Pore Space Properties

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INTRODUCTION
Pore space properties are important for the description and
characterization of pore volume and fluid flow behaviour of
reservoirs. Laboratory techniques (standard and special core analysis)
deliver fundamental properties. Thin sections and microscopic or
scanning electron microscopic (SEM) investigations are used for
description and computer-aided analysis.
The fundamental reservoir properties of the pore space describe:
volume fractions of the fluids (porosity, saturation, bulk volume
of fluids),
properties controlling fluid distribution in the pore space
(capillary pressure, specific internal surface, and wettability),
and
properties controlling fluid flow under the influence of a pressure
gradient (permeability).
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INTRODUCTION
Pore space properties are important for the description and
characterization of pore volume and fluid flow behaviour of
reservoirs. Laboratory techniques (standard and special core analysis)
deliver fundamental properties. Thin sections and microscopic or
scanning electron microscopic (SEM) investigations are used for
description and computer-aided analysis.
The fundamental reservoir properties of the pore space describe:
volume fractions of the fluids (porosity, saturation, bulk volume
of fluids),
properties controlling fluid distribution in the pore space
(capillary pressure, specific internal surface, and wettability),
and
properties controlling fluid flow under the influence of a pressure
gradient (permeability).
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POROSITY
Porosity is a fundamental volumetric rock property: it describes the
potential storage volume of fluids (water, gas, and oil) and influences
most physical rock properties (for example elastic wave velocity,
electrical resistivity, density).
Porosity can be determined directly by various laboratory techniques
and indirectly by logging methods.

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POROSITY
Range of value porosity: maximum porosity value obtained from a
cubic packing of uniform spheres

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POROSITY
Example 1: Porosity measurement of core samples
Calculation of the grain volume of a sand pack. Calculate the grain
volume and porosity of a sand pack. Available data is given as
follows: length = 20 in.; diameter = 2.4 in.; weight of dry sand = 6.1
lbs; and the specific gravity of the dry sand = 2.6 (water = 1.0).

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POROSITY
Example 2 Computation of grain density and porosity of a core
sample. Calculate the porosity and grain density of a core. Can the
information obtained from a core analysis be used in estimating oil
and gas in place? Available core and fluid data include the following:
diameter of core = 3.8 cm; length of core = 10.0 cm; dry weight of
core = 275 g; weight of 100% brine-saturated core = 295 g; and brine
density = 1.05 g/cm3.

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POROSITY
If the rock contains a part of non-connected or separated pores (vugs,
moldic pores), then this part does not contribute to any fluid transport
within the rock and is “non-effective”. Thus, effective or
interconnected porosity is the ratio of the connected pore volume to
the total rock volume. For reservoir description it is therefore
important to distinguish between:
total porosity, the fraction of bulk volume occupied by total pore
space; and
effective porosity, the fraction of bulk volume occupied by
interconnected pore space.

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POROSITY
Porosity can be determined by
direct measurements (laboratory) based on determination of bulk
and solid volume, gas expansion or displacement techniques,
indirect measurements (logging methods, seismic methods) based
on correlation between porosity and properties, like density,
neutron response, and seismic wave velocity. Porosity can also be
derived from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements.

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Primary porosity and secondary porosity
The porosity that initially develops in a reservoir rock during its
deposition in prehistoric times is known as primary porosity. Void
spaces that exist from the time of deposition between grains and
crystals of the rock are common examples of primary porosity.
However, secondary porosity may develop following original
deposition due to various geological and geochemical processes,
leading to significant alteration in rock characteristics. Examples of
secondary porosity are vugs, or the cavities that are typically
observed in limestone formations. Circulation of certain solutions,
dolomitization of carbonate rocks, and development of fractures in
the rock matrix may lead to secondary or induced porosity of the
rock. The presence of secondary porosity adds to the heterogeneity of
the reservoir rock and may influence the flow of fluids in the
reservoir. Consequently, the actual reservoir performance may depart
significantly from the case where the formation is assumed to have
primary porosity only. It is further noted that secondary porosity may
or may not be detected in the case of limited information obtained
from the reservoir.
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Porosity
Bulk volume can be calculated for samples with the exact cylindrical
shape (measurement of diameter and length) or by fluid displacement
(pycnometer).
There are two techniques:
Measurement of the volume of mercury displaced by the sample,
assuming that mercury does not penetrate the pores at
atmospheric pressure.
Determination based on Archimedes principle:
 The mass of the evacuated sample is measured.
 The sample is saturated with a liquid of a density  (e.g., water); its
mass is then determined in air.
 The saturated sample’s mass is measured while fully immersed in
the saturating fluid.

