D1. (There is no problem dening the loop
soup in non-simply onne ted domains.) Here =  . The ase = 0 orresponds to
the restri tion property.
 Conformal ovarian e: If f is as above, D; D0 are smooth near z; w and f (z); f (w),
respe tively, then
f Æ D (z; w) = jf 0 (z )j jf 0(w)j D (f (z ); f (w)):
0

Here  =  is the boundary s aling exponent.

Referen es
[1℄ Kager W, Nienhuis B (2004), A guide to Sto hasti Loewner evolution and its appli a-
tions, J. Stat. Phys. 115, 1149{1229.
[2℄ Lawler G (2004), Conformally invariant pro esses in the plane. In: S hool and Confer-
en e on Probability Theory, ICTP Le ture Notes 17, 305{351.
[3℄ Lawler G (2005), Conformally Invariant Pro esses in the Plane, Amer. Math. So .
[4℄ Lawler G, S hramm O, Werner W (2004), Conformal restri tion, the hordal ase, J.
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