STATISTICS APPLIED

TO RESEARCH
Presentation of Data

Textual Presentation
Tabular Presentation
Graphical Presentation
 Textual Presentation
Definition:
• It
is a statement or claim regarding a
characteristic of one or more
populations.
• Itis a preconceived idea, assumed to be
true but has to be tested for its truth or
falsity.
 Textual Presentation

✦ Textual presentation allows us to direct

the reader’s interest to vital information.
✦ Figures may be summary statistics
✦ The text highlights the important figures
or results that the researcher wishes to
focus on.
 Textual Presentation

✦ Keep your paragraphs simple and short.

✦ Always make sure that the readers are
provided with additional explanations
about the relevance of the figures and its
implications.
 Example:

In the Statistics class of 40 students, 3

obtained the perfect score of 50. Sixteen
students got a score of 40 and above,
while only 3 got 19 and below. Generally,
the students performed well in the test
with 23 or 70% getting a passing score of
38and above.
 Tabular Presentation:
Definition:
!Process of summarizing classified or
grouped data in the form of a table so that
it is easily understood and an investigator
is quickly able to locate the desired
information.
 Tabular Presentation:
✦ It facilitates comparison and often reveals
certain patterns in data which are
otherwise not obvious.
✦ A table is a systematic arrangement of
classified data in columns and rows.
✦ Minimizes lengthy discussion in the text.
 Example:
Simple or One – Way Table
 Example:
Two – Way Table
How to Construct Frequency
Distribution Table?

Definition:
A frequency distribution list each
category of data and the number of
occurrences for each category of data.
Example:
 Solution:

To answer this question we need to

construct a frequency distribution to
determine how many female and male
respondents participated in the study.
 Procedure in Constructing
Frequency Table
✦ If the data is in the form of categorical data
To construct the frequency distribution using
excel use the command:
=frequency(data_array,bins_array)
Then Ctrl → Shift → Enter
{=frequency(data_array,bins_array)}
Final Output
 Procedure in Constructing
Frequency Table
✦If the data is in the form of continuous data
Steps
1. Set an interval or range for your data. It is
needed for the “BIN RANGE”.
2. Click “DATA” on the menu bar and Click
“DATA ANALYSIS” on the tool bar
3. The dialog box “DATA ANALYSIS” will appear
and choose “HISTOGRAM” on the dialog box
then click OK.
 Procedure in Constructing
Frequency Table
✦If the data is in the form of continuous data
Steps
4. Highlight your data for the “INPUT RANGE”.
5. Highlight your data for the “BIN RANGE”.
6. Click the box of “LABELS IN FIRST ROW”
then click “OK”.
7. The result will appear on the new worksheet of
the excel file. Get the Percentage and total.
 Organize Continuous Data in
Table
Classes are categories into which data are
grouped. When a data set consists of a large
number of different discrete data values or
when a data set consists of continuous data,
we create classes by using intervals of
numbers. Age
Number
(in thousands)
25 - 34 14,482
35 - 44 14,156
Sample Table 45 - 54 13,801
55 - 64 12,123
65 - 74 7,010
 Organize Continuous Data in
Table
Make sure that the classes do not overlap.
This is necessary to avoid confusion as to
which class a data value belongs. Also, make
sure that the class widths are equal for all
classes. Upper Class Limit
Number
Lower Class Limit Age
(in thousands)
25 - 34 14,482
The class width is the 35 - 44 14,156
difference between 45 - 54 13,801
consecutive lower class 55 - 64 12,123
limits. 65 - 74 7,010
 Organize Continuous Data in
Table
One exception to the requirement of equal
class widths occurs in open-ended tables. A
table is open ended if the first class has no
lower class limit or the last class has no upper
class limit.
Scores Frequency