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Porosity
Grain or solid volume is determined based on Boyle’s law by the gas
expansion technique. The rock sample is confined in a vessel of
known volume V1 and pressurized by gas (air, N, He1) to a pressure
P1 at closed valve. A second vessel of known volume V2 is initially
evacuated. Then the valve separating the two vessels is opened. The
pressure in the two vessels equals pressure P2.

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Porosity
Factors:
1. Particle shape
Porosity increases as particle uniformity decreases.
2. Particle arrangement
Porosity decreases as compaction increases
3. Particle size distribution
Porosity decreases as the range of particle size increases

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Porosity
4. Cementation
1. Porosity decreases as the amount of interstitial material increases
2. Porosity decreases as the amount of cementing material increases
3. Clean sand - little interstitial material
Shaly sand - has more interstitial material
5. Vugs and fractures
1. Contribute substantially to the volume of pore spaces
2. Highly variable in size and distribution
3. There could be two or more systems of pore openings - extremely
complex

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Porosity
Example 3: A core sample coated with paraffin was immersed in a
Russell tube. The dry sample weighed 20.0 gm. The dry sample
coated with paraffin weighed 20.9 gm. The paraffin coated sample
displaced 10.9 cc of liquid. Assume the density of solid paraffin is 0.9
gm/cc. What is the bulk volume of the sample?
Solution

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Porosity
Example 4: The core sample of problem 3 was stripped of the
paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a Russell tube.
The volume of the grains was 7.7 cc. What was the porosity of the
sample? Is this effective or total porosity.

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Porosity
Example 5: Calculate the porosity of a core sample when the
following information is available:
Dry weight of sample = 427.3 g
Weight of sample when saturated with water = 448.6 g
Density of water = 1.0 gm/cm3
Weight of water saturated sample immersed in water = 269.6 g
What is the lithology of the sample?

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Porosity

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Porosity
Example 6: A carbonate whole core (3 inches by 6 inches, 695 cc) is
placed in cell two of a Boyles Law device. Each of the cells has a
volume of 1,000 cc. Cell one is pressured to 50.0 psig. Cell two is
evacuated. The cells are connected and the resulting pressure is 28.1
psig. Calculate the porosity of the core.

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks
In clastic sediments, pre-diagenetic factors control primary porosity:
grain size distribution (sorting), grain packing, and particle shape.

Tendency of decreasing porosity related to a

series of rocks.

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks

Mean Porosity (in %) for Selected Clastic Rocks

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks
Secondary porosity is the result of mechanical processes
compaction, plastic and brittle deformation, fracturing) and
geochemical processes (dissolution, precipitation, volume reductions
by mineralogical changes, etc.).
The strong influence of sorting was demonstrated by experiments
of artificially mixed wet-packed sand by Beard and Weyl (1973).
Table below shows the decrease of porosity from well-sorted to
poorly sorted sediments as a result of pore space filling by fine
components.

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks
More complex is the porosity in gas shale. Bust et al. (2011)
characterize the three components of total porosity:
(1) porosity within fractures providing fluid conduits,
(2) intergranular porosity containing bound water and free
fluids,
(3) porosity associated with the organic content.

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks
In sedimentary areas, porosity decreases nonlinearly with depth as a
result of compaction. The controlling property for this compaction is
the mean effective stress. The first empirical formulation is probably
that of Athy (1930):
Φ(z) = φ0exp(-bz)
where
Φ0 is the porosity at reference depth (z = 0),
z is the actual depth,
b is a parameter characterizing the compressibility of the sediment

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks
In sedimentary areas, porosity decreases nonlinearly with depth as a
result of compaction. The controlling property for this compaction is
the mean effective stress. The first empirical formulation is probably
that of Athy (1930):
Φ(z) = φ0exp(-bz)
where
Φ0 is the porosity at reference depth (z = 0),
z is the actual depth,
b is a parameter characterizing the compressibility of the sediment

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks

In a plot, log φ versus z, this correlation is shown by a straight line

sandstone. Data from Nagumo (1965)

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2 Porosity of Clastic Rocks
The illustration in Fig refers to the compaction process.
Compaction is the irreversible volume reduction due to
different processes mainly by:
• effective pressure due to overburden sediments
(compressibility of rock skeleton),
• drainage of pore fluids (permeability and time
influence), and
• grain rearrangement (packing).

