Attitudes Toward Adoption in Spore

500962
research-article2013
JFI35510.1177/0192513X13500962Journal of Family IssuesMohanty
Article
Journal of Family Issues
2014, Vol. 35(5) 705–728
Attitudes Toward © The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permissions:
Adoption in Singapore sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0192513X13500962
jfi.sagepub.com
Jayashree Mohanty1
Abstract
This study aimed to understand the factors that influence attitudes toward
adoption in Singapore. Using a multistage, quota sampling method, 1,200
Singaporean citizens and permanent residents were interviewed. The results
indicate that the majority of the respondents approved adoption as a family
form. Logistic regression analysis showed that individual characteristics
(women and income) and factors such as the importance of blood ties,
adoption-related altruistic values, and familiarity with adoption were related to
adoption approval. The factors that influenced intention to adopt were women,
familiarity with adoption, and approval of adoption. Individuals who perceived
the importance of blood ties in familial relationships and had concerns about
the outcomes of adopted children (adjustment problems, behavioral problems,
medical problems, etc.) were less likely to have considered adopting. The
findings point to the need to increase awareness among the public and to
promote adoption as a rewarding and responsible choice for family formation.
Keywords
adoption, adoption attitudes, intention to adopt, Singapore
Investigating the public’s attitude toward adoption has been a central focus of
adoption research, especially in Western countries such as United States and
Canada. This line of research is underscored by theories and empirical
1National University of Singapore, Singapore
Corresponding Author:
Jayashree Mohanty, Department of Social Work, FASS, National University of Singapore, AS 3
Level 4, 3 Arts Link, Singapore 117570.
Email: swkjm@nus.edu.sg
Downloaded from jfi.sagepub.com at The University of Hong Kong Libraries on May 10, 2015
706 Journal of Family Issues 35(5)
evidence that indicate attitude as one of the important precursors to intention

(Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 2000; Gillmore et al., 2002; Gracia &
Herrero, 2006; Koropeckyj-Cox & Pendell, 2007). Combined with research
indicating adoption as a viable and alternate form of family formation, the
factors associated with intention to adopt and those that determine successful
adoption outcome have been the focus of considerable academic and societal
discourse. Not surprisingly, most of the research on attitudes toward adoption
has been based solely in the United States and to a lesser extent Canada, and
less is known about Asian countries such as Singapore. In Asia, the sociocul-
tural importance assigned to children and the stigma associated with infertil-
ity underscore the role of adoption in family formation.
Singapore is an interesting test case for studying adoption attitudes. First,
Singapore is facing a demographic crisis associated with fertility rates that
are below the population-replacement level. Singapore has the lowest total
fertility rate (estimated at 0.78) in the world (Central Intelligence Agency,
2012). Second, Singapore represents a culturally and ethnically diverse com-
munity. The three major ethnic groups in Singapore—Chinese (74.1%),
Malays (13.4%), and Indians (9.2%) (Department of Statistics Singapore,
2010)—allow researchers to understand how cultural attitudes shape adop-
tion beliefs and outcomes. Third, apart from Japan, Singapore is the only
country in Asia that receives children for international adoption. Given the
diverse sociocultural make up and the role of adoption as a family form, it
would be interesting to understand the prevailing attitudes toward adoption in
Singapore. Designed to be exploratory and descriptive, this study examines
attitudes toward adoption as a family form and attempts to identify the demo-
graphic and attitudinal factors that influence adoption approval and intention
to adopt.
Adoption of Children in Singapore

The institution and practice of adoption in Singapore has its roots in the early
colonial days. Data compiled from a report on the Registration of Births and
Deaths indicate that approximately 28,799 adoptions were registered in
Singapore between 19731 and 2008 (Singapore Government, 2008). From
1990 to 2004, an average of 700 children per year were placed with adoptive
families both domestically and internationally (Singapore Government,
2008). Since 2005, the number has remained consistent at around 470
(Singapore Government, 2008). International adoptions constitute more than
half of all adoptions in Singapore (Ministry of Community Development,
Youth and Sports, 2009). Most adoptive children come from China, Malaysia,
Indonesia, and Vietnam. Previously, the adoption of children across ethnic
Mohanty 707
lines in Singapore was not uncommon among the Malay Muslim and Indian
communities and was mostly driven by infertility (Heng, 1957). However,
Chinese families generally practiced same-race adoption. Slightly more boys
are adopted domestically and girls outnumber boys in international adoption,
consistent with the trend in international adoption (Ministry of Community
Development, Youth and Sports, 2009; United Nations, 2009). The majority
of children are adopted before the age of 5. For example, in 2002, 75% of
children adopted were younger than 3 years of age (United Nations, 2009).
Previous Research on Adoption Attitudes