10 - 19 25
Sample Table 20 - 29 36

30 - 39 40

40 and over 12
Guidelines for Determining the Lower Class
Limit of the First Class and Class Width
✦ Choosing the Lower Class Limit of the First
Class
Choose the smallest observation in the data
set or a convenient number slightly lower
than the smallest observation in the data set.
For example, the smallest observation is
10.2. A convenient lower class limit of the
first class is 10.
 Guidelines for Determining the Lower Class
Limit of the First Class and Class Width
✦ Determining the Class Width
• Decide on the number of classes. Generally, there
should be between 5 and 20 classes. The smaller
the data set, the fewer classes you should have.
• Determine the class width by computing
xmax − xmin
cw =
nc
cw is the class width
nc is the number of classes
Round this value up to a convenient number.
Remember!
Creating the classes for summarizing
continuous data is an art form. There is no
such thing as the correct frequency
distribution. However, there can be less
desirable frequency distributions. The larger
the class width, the fewer classes a
frequency distribution will have.
Example:
Final Output
 Example:
Identify problems with the following table.
 Answer:
✦ Useless Information – Don’t show decimals if they
are not needed.
✦ Poor Alignment – Make sure alignment makes
sense.
• Don’t center numbers, always right justify – try
to align decimal points.
• Consider the appropriate placement of row titles.
• Headers are left justified.
✦ Difficult to Read – Use commas used when the
number exceeds a thousand.
Exercises:
Review the table and consider questions such as the
following.
Needs
Origin / Rating Poor Satisfactory V Good Excellent Total
Improvement
External 0% 2% 12% 19% 9% 41%
Internal 4% 8% 15% 23% 9% 59%
Grand Total 4% 10% 27% 41% 17% 100%
1. What percentage of the employees originated from within the
organization?
2. What percentage of the employees are both internal and rated
‘Very Good’?
3. What percentage of the employees received ‘Needs Improvement’
or ‘Poor’?
4. What category contains the greatest number of employees?
5. Do you see any notable differences in the percentage by category?
Exercises:
Consider the above Frequency Distribution of
Salaries.
Salary Frequency Percentage
41,000 - 50,000 1 1%
51,000 - 60,000 20 13%
61,000 - 70,000 53 35%
71,000 - 80,000 43 29%
81,000 - 90,000 26 17%
91,000 - 100,000 6 4%
101,000 - 110,000 1 1%
Total 150 100%
1.What percentage of the employees earns less than
80,000?
2.What is the salary range of values?
3.What is a mid-range of salaries?
4.What salary category includes the most employees?
 Graphical Presentation

Definition:
!It is the most effective way to present
results in a study since it shows the
statistical values and relationship in a
pictorial or diagram form.
 Graphical Presentation
✦ It is considered an important medium of
communication because we are able to create
a pictorial representation of the numerical
figures.
✦ Suited when we need to show the results of
the study to nonprofessionals and or people
who dislike numbers and too lengthy texts.
 Bar Graph
✦ It is constructed by labeling each category
of data on either the horizontal or vertical
axis and the frequency or relative frequency
of the category on the other axis. Rectangles
of equal width are drawn for each category.
The height of each rectangle represents the
category’s frequency or relative frequency.
✦ It is use to organize discrete data.
 Example:
Bar Graph
Remember!
Bar graphs may also be drawn with
horizontal bars. Horizontal bars are
preferable when category names are
lengthy.
Remember!
In bar graphs, the order of the categories
does not usually matter. However, bar
graphs that have categories arranged in
decreasing order of frequency help prioritize
categories for decision-making purposes in
areas such as quality control, human
resources, and marketing.
 Histogram
✦ It is constructed by drawing rectangles for
each class of data. The height of each
rectangle is the frequency or relative
frequency of the class. The width of each
rectangle is the same and the rectangles
touch each other.
✦ It is a graph used to present quantitative
data, is similar to the bar graph.
✦ It is use to organize continuous data.
 Example:
Histogram
 Example:
Grouped Column Chart
 Example:
Subdivided Column Chart
Exercises:
Which one do you think is the most
informative? Why?
 Pie Chart
✦ It is a circle divided into sectors. Each
sector represents a category of data.The
area of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of the category.
✦ Pie charts are typically used to present the
relative frequency of qualitative data.
Inmost cases the data are nominal, but
ordinal data can also be displayed in a pie
chart.
 Example:
Pie Chart
 When should a bar graph or a
pie chart be used?
✦ Pie charts are useful for showing the
division of all possible values of a
qualitative variable into its parts.
✦ Bar graphs are useful when we want to
compare the different parts, not necessarily
the parts to the whole.
 Line Graph
✦ A graph that shows information that is
connected in some way (such as change
over time)
✦ Line segments are then drawn connecting
the points.It is use to organize continuous
data.
✦ Very useful in identifying trends in the data
over time.
 Example:
Simple Line Graph
 Example:
Multiple Line Graph
 Guidelines for Constructing
Good Graphics
✦ Title and label the graphic axes clearly,
providing explanations if needed. Include units
of measurement and a data source when
appropriate.
✦ Avoid distortion. Never lie about the data.
✦ Minimize the amount of white space in the
graph. Use the available space to let the data
stand out. If you truncate the scales, clearly
indicate this to the reader.
 Guidelines for Constructing
Good Graphics
✦ Avoid clutter, such as excessive gridlines and
unnecessary backgrounds or pictures.
✦ Don’t distract the reader.
✦ Avoid three dimensions. Three-dimensional
charts may look nice, but they distract the
reader and often lead to misinterpretation of
the graphic.
 Guidelines for Constructing
Good Graphics
✦ Do not use more than one design in the same
graphic. Sometimes graphs use a different
design in one portion of the graph to draw
attention to that area. Don’t try to force the
reader to any specific part of the graph. Let
the data speak for themselves.
✦ Avoid relative graphs that are devoid of data
or scales.
Exercises:
What features of the ‘Good Presentation’
make it better than the ‘Bad Presentation’?
Exercises:
What features of the ‘Good Presentation’
make it better than the ‘Bad Presentation’?
Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
 Mean