The depositional porosity of shale is normally higher than that of sand.

The porosity gradient with depth is steeper for shale than for sand during
mechanical compaction (i.e., at shallow depths).
The porosity gradient with depth will be steeper for sand than for shale during
chemical compaction (i.e., quartz cementation of sands normally occurs at greater
burial depth, beyond 2 … 3 km).

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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks
Porosity of carbonate rocks covers a broad spectrum of types and
magnitudes as result of a diversity of processes. Lucia (1999, 2007)
notes that porosity in carbonate reservoirs ranges from 1% to 35%.
The porosity at deposition is high for carbonates (Poelchau et al.,
1997).
The following processes of diagenesis result in porosities
significantly smaller or greater than the original porosity:
postdiagenetic processes: dissolution, cementation, recrystallization,
dolomitization, mineral replacement (unstable aragonite in bioclasts
and cements converts to more stable magnesium calcite).
leaching of grains by meteoric pore fluids: results in enhanced
reservoir quality through dissolution or decrease of reservoir quality
through cementation.
burial compaction, fracturing, and stylolithification: creates both
highly permeable zones and barriers.
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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks
The classification developed by Lucia (2007) (see Fig. 1.7) refers to
the pore space properties and distinguishes between:
pore space located between grains or crystals (interparticle
porosity). Interparticle porosity can be described in terms of
pore-size distribution or particle-size distribution,
all other pore space (vuggy porosity). Vugs are commonly
present as dissolved grains, fossil chambers, or large irregular
cavities.

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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks
Vuggy pore space is further subdivided into:
separate vugs (vugs are interconnected only through the
interparticle pores). Separate vugs are fabric selective in their
origin. Intrafossil and moldic pore space are typical,
touching vugs (vugs form an interconnected pore system).
Touching vugs are typically non-fabric selective in origin.
Cavernous, breccia, and solution-enlarged fracture pore types
commonly form an interconnected pore system

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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks
Dolomitization is an important geochemical process, where Mg ions
replace Ca ions, forming dolomite from calcite:

Replacement of calcite by dolomite increases porosity by 0.13 (or

13%) and creates important reservoir space, and the new
intercrystalline pores improve the connectivity of the pore network.
Carbonate rocks also show a decrease of porosity under the influence
of depth or overburden pressure, respectively. Brown (1997) analysed
the influence of carbonate mineralogy, shale content, and fabric on
the porosity versus depth correlation.

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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks

The two pore networks of carbonates

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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks

Porosity versus depth; trends for different lithologies. Data from a

figure afterBrown (1997)
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3 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks
Argillaceous limestones have lower overall porosity and a faster rate
of porosity loss than the clean carbonates at similar depths. Porosity
decreases as the clay content of the limestone increases. The figure
demonstrates that:
porosity decrease is strongly influenced by mineralogy,
clay content increases deformation sensitivity and accelerates
porosity loss,
dolomite shows a higher porosity but a smaller porosity
decrease than limestone; the dolomite is more porous but also
more rigid than the limestone.

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4 Fractures, Fractured Rocks
Fractures are mechanical breaks in rocks; they originate from
strains that arise from stress concentrations around flaws,
heterogeneities, and physical discontinuities… They occur at a
variety of scales, from microscopic to continental
Fracture types can be classified into two groups related to their
mode of formation:
Shear fractures, originated from shear stress parallel to the
created fracture. On a big scale, this type corresponds to faults as
result of tectonic events.
Tension fractures (extension fractures) originated from tension
stress perpendicular to the created fracture. On a big scale, this
type corresponds to joints.

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4 Fractures, Fractured Rocks
In all types of rocks igneous, metamorphic, and consolidated
sedimentary rocks fractures may be present. Their origin can be
natural or artificial. Fractures have a very strong influence on many
rock properties; the occurrence of fractures, for example:
lincreases or creates a permeability for fluids,
decreases dramatically the mechanical strength properties,
changes elastic wave velocity, electrical resistivity, and thermal
conductivity.
The effect of fractures on physical rock properties is controlled
mainly by
fracture geometry (size, aperture, aspect ratio),
fracture orientation (random or preferred direction), and
roughness of fracture boundaries.
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5 Porosity from log

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5 Porosity from log
Example 7: Use the density
log to calculate the porosity for
the following intervals
assuming matrix = 2.68gm/cc
and fluid = 1.0 gm/cc.

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5 Porosity from log
Example 8: Use the Sonic log
and assume sandstone lithology
to calculate the porosity for the
following intervals.

