demonstrated on a linear array with a symmetric flat-topped
Numerous
radiation pattern.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Prof. Francisco Ares-Pena
from the University of Santiago at Compostela, Spain, for
fruitful discussions on the subject, and for providing com-
puter results of synthesized shaped radiation patterns based
on the original Orchard᎐Elliott algorithm.
REFERENCES
1. R.J. Mailloux, Phased array antenna handbook, Artech House,
Boston, MA, London, England, 1993.
2. P.M. Woodward and J.P. Lawson, The theoretical precision with
which an arbitrary radiation pattern may be obtained from a
source of finite size, Proc IEEE 36 Ž1948., 120᎐126.
3. H.J. Orchard, R.S. Elliott, and G.J. Stern, Optimising the synthesis
of shaped antenna patterns, Proc Inst Elect Eng 132 Ž1985.,
63᎐68.
4. R.S. Elliott, Antenna theory and design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1981.
5. M.R. Hestenes, Pseudo-inverse and conjugate gradients, Commun
ACM 18 Ž1975., 40᎐43.
6. Y. Rahmat-Samii and E. Michielssen, Electromagnetic optimiza-
tion by genetic algorithms, Wiley, New York, 1999.
䊚 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TRANSMISSION LINE – PERIODIC
CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION OF
PLANAR MICROWAVE PHOTONIC
BANDGAP STRUCTURES
M. Rahman1 and M. A. Stuchly1
1
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Victoria
Victoria, B.C. V8W 3P6, Canada
Recei¨ ed 18 January 2001
ABSTRACT: Planar photonic bandgap structures ha¨ e been modeled
using the theory of transmission lines and periodic circuits. The method
allows for fast and accurate computation of the dispersion diagram, and
thus prediction of the stopbands for two directions of propagation.
Results obtained by the proposed analytic method are in agreement with
pre¨ iously published numerical data for two structures. Additional nu-
merical e¨ aluations of the reflection phase with the finite-difference
time-domain (FDTD) method confirm the ¨ alidity of the analytic model
within the limits of its applicability. They also further confirm pre¨ ious
obser¨ ations that wa¨ e propagation in directions other than two principal
axes results in a narrower stopband. 䊚 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Microwave Opt Technol Lett 30: 15᎐19, 2001.
Key words: periodic structure; microstrip line; PBG structure; FDTD
I. INTRODUCTION
Photonic bandgap structures ŽPBGs. are composite periodic
structures that exhibit transmission Žpass. and reflection Žstop.
bands in their frequency response w1x. They can be made of
dielectric only w2x or of metallic elements embedded in a
dielectric material w3x. Two- or three-dimensional arrange-
Contract grant sponsor: Commonwealth Scholarship
Contract grant sponsor: NSERC Industrial Research Chair
MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 30, No. 1, July 5 2001
ments of the PBG crystals have been explored w4x.
engineering applications of these structures have been de-
scribed at microwave frequencies, such as microstrip filters
w5x, high-power components w6x, magnetic conducting surfaces
w7x, and substrates for printed antennas w8᎐10x. These struc-
tures are typically analyzed numerically by calculating the
dispersion diagram Ž ␤ y ␻ . w11, 12x, the transmission and
reflection coefficients w13, 14x, and the reflection phase w7x.
Recently, 2-D PBG structures that are finite in the third
dimension have been proposed at microwave frequencies w15,
16x. These structures suppress the surface currents, and serve
as high-impedance surfaces within the stopband. The PBG
structures presented in w15x and w16x have been analyzed
numerically. The surface in w15x has also been modeled using
an effective medium model with lumped inductance L and
capacitance C that can only predict the first resonant fre-
quency, but not the bandgaps.
In this paper, we explore an analytical model for 2-D
microwave PBG structures, such as those in w15x and w16x. The
impedance of each section of the structures is calculated
using transmission-line theory. The whole structure is then
analyzed using the theory of periodic circuits w17x. Results
from this analytic model are compared with previously pub-
lished numerical data. The phase of the reflection coefficient
of a wave normally incident on the structures computed with
a finite-difference time-domain ŽFDTD. method is also com-
pared.
II. ANALYTICAL MODEL
Figure 1 shows schematic diagrams of the two high-imped-
ance surfaces modeled. The lattice in Figure 1Ža. consists of
square metal sheets connected to the continuous ground
plane through thin wires, as in w15x, and the lattice in Figure
1Žb. consists of square metal patches with four narrow con-
necting branches placed over a ground plane, as in w16x.
These circuits can be considered as arrays of reactively loaded
resonators coupled by gap capacitors. Each unit cell of the
structures is a half-wavelength microstrip resonator Ž f f
'
Ž cr2w ␧eff . if the shorting post wFig. 1Ža.x and connecting
branches wFig. 1Žb.x are disregarded. However, an additional
resonant frequency below the half-wavelength resonance re-
sults from the reactive loading of microstrip resonators w18x.
Shorting pins w19x or narrow connecting branches w20x can
provide load reactance. At the resonant frequency, the struc-
ture radiates energy into the space above, but a small amount
of the energy also propagates along the structure. Thus, the
surfaces shown in Figure 1Ža. and Žb. can be considered as
structures periodically loaded with gap capacitances and reac-
tances provided by the shorting pins wFig. 1Ža.x or connecting
branches wFig. 1Žb.x.
Both the TE and TM modes with respect to the normal to
the surface exist in these structures Žalso called LSE and
LSM modes.. The TE and TM modes are coupled, and
neither mode can exist by itself w21x. Each reactively loaded
resonator of Figure 1Ža. and Žb. can be represented by an
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1Žc., where Z p is the
reactance of the resonator. The capacitive reactance X c
represents the coupling capacitor between the neighboring
resonators. These are the two contributions to the total
impedance between the two nodes of the periodic circuits
shown in Figure 2 for the wave propagation in the x-direc-
tion. The centrally located shorting pin in Figure 1Ža. pro-
vides the inductive loading X l of the resonator, with induc-
15
 Figure 1 High-impedance surfaces. Ža. Array of square metal plates with shorting pins w15x. Žb. Array of square metal plates with
connecting branches w16x. Žc. Equivalent circuit of each resonator section

