QUANTUM COMPUTERS

MOHAMMED RAYAAN (16SS1A0429)

Department Of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad

College Of Engineering Sulthanpur

Sulthanpur(v),pulkal(M),Sangareddy-502293,Telangana
 QUANTUM COMPUTERS

A TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
BY

MOHAMMED RAYAAN (16SS1A0429)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad
College of Engineering Sultanpur, Pulkal (M), Medak-
502293 Telangana 2019.
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad

College Of Engineering Sulthanpur

Sulthanpur(v),pulkal(M),Sangareddy-502293 Telangana

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the technical seminar on is a
bonafied work carried out by in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING by the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,Hyderabad
during the academic year 2019-2020

Head Of Department

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to extend my profound thanks and deep sense of

gratitude to the JNTUH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SULTHANPUR for
giving me this opportunity to undertake the Technical Seminar Report.

I express sincere gratitude to DR.B.BALU NAIK prinicipal of JNTUHCES

for his support during the course period.

We sincerely thank DR.VENKATESWARA REDDY the vice prinicipal

of JNTUHCES for his kind help and cooperation.

We are thankful to DR. Y.RAGHAVENDER RAO head of the

department of electronics and communication engineering of JNTUHCES for his
effective suggestion during the course period.

We are thankful to MR.V.RAJANESH associate professor of electronics

and communication engineering department for giving us all the support and
guidance.

By
MD.RAYAAN (16SS1A0429)

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 ABSTRACT

Today's computers work on bits that exist as either 0 or 1. Quantum

computers aren't limited to two states; they encode information as quantum
bits, or qubits, which can exist in superposition. Qubits represent atoms, ions,
photons or electrons and their respective control devices that are working together
to act as computer memory and a processor. Because a quantum computer can
contain these multiple states simultaneously, it has the potential to be millions of
times more powerful than today's most powerful supercomputers. A processor that
can use registers of qubits will be able to perform calculations using all the
possible values of the input registers simultaneously. This superposition causes a
phenomenon called quantum parallelism, and is the motivating force behind the
research being carried out in quantum computing. Due to technical obstacles, till
date, a quantum computer has not yet been realized. But the concepts and ideas of
quantum computing has been demonstrated using various methods like NMR, Ion
Trap, Quantum Dot, Optical Methods, etc. A quantum computer manipulates
qubits by executing a series of quantum gates, each a unitary transformation
acting on a single qubit or pair of qubits.  In applying these gates in succession, a
quantum computer can perform a complicated unitary transformation to a set of
qubits in some initial state.  The qubits can then be measured, with this
measurement serving as the final computational result.  Research must devise a
way to maintain decoherence and other potential sources of error at an acceptable
level.. Thereby, quantum computers will emerge as the superior computational
devices and perhaps one day make today's modern computer obsolete

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page No.

Certificate i
1Acknowledgement ii

Abstract iii

Chapter -1 Introduction 1

1.1 Definition Of Quantum Computers 2

1.2 Difference Between Quantum And Classic Computer 3

Chapter-2 Literature Review 4

Chapter -3 Theory of Quantum Mechanics 5

Chapter -4 Principles of Quantum Computing 8

4.1 Linear Algebra 8

4.2 Superposition 8

4.3 Dirac Notation 8

4.4 Representing Information 9

4.5 Uncertainity 9

4.6 Entanglement 10

4.7 Four Postulates Of Quantum Mechanics 10

Chapter-5 Bits and Qubits

5.1 Representation Of Data Qubits 12

5.2 Single Qubits 13

Chapter-6.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 16

6.2 Applications 17

6.3 Future Scope 19

6.4 Conclusion 21

References 22
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Quantum computer is a device that can arbitrarily manipulate the quantum state of
apart of itself. The fled of quantum computation is largely a body of the theoretical
promises for some impressively fast algorithms which could be executed on quantum
computers. However, since the first significant algorithm was proposed in 1994
experimental progress has been rapid with several schemes yielding two and three
quantum-bit manipulations.