There is a dearth of knowledge on public attitudes toward adoption in
Singapore. Therefore, I will primarily focus on three national-level studies
that have been conducted in the United States, Canada, and India.
Most studies have reported positive attitudes toward adoption. For exam-
ple, the National Adoption Attitudes Survey (2002) found that two thirds
(63%) of Americans have very favorable attitudes toward adoption, which
was an increase from the Benchmark adoption survey (Princeton Survey
Research, 1997), in which only 56% reported a favorable attitude. Miall and
March (2000) reported that 77% of Canadian respondents strongly approved
of adoption as a family form. Similarly, in Mumbai, India, Raju (1999) also
found positive views (62.4%) toward adoption and approximately 94% of
respondents said they approved of families who adopt children. Regarding
the intention to adopt a child, Western studies (National Adoption Attitudes
Survey, 2002; Princeton Survey Research, 1997) reported that about one third
of respondents had considered adoption at some time in their lives, whereas
the Indian study (Raju, 1999) reported only 5.3%.
Regarding different types of adoption, such as open adoption, interna-
tional adoption, and transracial adoption, the National Adoption Attitude
Survey (2002) found that 68% of Americans thought that open adoption was
a good idea in most or some cases; just more than 50% were optimistic about
the well-being of internationally adopted children; and a substantial number
believed that there was strong opposition to interracial adoption among both
African Americans (61%) and Whites (47%). Miall and March (2000)
reported conditional support for some level of openness in adoption among
Canadians. Although 34% of their respondents strongly approved of exchang-
ing cards and letters through a mediator, fewer favored ongoing, face-to-face
contact (21%). They also found that almost all (94%) respondents supported
international adoption. Although the studies reviewed here suggest somewhat
positive adoption attitudes, generalization of the findings to a different socio-
cultural milieu may not be appropriate.
Conceptual Framework
Public attitudes toward adoption are shaped by complex psychosocial fac-
tors such as beliefs and knowledge (Bausch, 2006; Gibbons & Brown,
2012; Tyebjee, 2003). The Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) expectancy-value
model states that attitudes develop from the beliefs that people hold about
the objects of those attitudes. In this study, “attitude” refers to an individu-
al’s favorable or unfavorable evaluation of adoption. Research has shown
that individuals hold a relative stable set of universal values that they use to
evaluate and justify action (Schwartz, 1992). Given this stability, values are
instrumental in assisting people in making effective decisions. For exam-
ple, individuals who think all children are equal and that they all deserve to
have good families are more likely to value adoption and be willing to
adopt children (Tyebjee, 2003). Researchers view values as distal determi-
nants of attitudes exerted through proximal determinants such as beliefs
(Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). A belief is the information that an individual
recognizes he or she has about adoption (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).
Knowledge of, opinions about, and familiarity with adoption are all indica-
tors of belief. Attitudes toward adoption may be influenced by beliefs about
the importance of blood ties in different cultures, adoption-related altruistic
values, knowledge of and familiarity with adoption, concerns about the out-
come of adopted children, and attitudes toward children in general. It is
important to note here that the aim of this study is not to test the expec-
tancy-value model but to subsume the disparate factors that influence atti-
tudes within a new model.
Importance of Blood Ties

The importance of blood ties is especially salient in Singapore’s family-
building cultural tradition, which may influence how adoption is viewed by
the public. In Chinese family construction, blood ties (xueyuan) are defined
as the strongest ties. Although historically the Chinese used stranger adop-
tion to compensate for the absence of a naturally conceived male heir
(Waltner, 1990), the Confucian emphasis on blood ties encouraged the dis-
avowal of fractured bloodlines. Therefore, such adoption tended to be
covert, with adoption records sealed to protect the confidentiality of birth
parents, adoptees, and adoptive parents. The majority of Singapore’s Malay
population is Sunni Muslims (Department of Statistics Singapore, 2000).
Islam emphasizes the purity of family lineage and keeping the family line
“unambiguously defined without any foreign element entering into it”
(Al Qaradawi, cited in Islam Online, 2005). One consequence of this is that
Mohanty 709
Islamic beliefs and practices are completely antithetical to the concept of

“sealed” and “clean break” adoption, because the child must always be
aware of her or his biological links, and ties with the biological family of
origins are never severed. Maintaining the family bloodline is the principal
motivation for adoption among Indian families. Within the Indian culture,
the importance of bloodlines has resulted in the accommodation of intrafa-
milial adoption and does not allow stranger adoption.
Though not among the Asian population, several studies in the West
have indicated that blood ties may influence adoption attitudes. Kirk
(1964) notes that the importance of blood ties in familial relationships may
influence how adoption is viewed by the general public. Miall’s (1987)
study of 71 involuntarily childless women reported that society differenti-
ated between biological and adoptive parents and that the perception of
differentiation was linked to the importance that society placed on blood
ties. March (1995), in a study of 60 adult adoptees, found that most respon-
dents experienced social discrimination because of their unknown blood
ties. Another study (Turner & Nachtigall, 2010) with low-income immi-
grant Latino couples in San Francisco also reflected the importance of
biological ties.
Altruism and Adoption