tance equal to w22x zero. of the transmission line, Zl is the loading impedance,
and l is the line length. The transmission line is approxi-
L s 2 = 10y7 t ln ž /
4t
d
q 0.5 ž /
d
t
y 0.75 Ž1.
mated either by a microstrip line or a conductor-backed
coplanar waveguide ŽCPW., depending on the width᎐height
Ž wrt . ratio of the line and the dielectric material used Ž ␧ r ..
where t and d are the length and diameter of the pin, For a width᎐height ratio of wrt G 2, coupling with the
respectively. neighboring resonators on two sides is negligible, and the line
The impedance of each resonator section, for the wave can be considered as a microstrip line. But for a low
propagating in the x- Žor y-. direction, can be calculated width᎐height ratio and low dielectric constant Ž ␧ r F 4., cou-
considering the loading at the center, and using the well- pling with the resonators on two sides becomes significant,
known transmission-line formula and the line is better represented by conductor-backed copla-
nar waveguides. The parameters Ž Z0 and ␤u . of the line are
Zl q jZ0 tan Ž ␤u l . calculated using microstrip-line or CPW approximations, de-
Zin s Z0 Ž2. pending on the dimensions of the structure. Formulas to
Z0 q jZl tan Ž ␤u l .
compute these parameters are given in w23x. The impedance
Z p of each resonator section is calculated in two steps using
where Z0 is the characteristics impedance and ␤u is the
Eq. Ž2. and taking Zl s ⬁ at l s 0 and Zl s X lrrZm at
phase constant Žlosses of the transmission are assumed to be
l s wr2, where Zm is the impedance before addition of the
inductance.
The coupling capacitor between the resonators has a
capacitance of w24x

Cs
w␧ 0 Ž ␧ r1 q ␧ r 2 .
␲
coshy1 ž /
a
g
Ž3.

where ␧ r1 and ␧ r 2 are the dielectric constants of the materi-

als above and below the resonators, and a, w, g are the
dimensions shown in Figure 1.
The structure shown in Figure 1Žb. is loaded with four
narrow axial connecting branches. The total inductance pro-
vided by the four branches can be calculated from w22x

Figure 2 Equivalent circuit of the periodic structure

L s 0.25 = 10y7d ln ž /
d
s
q 0.2235 ž /
s
d
q 1.193 k g Ž 4 .