Fig 1.1 QUANTUM COMPUTERS

Quantum computers were first discussed by Benio in the context of

simulating classical Turing machines (very elementary conventional computers)
with quantum unitary evolution. Feynman considered the converse question of
how well classical computers can simulate quantum systems. He concluded that
classical computers invariably super from an exponential slow-down in trying to
simulate quantum systems, but that quantum systems could, in principle, simulate
each other without this slowdown. It was Deutsch , however, who first suggested

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that quantum superposition might allow quantum evolution to perform many
classical computations in parallel.

A schematic model of a quantum computer is described as well as some

of the subtleties in its programming. The Shor's algorithm for efficiently factoring
numbers on a quantum computer is presented in two parts: the quantum procedure
within the algorithm and the classical algorithm that calls the quantum procedure.
The mathematical structure within the factoring problem is discussed, making it
clear what contribution the quantum computer makes to the calculation. The
complexity of the Shor's algorithm is compared to that of factoring on
conventional machines and its relevance to public key cryptography is noted. In
addition, we discuss the experimental status of the field and also quantum error
correction which may in the long run help solve some the 2 most pressing
difficulties. We conclude with an outlook to the feasibility and prospects for
quantum computation in the coming years.

1.1 DEFINITION OF QUANTUM COMPUTERS

A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on
the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of particles at the sub-
atomic level.

A technology of quantum computers is also very different. For operation,

quantum computer uses quantum bits (qubits). Qubit has a quaternary nature.
Quantum mechanic's laws are completely different from the laws of a classical
physics.

A qubit can exist not only in the states corresponding to the logical
values O or 1 as in the case of a classical bit, but also in a superposition state.

A qubit is a bit of information that can be both zero and one

simultaneously (Superposition state). Thus, a computer working on a qubit rather
than a standard bit can make calculations using both values simultaneously. A
qubyte is made up of eight qubits and can have all values from zero to 255

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simultaneously. "Multi-qubyte systems have a power beyond anything possible
with classical computers." (Quantum Computers & Moore's Law, p. l).

Forty qubits could have the same power as modern supercomputers.

According to Chuang a supercomputer needs about a month to find a phone
number from the database consisting of world's phone books, where a quantum
computer is able to solve this task in 27 minutes.

1.2 Difference between Quantum and Classical

Computers
Memory of a classical computer is a string of()s and is, and it can
perform calculations on only one set of numbers simultaneously. The memory of a
quantum computer is a quantum state that can be a superposition of different
numbers. A quantum computer can do an arbitrary reversible classical
computation on all the numbers simultaneously. Performing a computation on
many different numbers at the same time and then interfering all the results to get
a single answer, makes a quantum computer much powerful than a classical one.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
In 1982 Richard Feynman theorized that classic computation could be
dramatically improved by quantum effects, building on this, David Deutsch
developed the basis for quantum computing between 1984 and 1985. The next
major breakthrough came in 1994 when Peter Shor described a method to factor
large numbers in quantum poly-time (which breaks RSA encryption). This
became known as Shor's algorithm. At around the same time the quantum
complexity classes were developed and the quantum Turing machine was
described.

Then in 1996 Lov Grover developed a fast database search algorithm

(known as Grover's algorithm). The first prototypes of quantum computers were
also built in 1996. In 1997 quantum enor correction techniques were developed at
Bell labs and IBM. Physical implementations of quantum computers improved
with a three qubit machine in 1999 and a seven qubit machine in 2000.