Humanitarian motives such as helping children in need of a home might
influence individuals’ and families’ decisions to adopt. Historically, the
adoption of children in the West started as a humanitarian response to the
predicament of children in “war-torn” countries (Lovelock, 2000, p. 908).
Altruism is the most common reason given by adoptive parents for adopt-
ing children with special needs. Adoptive parents of such children often
report feeling socially responsible, responsible for helping others in need,
and useful to the community by offering good homes for those children
without homes or families (Deiner, Wilson, & Unger 1991). Other studies
have also reported similar findings. For example, Balen, Verdurmen, and
Ketting (1997) found altruism, such as wanting to help the child, was
important for considering adoption among 131 infertile couples in the
Netherlands. Similarly, Tyebjee (2003) reported the importance of altruistic
values, such as the intention to provide a positive family environment for
the child, as among the reasons for adoption in 1,011 California households
(Tyebjee, 2003). Princeton Survey Research (1997) reported that public
often describe adoptive parents as unselfish and that they provide good
homes for children who need one (National Adoption Attitudes Survey,
2002).
Familiarity With Adoption

Familiarity and personal experience with adoption have been shown to be
positively related to favorable opinions about adoption and intention to adopt
(National Adoption Attitudes Survey, 2002; Princeton Survey Research,
1997; Tyebjee, 2003). Bausch (2006) found that familiarity with adoption
was the strongest predictor of intention to adopt among married individuals.
Concerns About Outcomes for Adopted Children

Previous studies have raised concerns about outcomes for adoptees, espe-
cially the mental health and behavioral problems of international adoptees
(Cantor-Graae & Pedersen, 2007; Hjern, Lindblad, & Vinnerljung, 2001;
Verhulst, Althaus, & Versluis-Den Bieman, 1990; Westhues & Cohen, 1997).
The social background of adopted children and an awareness that adoptees
are at higher risk of mental health problems may have an important bearing
on people’s approval of adoption and their intention to adopt a child. Studies
have found that individuals are less likely to adopt if they perceive adopted
children to be “problematic” and there is uncertainty about the child’s health
(Balen et al., 1997; Tyebjee, 2003). The National Adoption Attitude Survey
(2002) found that adopted children were more likely than biological children
to be perceived as at risk for medical and behavioral problems. Similarly,
Miall and March (2000) reported that more than 66% of Canadians thought
that adopted children exhibited more problems than nonadopted children.
The unknown background of the abandoned children was another concern
among respondents in Raju’s (1999) study.
Attitudes Toward Children

Studies have shown that people with favorable attitudes toward children are
more likely to express positive attitudes toward adoption (Gibbons & Brown,
2012; Tyebjee, 2003). Although more Singaporeans are remaining single or get-
ting married later, and married couples are having fewer children (National
Population and Talent Division, 2012), there is also a societal belief, as in any
other industrialized country, that children are an essential part of family life and,
for most women, having children is considered a desirable and rewarding expe-
rience. Strong policy emphasis on encouraging couples to have more children
and supporting families in raising a child is evident in many family-oriented
programs in Singapore (such as the Baby Bonus Scheme, infant care and child
care subsidies, 4 months of paid maternity leave per child, 6 days of paid annual
child care leave per parent, and housing schemes to help couples set up homes).
Mohanty 711
Sociodemographic Characteristics and Adoption

Studies have observed that age, gender, race, education, marital status, and
childlessness are associated with favorable attitudes toward adoption. For
example, the National Adoption Attitudes Survey (2002) found that respon-
dents aged 18 to 24 and those older than 65 had less favorable opinions about
adoption. The survey also found that married couples were more inclined to
consider adoption than those who were not married or those who were previ-
ously married. Princeton Survey Research (1997) found that women were
generally more open and supportive of adoption than men and that those with
a college degree were more likely than those with only a high school educa-
tion to be full supporters of adoption. Intention to adopt is generally found to
be higher among the childless than those with a child (Ahmad, 1975; Bausch,
2006; Raju, 1999). The influence of race on attitudes toward adoption cannot
be overlooked. Whites have been reported to be generally more favorable
toward adoption (National Adoption Attitudes Survey, 2002; Princeton
Survey Research, 1997). Singapore has a significantly different racial make-
up from the United States, with the majority being Chinese and with Malay,
Indian, and other minorities. It would thus be interesting to explore the rela-
tionship between ethnic groups and attitudes toward adoption in Singapore.
Research Questions and Hypotheses