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5 Porosity from log
Example 9: Calculate the porosity and lithology of the Polar No. 1 drilled in Lake
Maracaibo. The depth of interest is 13,743 feet. A density log and a sonic log were
run in the well in addition to the standard Induction Electric Survey (IES) survey.
The readings at 13,743 feet are:
bulk density = 2.522 gm/cc
travel time = 62.73 m-sec/ft

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6 Cutoff porosity and net thickness of a reservoir
Many reservoirs are encountered where porosity is rather low in
certain vertical sequences of the geologic formation. Certain vertical
sections of formation exhibit shaliness which is nonproductive.
Variations in porosity and other rock properties do occur in a
reservoir due to changes in the depositional environment millions of
years ago. Changes in the rock fabric after deposition are also
observed. Petroleum fluids occupying the smaller pores do not
contribute to production in any significant volume. It is a common
practice in the industry to use a cutoff value for porosity in reservoir
studies. Depending on reservoir characteristics, typical porosity
cutoff points around 5% are used in oil reservoirs. Cutoff porosity
is usually determined by considering only the portion of the
formation having relatively high porosity that would facilitate oil and
gas production in commercial quantities. Log studies conducted in
various wells lead to the determination of the cutoff porosity value in
a reservoir.

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6 Cutoff porosity and net thickness of a reservoir
The concept of cutoff porosity leads to the introduction of net
thickness as opposed to gross thickness of a reservoir in estimating
oil and gas reserves. Net thickness represents the portion of the
hydrocarbon-bearing formation that can be produced by conventional
means where porosity is relatively high. Typical values for the net to
gross thickness (NTG) ratio may be about 0.95 or less in petroleum
reservoirs. In addition to low porosity, the net pay thickness of a
reservoir is influenced by the possible existence of poor permeability
and relatively high water saturation in the pores. Changes in lithology
due to shaliness are mentioned earlier. Cutoff values assigned to the
above properties are also commonplace. Rock permeability and water
saturation are discussed later in the chapter.
High cutoff values of porosity, permeability, and water
saturation, along with low values of net to gross thickness in a
reservoir, lead to a decrease in petroleum reserves.

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6 Cutoff porosity and net thickness of a reservoir
The concept of cutoff porosity leads to the introduction of net
thickness as opposed to gross thickness of a reservoir in estimating
oil and gas reserves. Net thickness represents the portion of the
hydrocarbon-bearing formation that can be produced by conventional
means where porosity is relatively high. Typical values for the net to
gross thickness (NTG) ratio may be about 0.95 or less in petroleum
reservoirs. In addition to low porosity, the net pay thickness of a
reservoir is influenced by the possible existence of poor permeability
and relatively high water saturation in the pores. Changes in lithology
due to shaliness are mentioned earlier. Cutoff values assigned to the
above properties are also commonplace. Rock permeability and water
saturation are discussed later in the chapter.
High cutoff values of porosity, permeability, and water
saturation, along with low values of net to gross thickness in a
reservoir, lead to a decrease in petroleum reserves.

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7 Key points-porosity
The important points to keep in mind about porosity include the following:
1. The reservoir rock must have a network of interconnected pores, or a
finite effective porosity, in order to hold the petroleum fluid that is
eventually produced. However, there are some exceptions, such as when
the fluid is contained in a network of fractures or other contraptions.
2. The pore geometry and its random or repeatable pattern throughout the
rock, as dictated by the size, shape, and sorting of the rock particles or
grains, influence virtually all other rock properties.
3. The effective porosity of the rock could be lower than the absolute
porosity, as not all the pores form continuous channels to transmit
petroleum fluids towards the wellbore.
4. In carbonate formations, secondary porosity that may develop after
deposition adds to reservoir heterogeneity and complexity.

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7 Key points-porosity
5. The net thickness of a reservoir, as opposed to its gross thickness,
is used in estimating the petroleum reserve. Net thickness depends
on the cutoff value of porosity. Cutoff porosity represents a
threshold value below which the formation does not contribute to
production. Additionally, poor permeability and high water
saturation also influence net pay, and cutoff values are assigned
for these properties.
6. Porosity data is primarily obtained from log and core studies. It is
also obtained from logging while drilling tools. Adequate
knowledge of porosity over the entire reservoir, along with
knowledge of fluid saturation, are essential in estimating initial oil
and gas in place. Geostatistical methods are usually employed to
model variations in porosity throughout the reservoir.