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 CHAPTER 3
THEORY OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
In 1909, a few years after demonstrating the photoelectric effect, Einstein
used his photon hypothesis to obtain a simple derivation of Planck's black body
distribution. Planck himself had not gone as far as Einstein: he had indeed
assumed that the transfer of energy between matter (the oscillators in the walls of
the cavity) and radiation was quantized (i.e. the energy transferred to/from an
oscillator occurred in "grains" less than h times the frequency of the
oscillator).But Planck had assumed the energy in the electromagnetic field, in the
cavity, was continuously distributed, as in classical theory. By contrast, it was
Einstein's hypothesis that the energy in the field itself was quantized: that for
certain purposes, the field behaved like an ideal gas, not of molecules, but of
photons, each with energy h times frequency, with the number of photons being
proportional to the intensity. The clue to this was Einstein's observation that the
high frequency part of Planck' s distribution for black body radiation(described by
Wien's law) could be derived by assuming a gas of photons and applying
statistical mechanics to it. This was in contrast to the low frequency part
(described by the Rayleigh-Jeans law) which could be successfully obtained using
classical electromagnetic theory, i.e. assuming waves. So you had both particles
and waves playing a part. Funhermore, Einstein looked at fluctuations of the
energy about its average value, and observed that the formula obtained had two
forms, one which you would get if light was made up of waves and the other if it
was made up of particles. Hence we have wave-particle duality.

In 1924, Louis de Broglie, 1892 - 1987extended the particle duality for

light to all matter. He stated: The motion of a particle of any sort is associated
with the propagation of a wave. This is the idea of a pilot wave which guides a
free particle's motion. De Broglie then suggested the idea of electron waves be
extended to bound particles in atoms, meaning electrons move around the nucleus
guided by pilot waves. So, again a duality, de Broglie waves and Bohr's particles.
de Broglie was able to show that Bohr' s orbital radii could be obtained by fitting a

5
whole number of waves around the nucleus. This gave an explanation of Bohr's
angular momentum quantum condition (see above).The new quantum theory was
developed between June 1925 and June1926. Werner Heisenberg, 1901 - 1976,
using a totally different and more simple atomic model (one that did not use
orbits) worked out a code to connect quantum numbers and spectra. He also
discovered that quantum mechanics does not follow the commutative law of
multiplication i.e. pq qp. When Max Born, 1882 — 1970 saw this he suggested
that Heisenberg use matrices. This became matrix mechanics, eventually all the
spectral lines and quantum numbers were deduced for hydrogen. The first
complete version of quantum mechanics was born. It's interesting to note that it
was not observation, or visualization that was used to deduce to theory - but pure
mathematics. Later we will see matrices cropping up in quantum computing.

At around the same time Erwin Schrodinger, 1887 — 1961 built on de

Broglie's work on matter waves. He developed a wave equation (for which a is the
solution) for the core of bound electrons, as in the Hydrogen atom. It turns out that
the results derived from this equation agree with the Bohr model. He then showed
that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and his wave mechanics were equivalent. Max
Born proposed that a, the solution to Schrödinger' s equation can be interpreted as
a probability amplitude, not a real, physical value. The probability amplitude is a
function of the electron's position (x; y; z) and, when Squared, gives the
probability of finding the electron in a unit volume at the point (x; y; z).This gives
us a new, probabilistic atomic model, in which there is a high probability that the
electron will be found in a particular orbital shell.

A representation of the ground state of hydrogen is shown in figure 4.16

and at the places where the density of points is high there is a high probability of
finding the particle. The linear nature of the wave equation means that if VI and
11/2 are two solutions then so is VI + 11/2, a superposition state (we'll look at
superposition soon). This probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics
implies the system is in both states until measured. Now back to Niels Bohr. In
1927 Niels Bohr described the concept of complementarity: it depends on what

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type of measurement operations you are using to look at the system as to whether
it behaves like a particle or a wave. He then put together various aspects of the
work by Heisenberg, Schrodinger, and Born and concluded that the properties of a
system (such as position and momentum) are undefined having only potential
values with certain probabilities of being measured. This became known as the
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. Einstein did not like the
Copenhagen interpretation and, for a good deal of time, Einstein kept trying to
refute it by thought experiment, but Bohr always had an answer. But in 1935
Einstein raised an issue that was to later have profound implications for quantum
computation and lead to the phenomenon we now call entanglement, a concept
we'll look at in a few pages.