1. What is the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics
and adoption approval and intention to adopt? Specifically, I hypoth-
esized that females would have more favorable attitudes toward
approving adoption and intending to adopt a child than males.
Although race has been found to be an important influence on how
different ethnic groups perceive adoption, in Singapore there is insuf-
ficient evidence to suggest a directional relationship. Based on previ-
ous research, I hypothesized that married couples are more likely to
approve of adoption and consider adoption. I also hypothesized that
people with higher incomes would have more favorable attitudes
toward adoption.
2. What is the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics
and types of adoption? Based on the cultural aspects of family build-
ing in Singapore, it is expected that Chinese will be more positive
toward confidential adoption as it ensures the continuity of the family
name (Hoe, 1959). Malays will have more favorable attitudes toward
open adoption because Islamic law emphasizes that children should
be made aware of their real origins (Heng, 1957). Indians will be
more positive toward intrafamily adoption than extrafamily/non-

related adoption. Based on the Benchmark Adoption Survey
(Princeton Survey Research, 1997) and the National Adoption
Attitudes Survey (2002), it is hypothesized that respondents with
higher education will have favorable attitudes toward transracial and
international adoptions.
3. Given that beliefs and attitudes are based on values, I aimed to exam-
ine the relationship between adoption-related altruistic values and
adoption approval and intention to adopt. Specifically, I hypothesized
that individuals with stronger altruistic values will have more positive
attitudes toward adoption and more likely to consider adopting a child.
4. Previous studies suggest that beliefs are important determinants of
attitudes. Therefore, I examined the relationship between belief vari-
ables, such as importance to blood ties, familiarity with adoption, con-
cerns about the outcome of adopted children, attitudes toward children,
and adoption approval and intent to adopt. Specifically, I hypothesized
that those who believe in the importance of blood ties will have less
favorable attitudes toward adoption as a family form and will be less
likely to adopt a child. I also hypothesized that people who perceive
potential problems in adopted children will be less likely to approve of
adoption and consider adopting a child. Furthermore, those who are
familiar with or have personal experience with adoption are more
likely to approve of adoption and consider adopting a child. Similarly,
individuals with positive perceptions of children are more likely to
approve of adoption and consider adopting a child.
Method
A cross-sectional survey was conducted on attitudes toward adoption in
Singapore. The inclusion criteria included Singaporean citizens/permanent
residents aged 18 to 60 years. The sample size (n = 1,200) was determined to
attain a margin of error of ±3% and a 99% confidence interval (Arkin &
Colton, 1969). A multistage, quota sampling method was adopted. Quota sam-
pling was preferred because of the absence of a sampling frame representing
different socioeconomic and ethnic characteristics. Quotas were set by age,
gender, and ethnicity to represent the national distribution. The minority eth-
nic groups, Indians and Malays, were oversampled to ensure adequate repre-
sentation. In Stage 1, a random sample of 50 geographical areas representative
of different housing-type distributions were selected. In Stage 2, within each
selected geographical area, a systematic sample of 24 households was selected,
yielding a total sample of 1,200 (24 × 50) households. In each household
Mohanty 713
selected, a resident fulfilling the quota criteria was approached for participa-
tion. Fully trained interviewers carried out face-to-face interviews lasting an
average of 35 minutes. The interviewers were trained in (a) understanding the
survey’s objectives, (b) looking out for or being aware of key things such as
skipping patterns in answers to the questions or queries that respondents might
ask given the findings of the pilot test, and (c) showing cards and role playing.
The interviews were conducted in English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil lan-
guages. A token of appreciation of SGD10 was provided to the respondents.
About 20% of the interviews were randomly validated. The study was
approved by the Institutional Review Board, National University of Singapore
(NUS), Singapore. The questionnaire, translated into Chinese, Malay, and
Tamil, was pilot tested among 20 respondents.
Measurements
Dependent Variables
Approval of adoption. Approval of adoption as a family form was mea-
sured by the question, “In general, do you approve of adoption? Would you
say that you strongly disapprove, somewhat disapprove, somewhat approve,
or strongly approve,” using a 4-point Likert-type response scale (Miall &
March, 2000). The response categories were collapsed into disapprove (1 =
strongly disapprove and 2 = disapprove) and approve (3 = somewhat approve
and 4 = strongly approve).
Intention to adopt. To measure intention to adopt, we adapted an item

with a 4-point Likert-type scale from the Princeton Survey Research (1997),
which asked, “Have you ever seriously considered adopting a child? How
serious are you?” The responses ranged from not at all seriously to very seri-
ously. The response categories were collapsed into not at all seriously (1 =
not at all seriously and 2 = not too seriously) and seriously (3 = somewhat
seriously and 4 = very seriously).
Independent Variables
Importance of blood ties. Five items were developed to measure beliefs
about the importance of blood ties (α = .64). The responses ranged from 1
(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The total score was computed by
summing across all five items to form a composite score ranging from 5 to
20 and averaging, with higher scores indicating strong importance to blood
ties. Sample items included “The bond with a natural child is much stronger
than the bond with an adopted child” and “Adoptive families are inferior to
biological families.”
Adoption-related altruism. Five items were developed to measure adoption-

related altruism values. The 4-point response scale ranged from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The scale scores were computed by summing
across all five items to form a composite score ranging from 5 to 20 and aver-
aging, with higher scores indicating more altruistic adoption-related values.
Sample items included “All children are equal and they deserve to have a
good family” and “It is better for a child to be in a loving home than in an
orphanage.” Cronbach’s alpha was .74.
Familiarity with adoption. Two items measured familiarity with adoption:

(a) “In general, how familiar are you with child adoption?” The responses
ranged from 1 (not familiar at all) to 5 (extremely familiar); and (2) “Has
anyone in your family or among close friends ever been adopted or adopted a
child or placed a child up for adoption?” (1 = yes, 2 = no).
Concerns about outcomes for adopted children. Six items were adopted

from the National Adoption Attitudes Survey (2002). The instruction for
the question was, “Compared to biological children, when you think about
the adopted children what comes to your mind?” Sample items included
“Adopted children have more behavior problems” and “Adopted children
have more medical problems.” The responses ranged from 1 (less likely) to 3
(more likely). The total score was computed by summing across all six items
to form a composite score ranging from 6 to 18 and averaging, with higher
scores indicating greater concern about the outcome of adopted children. The
alpha coefficient for this index was .91.
Attitudes toward children. Three items measured general attitudes toward

children (α = .88), rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 4 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating positive attitudes toward
children (the scores ranged from 3 to 12). The total score was computed by
summing and averaging the individual 4-point items. The items were “Chil-
dren are an essential part of family life,” “Children make one’s family life
more rewarding,” and “Raising children is a satisfying experience.”
Sociodemographic variables. Sociodemographic variables were age, gen-

der, ethnicity, marital status, education, income, and number of children. Age
was in years. Gender was coded 1 = men and 2 = women. Ethnicity was coded
1 = Chinese, 2 = Malay, 3 = Indian, and 4 = Other. Marital status was coded
1 = married and 2 = single (never married, divorced, separated, or widowed).
Having a child was coded 0 = no and 1 = yes. Educational level was coded
1 = some school, 2 = junior college and or polytechnic, and 3 = tertiary.
Mohanty 715
Monthly personal income was coded 1 = below SGD (Singapore dollar) 500,
2 = SGD501 to 2,999, 3 = SGD3,000 and above, and 4 = refused/don’t know.
Data Analyses. Hierarchical logistic regression analyses were conducted to

explore the relative contributions of the factors in explaining attitudes
toward adoption (i.e., approval of adoption and intention to adopt). In the
first block, the sociodemographic variables related to attitude were entered.
In the second block, adoption-related altruism was entered. In the third
block, approval of adoption and intention to adopt were regressed on the
attitudinal variables—importance of blood ties, familiarity with adoption,
concerns about outcomes for adopted children, and attitudes toward chil-
dren. In addition to the standardized and unstandardized beta coefficients,
Nagelkerke R2 values were computed to assess the relative contributions of
the variables and the overall variance explained by the models. The model
chi-square and chi-square change were also computed to determine whether
there was a significant increase in the explanatory power of the model at
each stage.
Of the 1,200 respondents surveyed, 10 (0.83%) had missing data. Only
respondents with complete data (n = 1,190) were retained in the analysis.
The data were weighted to represent national counts by race/ethnicity and
different probabilities of selection associated with sample stratification.
The findings were the same for the weighted and nonweighted samples;
therefore, I decided to analyze the nonweighted sample for ease of
interpretation.
Results
Sample Characteristics
The mean age of the respondents was 38.12 years (SD = 11.67). Males
(49.1%) and females (50.9%) were almost equally represented. Just more
than half of the participants (56.6%) had some schooling, 23.1% had com-
pleted junior college or polytechnic, and 20.3% had completed tertiary edu-
cation. The majority of the participants (67.7%) were married, which is
slightly higher than in the national population. Of the married respondents,
13.8% (112) had no children. Approximately 66% of the participants were
employed, which is close to the figure for labor force participation in
Singapore in 2011 (Ministry of Manpower, 2011). A substantial proportion
(74.2%) had a monthly income of SGD2,999 or below, which is slightly less
than the gross monthly income of Singaporeans and permanent residents in
2011 (Ministry of Manpower, 2011).
Attitudes Toward Adoption