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7 Areal, vertical, and volumetric averages of rock properties
Knowledge of basic rock properties can lead to the estimation of the
total volume of oil or gas in a reservoir. It must be emphasized that
the porosity and other rock properties used in estimating subsurface
petroleum volumes must represent the reservoir properties as
accurately as possible. Besides calculating the arithmetic mean of
several values of porosity in a straightforward manner, more accurate
approaches based on reservoir area, thickness, or volume may be
employed to estimate average porosity. Vertical and areal variations
of porosity and fluid saturation, as obtained from several wells, need
to be known. Higher accuracy in computation is usually achieved
when many wells are drilled, and a large amount of data becomes
available.

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7 Areal, vertical, and volumetric averages of rock properties
A classical equation to calculate the average value of rock porosity is
given in the following:
Where:
φavg = estimated average porosity of the reservoir,
Xk = reservoir area, thickness, or volume assigned to φk to obtain
areal, vertical, or volumetric averages of rock porosity, respective
k = 1 to n, n being the total number of data points

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7 Areal, vertical, and volumetric averages of rock properties
Fluid saturation is a dynamic property of rock discussed later in the
chapter. However, it is not out of place to mention that certain other
rock properties such as fluid saturation are averaged in a similar
manner. The average value of initial fluid saturation in the reservoir
can be estimated in a manner similar to Equation above. For example,
the average connate water saturation is found as in the following:

Connate water saturation indicates the minimum value of saturation

of the formation water that could not be expelled from the pores
during oil or gas migration.

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7 Areal, vertical, and volumetric averages of rock properties
Example 10: Thickness-weighted average porosity of a formation.
Compute the average porosity of a geologic formation having a total
thickness of 9 ft. The necessary data is obtained from electric logs
and is tabulated in the following:
Thickness, ft Porosity, fraction
◦ 0.5 0.10
◦ 0.5 0.12
◦ 1.0 0.14
◦ 2.0 0.16
◦ 3.5 0.18
◦ 1.5 0.20
Compare the result with the arithmetic average value.

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8 Estimation of pore and hydrocarbon volumes
Reservoir engineers are interested in knowledge of porosity in
determining the following, among others:
Pore volume of rock
Hydrocarbon volume, initial oil or gas in place
Movable hydrocarbon volume, recovery
Pore volumes are obtained by multiplying porosity with the bulk
volume of the reservoir rock. However, both need to be known with
reasonable accuracy based on geophysical, geologic, petrophysical,
and well tests, and on other studies.

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8 Estimation of pore and hydrocarbon volumes
Hydrocarbon pore volume can be obtained based on pore volume
and the amount of petroleum fluid in the pores. An estimate of
original oil or gas in place (the volume of hydrocarbon fluids in
reservoir) is critically dependent on the porosity distribution in the
reservoir. During the appraisal phase, reservoir data is very limited.
Only approximate estimates of hydrocarbon volume can be obtained
based on geophysical data and information obtained from exploratory
wells.
Estimation of hydrocarbon volume that can be moved or produced
is accomplished by laboratory analysis, available correlations, and
reservoir model simulation. Estimations can also rely on prior
experience and a review of worldwide trends in the recovery of
petroleum. These are discussed in later chapters of the book.
However, movable hydrocarbon volume is primarily dependent on
permeability and relative permeability of the rock, among other
factors described later in the chapter.

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9 Uncertainties in porosity and other rock property data
Rock properties are seldom known accurately in all locations of the
reservoir. Values of porosity and other properties may be estimated
between wells by geostatistical modeling. Sometimes referred to as
stochastic modeling, this method involves varying the properties
within certain bounds dictated by well data and rock facies. The
geostatistical method is discussed briefly later in this chapter and also
in below. The net result of geostatistical modeling is the generation of
multiple realizations of the reservoir description in the face of
uncertainty.

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9 Uncertainties in porosity and other rock property data
The probability distribution of original hydrocarbon in place based on
a range of values is generated using a Monte Carlo simulation rather
than attempting to calculate a single number. When the field is
developed, a large volume of data related to core, log, production,
and well testing, and other factors, becomes available. A number of
analytic methods can be employed to verify the accuracy of the
original oil or gas in place estimation. These methods, including
decline curve analysis and material balance, are described in later
chapters with the aid of software applications.
In the preceding sections, porosity, the property of rock that is
essential in providing storage space for petroleum fluids in a
reservoir, has been discussed. Now attention can be given to the rock
property that is instrumental in producing oil and gas from the
reservoir.

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