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 CHAPTER 4

Principles for Quantum Computing

The main parts of quantum mechanics those are important for quantum
computing are:

4.1 Linear Algebra

Quantum mechanics leans heavily on linear algebra. Some of the

concepts of quantum mechanics come from the mathematical formalism, not
thought experiments that's what can give rise to counter intuitive conclusions.

4.2 Superposition

Superposition means a system can be in two or more of its states

simultaneously. For example a single particle can be traveling along two different
paths at once. This implies that the particle has wave-like properties, which can
mean that the waves from the different paths can interfere with each other.
Interference can cause the particle to act in ways that are impossible to explain
without these wave-like properties.

The ability for the particle to be in a superposition is where we get the

parallel nature of quantum computing: If each of the states corresponds to a
different value then, if we have a superposition of such states and act on the
system, we effectively act on all the states simultaneously.

4.3 Dirac Notation

As described in the previous chapter Dirac notation is used for quantum

computing. We can represent the states of a quantum system as kets. For example,
an electron's spin can be represented as = spin up and = spin down. The electron
can be thought of as a little magnet, the effect of a charged particle spinning on its

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 axis. When we pass a horizontally traveling electron through an inhomogeneous
magnetic field, in say, the vertical direction, the electron either goes up or down.
If we then repeat this with the up electron it goes up, with the down electron it
goes down. We say the up electron after the first measurement is in the state and
the down electron is in state . But, if we take the up electron and pass it through a
horizontal field it comes out on one side50% of the time and on the other side
50% of the time. If we represent these two states as and can say that the up spin
electron was in a superposition of the two states and such that, when we make a
measurement with the field horizontal we project the electron into one or the other
of the two states, with equal probabilities 1/2 given by the square of the
amplitudes.

4.4 Representing Information

Quantum mechanical information can be physically realized in many

ways. To have something analogous to a classical bit we need a quantum
mechanical system with two states only, when measured. We have just seen two
examples: electron spin and photon direction. Two more methods for representing
binary information in a way that is capable of exhibiting quantum effects (e.g.
entanglement and superposition) are: polarization of photons and nuclear spins.

4.5 Uncertainty

The quantum world is irreduceble small so it's impossible to measure a

quantum system without having an effect on that system as our measurement
devices also quantum mechanical. As a result there is no way of accurately
predicting all of the properties of a particle. There is a trade off - the properties
occurring complementary pairs (like position and momentum, or vertical spin and
horizontal spin) and if we know one property with a high degree of certainty then
we must know almost nothing about the other property. That unknown property's
behavior is essentially random. An example of this is a particle's position and
velocity: if we know exactly where it is then we know nothing about how fast it is

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going. It has been postulated (and currently accepted) that particles in fact do not
have defined values for unknown properties until they are measured. This is like
saying that something does not exist until it is looked at.

4.6 Entanglement

In 1935 Einstein (along with colleagues Podolskand Rosen) demonstrated

paradox (named EPR after them) in an attempt to refute the undefined nature of
quantum systems. The results of their experiment seemed to show that quantum
systems were defined, having local state before measurement. Although the
original hypothesis was later proven wrong (i.e. it was proven that quantum
systems do not have local state before measurement). The effect they
demonstrated was still important, and later became known as entanglement.

Entanglement is the ability for pairs of particles to interact over any

distance instantaneously. Particles don't exactly communicate, but there is a
statistical correlation between results of measurements on each particle that is
hard to understand using classical physics. To become entangled, two particles are
allowed to interact; they then separate and, on measuring say, the velocity of one
of them (regardless of the distance between them), we can be sure of the value of
velocity of the other one (before it is measured). The reason we say that they
communicate instantaneously is because they store no local state [Rae, A. 1996]
and only have well defined state once they are measured. Because of this
limitation particles can't be used to transmit classical messages faster than the
speed of light as we only know the states upon measurement. Entanglement has
applications in a wide variety of quantum algorithms and machinery, some of
which we'll look at later. As stated before, it has been proven that entangled
particles have no local state.