Descriptive statistics (see Table 1) show that most Singaporeans approve of
adoption (86.2%). The approval rate is slightly lower than in studies con-
ducted in Western countries such as the United States (94%) and Canada
(98%) (Miall & March, 2000; National Adoption Attitudes Survey, 2002).
Only 13.8% indicted they had “somewhat seriously” or “very seriously” con-
sidered adopting a child. Attitudes toward different types of adoption (see
Table 2) were divided. For example, almost 45% stated that they would prefer
to adopt a child within their extended family. The majority (87.2%) reported
that Singaporeans should be allowed to adopt children from outside of
Singapore. Many (62.8%) also approved of transracial adoption, and only
47.4% were in favor of open adoption in the sense that the biological and
adoptive parents should know each other’s identity. Respondents’ demo-
graphic characteristics and their reported views toward different types of
adoption (see Table 2) showed that race was significantly associated with
types of adoption. Malays were more in favor of kinship adoption followed by
Chinese, Others, and Indians (χ = 9.69, p = .021). Malays were also more
likely to favor open adoption, followed by Chinese, Indians, and others (χ =
30.49, p < .001). Chinese were more in favor of international adoption than
Indians, Malays, and Others (χ = 20.87, p < .001) and less in favor of transra-
cial adoption than were Malays, Indians, and Others (χ = 24.66, p < .001).
Education was significantly related to international adoption and transracial
adoption. Respondents with tertiary education were more in favor of interna-
tional adoption than were those with junior college/polytechnic or some
schooling (χ = 9.09, p = .001); respondents with junior college/polytechnic
were more in favor of transracial adoptions, followed by those with tertiary
education and some schooling (χ = 30.38, p < .001). Married individuals were
less likely to approve of open adoption than those who had never been married
(χ = 4.12, p = .042), and females were less likely to approve of open adoption
than males (χ = 7.49, p = .006).
Factors Related to Attitudes Toward Adoption

In the first block, the dichotomous variable approval of adoption was
regressed on the sociodemographic variables age, gender, ethnicity, marital
status, number of children, income, and education level. The explanatory
power of the sociodemographic variables in Model 1 was 4% (χ = 28.57, p =
.005; see Table 3). Gender and income were significantly associated with
approval of adoption. Females were almost twice (odds ratio [OR] = 1.725)
as likely to approve of adoption. Respondents with monthly incomes of SGD
3,000 and more were twice as likely to approve of adoption (OR = 2.125).
Mohanty 717
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables Based on Complete Cases

(N = 1190).
Variables Frequency Mean SD
Age 38.12 11.67

Gender
Male 49.1%
Female 50.9%
Ethnicity
Chinese 29.2%
Malay 29.2%
Indian 29.2%
Other 12.5%
Marital status
Married 67.7%
Single 32.3%
Education
Some school 56.6%
Junior/polytechnic 23.1%
Tertiary 20.3%
Incomea
Below $500 33.1%
$501 to $2,900 41.1%
$3,000 & above 17.1%
Refused/don’t know 8.7%
Approve adoption
Disapprove 13.8%
Approve 86.2%
Intent to adopt
No 86.2%
Yes 13.8%
Friends and relatives’ experience with adoption
Yes 21.2%
No 78.8%
Having a child
Yes 64.6%
No 35.4%
Familiarity with adoptionb 1.60 0.86
Concerns about adopted childrenc 1.90 0.53
Attitudes toward childrend 3.30 0.46
Adoption-related altruisme 3.23 0.40
Importance to blood tiesf 2.41 0.40
a. Income—Monthly personal income.

b. Familiarity with adoption—Higher score indicates high familiarity with child adoption.
c. Concerns about adopted children—Higher score indicates more concerns about the outcome of
adopted children.
d. Attitudes toward children—Higher score indicates positive attitudes toward children.
e. Adoption-related altruism—Higher score indicates high level of adoption related altruistic beliefs.
f. Importance to blood ties—Higher score indicates high importance to blood ties.
718
Table 2. Types of Adoption and Demographic Differences.
Kinship adoption, N = 1,194 Open adoption, N = 1,074 (In
(Assuming that you are International adoption, N = 1,197 general, do you think that during
adopting a child, would you (Do you think Singaporeans should Transracial adoption, N = 1,199 adoption, the biological and
prefer to adopt the child from be allowed to adopt children from (Do you approve of interracial adoptive parents should know the
. . .) countries outside of Singapore?) adoptions?) identity of each other?)
Within family Outside

Demographics (%) family χ Yes No χ Disapprove Approve χ Yes No χ
Education ns 9.09* 30.38*** ns