16 MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 30, No. 1, July 5 2001
where k g is a correction factor to account for the ground developed code w27x. The FDTD computations consist of
plane, and is equal to w22x evaluation of the reflection phase for waves normally incident
on the structure. To evaluate the reflection phase, a single

ž /
s cell of the structure is terminated with a periodic boundary
k g s 0.57 y 0.145 ln
t on four sides to simulate an infinite planar structure. A plane
where s and d are the width and length of the branch and t
is the thickness of the substrate. Once X l is known, Z p can
be calculated as described for the structure in Figure 1Ža..
The coupling capacitor between the resonators for the struc-
ture in Figure 1Žb. is
Cs
2 b␧ 0 Ž ␧ r1 q ␧ r 2 .
␲
coshy1 ž /
wc
g
. Ž6.
Equation Ž6. is obtained by modifying Eq. Ž3., replacing w
with 2 b and a with wc . Once the impedance of the resonator
Ž Z p . and the coupling capacitor Ž X c . are known for a particu-
lar direction of propagation, the structures in Figure 1Ža. and
Žb. can be treated as a transmission line periodically loaded
with a lumped impedance Z consisting of Z p in parallel with
X c with a period of a. The equivalent circuit for the wave
propagating in the x-direction is shown in Figure 2, and
an analogous circuit corresponds to the propagation in the
y-direction. The propagation constant ␥ along the infinite
periodic structure is w25x
Ž5.
wave is launched in the direction normal to the surface, and
the reflected wave from the structure is recorded to compute
the phase of the reflection coefficient. The computational
domain above the PBG cell is terminated by the perfectly
matched layers Žseven layers, parabolic profile, y80 dB nor-
mal reflection.. Excitation is with a Gaussian pulse of suffi-
cient width to obtain a solution in the required frequency
range.
Figures 3᎐5 illustrate the analytical model and FDTD
results for the two structures shown in Figure 1. Figures 3
and 4 show the results for the structure with shorting pins for
wrt s 2 and wrt s 1.4, respectively, and Figure 5 shows the
results for the structure with connecting branches Ž wrt s 2.2..
The dispersion diagrams in Figures 3Ža. and 5Ža. have been
computed using a microstrip approximation, and in Figure
4Ža. using a conductor-backed CPW approximation. Table 1
provides the summary of results and a comparison with
previously published data in w15x and w16x. The table also gives
the ratio R of the stopband determined from the reflection
phase to that computed analytically.

Z
cosh Ž ␥ a. s cos Ž ␤u a. q j sin Ž ␤u a. Ž7.
2 Z0

where Z0 is the characteristic impedance, and ␤u is the

phase constant for the unloaded structure. The characteristic
impedance Ž Z0 . and the phase constant Ž ␤u . in Eq. Ž7. are
considered the same as those of the resonators. With ␥ s
␣ q j ␤ , Eq. Ž7. can be rearranged as

cosh Ž ␣ a. cos Ž ␤ a. q j sin Ž ␣ a. sin Ž ␤ a.

Z
s cos Ž ␤u a. q j sin Ž ␤u a. . Ž8.
2 Z0

Since the right-hand side of Eq. Ž8. is real, and since Z is

imaginary for lossless resonators Žas assumed., either ␣ s 0
or ␤ s 0, n␲ra. Condition ␣ s 0 corresponds to a nonatten-
uated propagating wave on the periodic structure, and defines
the passband of the structure. Equation Ž6. reduces to

Z
cos Ž ␤ a. s cos Ž ␤u a. q j sin Ž ␤u a. Ž9.
2 Z0

which can be solved for ␤ if the magnitude of the right-hand

side is less than or equal to unity. Condition ␤ s 0, n␲ra
describes an attenuated wave along the x-direction, and this
defines the stopband of the structure.
For the periodic structures, the propagation constant
within the stopband is zero or n␲ra. Within the passband,
the propagation constant ␤ is computed using Eq. Ž9. for
different frequencies Ž ␤u is a function of frequency..

III. COMPARISON WITH NUMERICAL MODELING

Since the structures shown in Figure 1 have been evaluated Figure 3 Ža. Dispersion diagram Ždashed line represents the wave
numerically and experimentally in w15x and w16x, these pub- in a microstrip line.. Žb. Reflection phase for the structure in Figure
lished results are used for comparison. Additionally, limited 1Ža. with dimensions a s 3.25 mm, w s 3.0 mm, g s 0.25 mm,
FDTD modeling w26x has been performed using an in-house t s 1.5 mm, d s 0.5 mm, and ␧ r s 2.2

MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 30, No. 1, July 5 2001 17

Figure 4 Ža. Dispersion diagram Ždashed line represents the wave
in a conductor-backed CPW.. Žb. Reflection phase for the structure
in Figure 1Ža. with dimensions a s 2.4 mm, w s 2.25 mm, g s 0.15
mm, t s 1.6 mm, d s 0.36 mm, and ␧ r s 2.2 w15x
Figure 5 Ža. Dispersion diagram Ždashed line represents the wave
in a microstrip line.. Žb. Reflection phase for the structure in Figure
1Žb. with dimensions a s 3.048 mm, w s 2.794 mm, g s s s 0.254
mm, g 1 s 0.508 mm, b s 0.762 mm, t s 1.27 mm, d s 1.651 mm,
and ␧ r s 10.2 w16x

TABLE 1 Comparison of Analytic Model Predictions with Numerical Computations

Analytic Reflection Phase Previously

Structure Stopband "␲r2 Band Published Data R

Patches with pins, 3.76᎐5.44 GHz 3.95᎐4.95 GHz ᎏ 0.225r0.365 s 0.62

Figure 1Ža.
wrt s 2, ␧ r s 4.2
Patches with pins, 9.86᎐14.4 GHz 9.99᎐13.77 GHz ᎏ 0.318r0.374 s 0.85
Figure 1Ža.
wrt s 2, ␧ r s 2.2
Patches with pins, 9.88᎐16.7 GHz 10.1᎐14.77 GHz 10᎐14.5 GHz a 0.376r0.513 s 0.73
Figure 1Ža.
wrt s 1.4, ␧ r s 2.2
Patches with branches, 5.7᎐8.1 GHz 7.4᎐8.1 GHz ᎏ 0.091r0.348 s 0.26
Figure 1Žb.
wrt s 2.17, ␧ r s 4.2
Patches with branches, 8.9᎐12.7 GHz 11.85᎐12.7 GHz 11.4᎐12.8 GHz b 0.069r0.352 s 0.20
Figure 1Žb.
wrt s 2.2, ␧ r s 10.2 9᎐12.8 GHz c
a
From w15 x, computed ŽFEM . stopband for all directions of propagation Ž approximate values from Fig. 10 ..
b
From w16 x, computed ŽFDTD . stopband for all directions of propagation.
c
From w16 x, computed ŽFDTD . stopband for x- Žor y-. direction of propagation Žapproximate values from Fig. 5 ..

18 MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 30, No. 1, July 5 2001
 The following observations can be made. As expected, the
analytic model does not fully predict the behavior of the
periodic structure, as it does not apply to all directions of
surface-wave propagation. However, it provides a quick and
useful means of predicting the stopband for propagation
along the principal axis. This conclusion is based on a direct
comparison with data from w16x ŽTable 1.. For wave propaga-
tion in the x-direction in the structure shown in Figure 1Žb.,
the analytical model predicts the stopband from 8.9 to
12.7 GHz, while 9 to 12.8 GHz is given in w16x Žwhere the
lower frequency is taken from the graph, and thus is not
accurate .. Computations with the FDTD of the phase of the
reflection coefficient, on one hand, illustrate the limitation of
the analytic model, as the practical stopband is narrower. On
the other hand, these FDTD simulations are also simple and
fast. Their simplicity is due to much simpler periodic bound-
ary conditions than those required to compute the dispersion
diagram. Additional data are given in Table 1 for three
structures of dimensions different from those of the structure
for which comparison data are available. The results for the
other three structures illustrate a consistent narrowing of the
stopband Ž R in Table 1. for the two types of PBG structures
shown in Figure 1. They also illustrate that the stopband
based on the reflection phase is much more reduced for a
PBG structure of the type shown in Figure 1Žb. compared to
the PBG structure in Figure 1Ža..
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Two different high-impedance surfaces proposed in the liter-
ature have been represented by an analytic model. The model
combines the transmission-line representation and the theory
of periodic structures. The proposed analytic approach is
simple, fast, and also suitable for other PBG structures for
which the impedance for the unit cell can be obtained. The
dispersion diagrams calculated with the proposed method
predict a stopband region that is in good agreement with
those obtained from the numerical experiments in w15x and
w16x. However, the analytic model does not consider all direc-
tions of surface-wave propagation, and it is useful only as the
first step in the design of the structure. Computation with the
FDTD of the phase of the reflection coefficient provides an
additional simple means of evaluation of the practical stop-
band frequency range. Results of these computations are in
agreement Žmaximum differences below 4%. with the more
complex numerical evaluations reported in w15x and w16x.
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19