4.7 The Four Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

In a closed quantum system we need a way of describing the state of all

the particles within it. The first postulate gives us a way to do this by using a

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single state vector to represent the entire system. Say the state is to be a vector in
Cn, this would be C2 for a spin system.

The evolution of a closed system is a unitary transform. Say that, while

the system is evolving under its own steam - no measurement - the state at some
stage is related to the state at some previous stage (or time) by a unitary transform
= . This means that we can totally describe the behavior of a system by using
unitary matrices.

The third postulate relates to making measurements on a closed quantum

system, and the affect those measurements have on that system. Postulate four
relates to combining or separating different closed quantum systems using tensor
products.

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 CHAPTER 5

Bits and Qubits

This section is about the "nuts and bolts" of quantum computing. It
describes qubits, gates, and circuits.

Quantum computers perform operations on qubits which are analogous to

conventional bits (see below) but they have an additional property in that they can
be in a superposition. A quantum register with 3 qubits can store 8 numbers in
superposition simultaneously and a 250 qubit register holds more numbers
(superposed) than there are atoms in the universe!

The amount of information stored during the "computational phase" is

essentially infinite - it's just that we can't get at it. The inaccessibility of the
information is related to quantum measurement: When we attempt to readout a
superposition state holding many values the state collapses and we get only one
value (the rest get lost). This is tantalizing but, in some cases, can be made to
work to our computational advantage.

5.1 Representation of Data - Qubits

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states

denoted by and 11>. A single bit of this form is known as a qubit.

A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of

an atom. An excited state representing and a ground state representing

5.2 Single Qubits:

Classical computers use two discrete states (e.g. states of charging of a

capacitor) to represent a unit of information, this state is called a binary digit (or
bit for short). A bit has the following two values:

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 There is no intermediate state between them, i.e. the value of the bit
cannot be in a superposition.

Quantum bits, or qubits, can on the other hand be in a state 'between" O

and l, but only during the computational phase of a quantum operation. When
measured, a qubit can become either: i.e. we readout O or 1. This is the same as
saying a spin particle can be in a superposition state but, when measured, it shows
only one value.

The symbolic notation is part of the Dirac notation . In terms of the above
it essentially means the same thing as O and 1, just like a classical bit. Generally,
a qubit's state during the computational phase is represented by a linear
combination of states otherwise called a superposition state.

Here are the probability amplitudes. They can be used to calculate the
probabilities of the system jumping into jOi or jli following a measurement or
readout operation. There may be, say a 25% chance is measured and a 75%
chance a 1 is measured. The percentages must add to 100%. In terms of their
representation qubits must satisfy: This the same things as saying the probabilities
add to 100%.Once the qubit is measured it will remain in that state if the same
measurement is repeated provided the system remains closed between
measurements. The probability that the qubit's state, when in a superposition, will
collapse to states is are actually vectors, they are called the computational basis
states that form an orthonormal basis for the vector spaceC2.Due to the nature of
quantum physics, the destruction of information in a gate will cause heat to be
evolved which can

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 CHAPTER 6

6.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGE
The main advantage of quantum computing is it can execute any task
very faster when compared to the classical computer, generally the atoms changes
very faster in case of the traditional computing whereas in quantum computing it
changes even more faster. But all the tasks can’t be done better by quantum
computing when compared to traditional computer.

 In quantum computing qubit is the conventional superposition state

and so there is an advantage of exponential speedup which is resulted by handle
number of calculations. 

 The other advantage of quantum computing is even classical

algorithm calculations are also performed easily which is similar to the classical
computer. 