• It is the sum of the data values divided

by the number of data values.
• It is also called the average.
• It is appropriate only for data under
interval and ratio scale measurement.
 Advantage of Mean
✦ Simple to understand and easy to
calculate.
✦ It is rigidly defined.
✦ It is least affected fluctuation of
sampling.
✦ It takes into account all the values in
the series.
 Median

• It is the “middle observation” when the

data set is sorted (in either increasing
or decreasing order).
• The median divides the distribution
into two equal parts.
 Advantage of Median
✦ The median is not affected by the size of extreme
values but by the number of observations.
✦ The median can be calculated even when the
frequency distribution contains “open-ended”
intervals.
✦ It can also be used to define the middle of a
number of objects, properties, or quantities which
are not really quantitative in a nature.
✦ It can be easily interpreted.
 Mode

• It is the most frequently occurring

value in a list of data.
• It is sometimes called nominal average.
• It is an appropriate measure of average
for data using the nominal scale of
measurement.
 Advantage of Mode
• The mode is easy to understand.
• Like the median, it is not greatly
affected by extreme values.
• Like the median, it can be computed
even when the frequency distribution
contains “open-ended” intervals.
Remember!
Whenever you hear the word average,
be aware that the word may not always
be referring to the mean. One average
could be used to support one position,
while another average could be used to
support a different position.
Example:
Solution:
Solution:
Solution:
Example:
Solution:
Solution:
Solution:
Measures of Dispersion

1. Range
2. Standard Deviation
3. Variance
Based on the figure below, determine which
between the two scatter diagram illustrate larger
variability?

Figure 1 Figure 2
Since the data points in figure 2 is more
scattered than the data points in figure 1,
then the data set depicted in figure 2 is
more varied.
 Range

It is the difference between the largest

and the smallest observations or items
in a set of data.
 Standard Deviation

• It is a measure of how far away items

in a data set are from the mean.
• The larger the standard deviation, the
more variation there is in the data set.
 Variance

It represents all data points in a set and

is calculated by averaging the squared
deviation of each mean.
Measures of Relative Position
Quantiles are statistics that describe
various subdivisions of a frequency
distribution into equal proportions.
Three special Quantiles:
1. Quartiles
2. Deciles
3. Percentiles
 Quartiles
Descriptive measures that split the
ordered data into four quarters.
Median
Smallest Largest
Q1 Q2 Q3 Data Value
Data Value

25% of the 25% of the 25% of the 25% of the

data data data data
 Deciles
Descriptive measures that split the
ordered data into ten equal parts.
Smallest Median Largest
Data D1 D2 D5 D9 D10
Data
Value Value

Bottom
20%
 Percentiles
Descriptive measures that split the
ordered data into 100 equal parts.

Smallest Median Largest

Data P1 P2 P50 D
D98 99 Data
Value Value

Bottom Top 1%
1%

Bottom 2% Top 2%
 Interpretation
Example:
1. Jennifer just received the results of her SAT
exam. Her SAT Mathematics score of 600 is in
the 74th percentile. What does this mean?
A percentile rank of 74% means that 74%
of SAT Mathematics scores are less than
or equal to 600 and 26% of the scores are
greater. So 26% of the students who took
the exam scored better than Jennifer.
 Interpretation
Example:
2. A test mark is calculated to be at the 84th
percentile, what does this mean?
84% of the people who wrote the test
got the same mark or less than the test
mark and 16% of the people who
wrote the test scored higher than the
test mark.
 Interpretation
Example:
3. Time taken to finish a test is 35 minutes.
This time was the first quartile. What does this
mean?
25% of the learners finished the exam
in 35 minutes or less, and 75% of the
learners finished the exam in more
than 35 minutes.
 Interpretation
Example:
2. If your percentile score on the GRE is 90
then you scored better than 90 Than 90% of
those taking the test and you scored lower
than 10% of those taking the test.
3. If 25% of the population is shorter than you,
then your height is said to be at the 70%
percentile.