Some school 47.2 52.8 85.4 14.6 43.9 56.1 53.4 46.6
Junior/polytechnic 40.9 59.1 87.5 12.5 27.2 72.8 53.7 46.3
Tertiary 42.7 57.3 92.9 7.1 29.9 70.1 51.0 49.0
Marital status ns ns ns 4.12*
Married 45.8 54.2 86.8 13.2 38.5 61.5 50.8 49.2
Single 42.7 57.3 88.6 11.4 34.5 65.5 57.4 42.6
Gender ns ns ns 7.49**
Male 46.8 53.2 86.9 13.1 36.4 63.6 57.3 42.7
Female 42.8 57.2 87.8 12.2 38.0 62.0 48.9 51.1
Race 9.69* 20.87*** 24.66*** 30.49***
Chinese 46.0 54.0 92.3 7.7 46.9 53.1 54.0 46.0
Malay 50.6 49.4 82.2 17.8 37.4 62.6 63.9 36.1
Indian 39.5 60.5 89.7 10.3 31.1 68.9 46.8 53.2
Other 40.9 59.1 82.7 17.3 28.2 71.8 38.9 61.1
Total 44.6 54.9 87.2 12.6 37.2 62.8 47.4 42.1
*p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001.

Table 3. Summary of Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Adoption Approval (N = 1,190).
Model 1 Model 2 Model3

Variable B SE B OR B SE B OR B SE B OR
Female .545** .191 1.725 .474* .193 1.606 .436* .201 1.546
Current age .009 .009 1.009 .010 .009 1.010 .011 .010 1.011
Race
Chinese −.064 .289 0.938 −.085 .294 0.919 −.286 .303 0.751
Malay .155 .291 1.168 .131 .295 1.139 −.105 .305 0.901
Indian .139 .288 1.149 .055 .292 1.057 .059 .302 0.943
Income
$501 to $2,999 −.083 .206 0.921 −.099 .208 0.906 −.099 .215 0.906
$3,000 & above .754* .329 2.125 .664* .330 1.942 .699* .344 2.011
Refused 1.119** .458 3.316 1.145* .463 3.141 1.167* .479 3.212
Married −.479 .276 0.620 −.387 .279 0.679 −.467 .290 0.627
Education
Some school −.109 .261 0.897 −.140 .263 0.869 .039 .272 1.040
Junior college .133 .288 1.149 .191 .291 1.210 .319 .300 1.375
Having children −.101 .243 0.904 −.188 .247 0.828 −.280 .258 0.756
Adoption altruism 1.280*** .247 3.596 .702* .312 2.019
Adoption familiarity .386** .135 1.471
Friends and relatives’ experience with adoption .580* .284 1.786
Attitudes toward adopted children −.059 .179 0.943
Attitudes toward children .324 .263 1.382
Importance to blood ties −1.202*** .244 0.301
R2 .043 .087 .151
Note. OR = odds ratio. Male; race-other; income, SGD <500; tertiary education; single, divorced, or widowed; friends and relatives do not have
719
experience with adoption; and no children are the reference categories.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Adoption-related altruism was entered in the second block and explained

an additional 4.4% of the variance in Model 2 (χ = 58.19, p < .001). Not sur-
prisingly, respondents with adoption-related altruistic values were more than
three times (OR = 3.596) as likely to hold a positive attitude toward adoption.
Gender and income remained significantly associated with adoption approval.
In the third block, attitudinal variables such as the importance of blood
ties, familiarity with adoption, concerns about outcomes for adopted chil-
dren, and general attitudes toward children were entered. The explanatory
power of Model 3 increased by 6.4% (χ = 103.35, p < .001). Importance of
blood ties was negatively related to adoption approval (B = −1.20, p < .001).
Those who were familiar with adoption were more likely to have a positive
attitude toward adoption than those who were unfamiliar (OR = 1.47), and
those whose family members or close friends had experience with adoption
were almost twice (OR = 1.786) as likely to have positive attitudes toward
adoption. In Model 3, gender, income, and altruistic values remained signifi-
cantly related to adoption approval.
Factors Related to Intention to Adopt

The variables were entered in the same sequence as in the previous model.
Demographic variables were entered in the first block, followed by adoption-
related altruistic values. In the third block, approval of adoption was entered
along with the attitudinal variables. Of the seven demographic variables in
Model 1, only gender and marital status were significantly related to inten-
tion to adopt. Although studies suggest that childlessness is associated with
adopting, it was not significantly related to intention to adopt. The explana-
tory power of the sociodemographic variables was 5.6% (χ = 37.47, p < .001;
see Table 4).
Model 2 was not significant and adoption-related altruism explained only
an additional 1% of the variance. Adoption approval was added with the other
attitudinal and demographic variables in Model 3. The explanatory power of
the model increased by 15.9% (χ = 151.15, p < .001). As expected, intention
to adopt was more than four times (OR = 4.053) higher among those who
approved of adoption as a family form. Respondents with stronger impor-
tance of blood ties indicated lower intention to adopt (B = −.48, p = .05), as
did those who perceived negative outcomes for adopted children (B = −.53,
p = .003). Intention to adopt was approximately twice as high (OR = 1.749)
among those who were familiar with adoption and more than twice as high
(OR = 2.618) among those whose family members or close friends had expe-
rience with adoption. Gender and marital status remained significantly related
to intention to adopt. Intention to adopt was twice as high among females
Table 4. Summary of Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Intention to Adopt (N = 1,190).
Model 1 Model 2 Model3