DISADVANTAGE

 The main disadvantage of computing is the technology required to

implement a quantum computer is not available at present. The reason for this is
the consistent electron is damaged as soon as it is affected by its environment and
that electron is very much essential for the functioning of quantum computers.

 The research for this problem is still continuing the effort applied to
identify a solution for this problem has no positive progress. 

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 6.2 APPLICATIONS

One of the areas that I have been researching is what applications can
best make use of the power of quantum computing.   Although this is a work in
progress, I am providing a preliminary assessment for my readers based upon
discussions with various experts and other research I have done so far.   The list
below is shown in a priority order based upon the combination of three factors
that I have reviewed: Progress-to-Date, Difficulty, and Payoff.   One thing to note
is that the successful implementations for most, if not all, of these application
areas will probably be based upon a hybrid platform that combines classical and
quantum computing in a cloud environment to achieve the best of both worlds.  So
here’s the list.

Machine Learning

Machine learning is a hot area right now because we are now seeing
significant deployments at the consumer level of many different platforms.   We
are now seeing aspects of this every day in voice, image and handwriting
recognition, to name just a few examples.   But it is also a difficult and
computationally expensive task, particularly if you want to achieve good
accuracy.   Because of the potential payoff, there is a lot of research ongoing
based upon sampling of Boltzmann distributions.

Computational Chemistry

There are many problems in materials science that can achieve a huge
payoff if we just find the right catalyst or process to develop a new material, or an
existing material more efficiently.   There is already a significant effort in using
classical computers to simulate chemical interactions, but in many cases the
problems become intractable for solving classically.   So the original idea
presented by Richard Feynman is why not use a quantum computer to simulate the
quantum mechanical processes that occur.   Here are just a few examples of
significant problems that could see large payoffs if we can solve them.

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  Replace the Haber process to produce ammonia for use in
fertilizers

 Find new materials that can achieve a room temperature

superconductor

 Find a catalyst that can improve the efficiency of carbon

sequestration

 Develop a new battery chemistry that can significantly

improve the performance over today’s lithium-ion batteries

Financial Portfolio Optimization

Finding the optimum mix for a basketful of investments based upon

projected returns, risk assessments, and other factors is a daily task within the
finance industry. Monte Carlo simulations are constantly being run on classical
computers and consume an enormous amount of computer time. By utilizing
quantum technology to perform these calculations, one could achieve
improvements in both the quality of the solutions as well as the time to develop
them.   Because money managers handle billions of dollars, even a 1%
improvement in the return is worth a lot of money.   There is a web site
called Quantum for Quants that is devoted to this subject that you can check out to
learn more.

Logistics and Scheduling

Many common optimizations used in industry can be classified under

logistics and scheduling.   Think of the airline logistics manager who needs to
figure out how to stage his airplanes for the best service at the lowest cost.   Or the
factory manager who has an ever changing mix of machines, inventory,
production orders, and people and needs to minimize cost, throughput times and
maximize output.   Or the pricing manager at an automobile company who needs

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to figure out the optimum prices of all the dozens car options to maximize
customer satisfaction and profit.   Although, classical computing is used heavily to
do these tasks, some of them may be too complicated for a classical computing
solution whereas a quantum approach may be able to do it.

Drug Design

Although drug design is really a problem in computational

chemistry, I put it into its own classification because it is used by the
pharmaceutical industry.   Many of the drugs being developed still do so
through the trial and error method.   This is very expensive and if more
effective ways of simulating how a drug will react would save a ton of money
and time.

Cyber Security

Cyber security is becoming a larger issue every day as threats around the
world are increasing their capabilities and we become more vulnerable as we
increase our dependence upon digital systems, learn more about cybersecurity in
2019 over at sites such as upskilled and others. Various techniques to combat
cyber security threats can be developed using some of the quantum machine
learning approaches mentioned above to recognize the threats earlier and mitigate
the damage that they may do.

Codebreaking

You may wonder why I have put codebreaking so far down the list, given
all the attention given to Shor’s algorithm and its ability to factor large numbers
and break RSA encryption.   The reason is that I believe that this will just be a
temporary application until the world converts to a class of “post-quantum”
cryptographic techniques that will not be vulnerable to breaking by a quantum
computer. There is an increasing amount of research in post-quantum
cryptography that you can review here and here. So although, we probably will

17
have quantum computers able to factor very large numbers 10 years from now, it
is not clear if we will have a use for it at that time.

Circuit, Software, and System Fault Simulation

When one develops large software programs with millions of lines of

code or large ASIC chips that have billions of transistors, it can get awfully
difficult and expensive to verify them for correctness.   There can be billions or
trillions of different states and it is impossible for a classical computer to check
every single one in simulation.   Not only does one want to understand what will
happen when the system is operating normally, but one also wants to understand
what happens if there is a hardware or other error.  Will the system detect it and
does it have a recovery mechanism to mitigate any possible problem? The costs of
an error can be very high because some of these systems can be used where lives
or millions of dollars might be dependent on their being error-free.  By using
quantum computing to help in these simulations, one can potentially provide a
much better coverage in their simulations with a greatly improved time to do so.

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 6.3 FUTURE SCOPE

Due to its precise and accurate calculations, the demand of quantum

computers has progressively increased. Many enterprises have started investing in
quantum computers instead of conventional Super Computers. One such company
that has been dedicated to working on the concept of quantum computing is “D-
wave”. They have successfully developed a 512 qubit chipset. Dimensionally, the
chipset is as big as a bedroom. This is required in order to maintain the required
superconducting conditions. It is believed this chipset will shrink to the size of a
desktop CPU in the near future.

The major reason for the success of quantum computers over super
computers is the flawless security provided by the quantum computers. Many
governments have already installed quantum computers for military and medical
security.

PROCESSING

Conventional computers store information in the form of bits and bytes

and the scope is only limited to 0s and 1s, thus flexibility in conventional
computers is restrained. On the other hand, Quantum computers use a totally
different form of data storage called “Qubits”. Qubits are not only restrained to
values such as 0 and 1, in fact they also provide a possibility of the information
being intermediate (Superposition) between 0 and 1. Thus, making them more
flexible and reliable for massive calculations. For better understanding about the
qubits, these are various but stable energy levels of the sub-atomic particles or
photons in three-dimensional space. Each sub-atomic particle in the collection of
qubits can be used to represent a variety of information or data.

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 This flexibility can be explained by the concept of superposition of
various energy states. Qubits also increase the processing speed of the computers
and display results at the rate of nanoseconds (average). Sometimes it is also
possible to obtain the results at an even faster rate i.e. at picoseconds. The laws of
Quantum physics, which govern the microscopic world, allow bits of mater to be
in two states simultaneously. All modern-day computing relies on the ultrafast
manipulation of billions of bits of information. Quantum Computing combines
these two concepts, allowing the computers to put bits of information into their 0
and 1 state simultaneously. (Superposition), thus making the quantum
computation powerful and fast.

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 6.4 CONCLUSION

It is important that making a practical quantum computing is still far in

the future. Programming style for a quantum computer will also be quite different.

Development of quantum computer needs a lot of money. Even the best

scientists can't answer a lot of questions about quantum physics. Quantum
computer is based on theoretical physics and some experiments are already made.
Building a practical quantum computer is just a matter of time.

Quantum computers easily solve applications that can't be done with help
of today's computers. This will be one of the biggest steps in science and will
undoubtedly revolutionize the practical computing world.

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REFERENCES
www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2018/10/quantum.

www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/

www.wired.co.uk/article/quantum-computing-explained

www.dwavesys.com

www.technologyreview.com/s/612844/what-is.

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