Variable B SE B OR B SE B OR B SE B OR
Female .752*** .191 2.122 .740*** .193 2.097 .701** .205 2.016
Current age .001 .009 1.001 .001 .009 1.001 −.001 .010 0.999
Race
Chinese .274 .310 1.315 .284 .301 1.328 .225 .323 1.252
Malay .407 .306 1.502 .408 .306 1.504 .201 .330 1.223
Indian .138 .305 1.148 .133 .305 1.142 −.069 .328 0.933
Income
$501 to $2,999 .051 .207 1.052 .048 .207 1.049 .118 .225 1.126
$3,000 and above .270 .293 1.310 .249 .295 1.282 .346 .310 1.413
Refused −.548 .406 0.578 −.550 .406 0.577 −.486 .430 0.615
Married −.555* .253 0.574 −.543* .254 0.581 −.612* .268 0.542
Education
Some school −.489 .253 0.613 −.494 .254 0.610 −.323 .268 0.724
Junior college .120 .248 1.128 .126 .249 1.134 .175 .268 1.192
Having children .398 .246 1.488 .390 .246 1.477 .264 .261 1.303
Adoption altruism .196 .213 1.217 .058 .317 1.060
Adoption familiarity .559*** .095 1.749
Friends and relatives’ experience with adoption .962*** .199 2.618
Attitudes toward adopted children −.526** .179 0.591
Attitudes toward children −.472 .273 0.623
Importance to blood ties −.478* .244 0.620
Adoption approval 1.399** .477 4.053
R2 .056 .057 .216
Note. OR = odds ratio. Male; race-other; income, SGD < 500; tertiary education; single, divorced, or widowed; friends and relatives no experience
721
with adoption; and no children are the reference categories.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
(2.016). Married individuals were less likely to consider adopting a child

(B = −.61, p = .022). Contrary to expectations, adoption-related altruistic
values were not significantly related to intention to adopt.
Discussion
This benchmark study was conducted with the twofold objective of describ-
ing attitudes toward adoption and the factors associated with adoption
approval and intention to adopt in Singapore. The results show that a majority
of the respondents held a positive attitude toward adoption in general, consis-
tent with the findings of existing studies (Princeton Survey Research, 1997;
Miall & March, 2000; National Adoption Attitudes Survey, 2002). However,
respondents’ attitudes toward different types of adoption contradict the find-
ings of earlier studies. For example, a higher proportion of Singaporeans
reported a positive attitude toward international and transracial adoption than
has been reported in previous studies (National Adoption Attitudes Survey,
2002; Princeton Survey Research, 1997). This is not surprising given the
sociodemographic and cultural landscape of Singapore, a city-state in Asia
that currently has a below-replacement fertility rate. There are less numbers
of children available for adoption domestically; therefore, Singaporeans may
be particularly open to adopting children internationally. Furthermore, in
contrast to those in Western countries, most international adoptions in
Singapore are same-race adoptions. Singapore is the only country in Asia that
receives large numbers of children for adoption from around the region. Most
of them come from nearby countries such as China, Indonesia, India, and
Malaysia, reflecting Singapore’s ethnic groups.
Regarding open adoptions, Singaporeans seemed to be inclined more
toward closed adoption than open adoption. Perhaps this could be because of
the belief that contact with the biological parents may interfere with bonding
in the adoptive family (Berry, 1993; MacDonald & McSherry, 2011), and it
may also confuse the adoptee’s sense of positive identity and challenge
parental role identity (McSherry et al., 2008; Turkington & Taylor, 2009).
Ethnic differences in the respondents’ attitudes toward different types of
adoption are of particular interest. Malays were favorable toward open adop-
tion and preferred to adopt from within families. The favorable attitudes
among Malays toward open adoption may reflect religious teaching, because
Islamic law emphasizes that the child’s biological status should never be
severed and that Muslims who adopt a child are advised to keep the father’s
name if the child’s real father is a Muslim (Mohd, 2009). Indians and Malays
are more favorable toward transracial adoption than Chinese. As mentioned
previously, transracial adoption was more prevalent historically among the
Mohanty 723
Malay Muslims and Indian communities in Singapore, whereas the Chinese

practiced same-race adoptions (Heng, 1957).
Factors Associated With Attitudes Toward Adoption Approval

and Intention to Adopt
The hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the attitudinal variables
explained a higher percentage of variance than the value and sociodemo-
graphic variables. The findings reinforce those of previous studies, which
show that the factors influencing adoption approval and intention to adopt are
complex and multidynamic. Regarding demographic characteristics, women
and those with higher incomes (more than SGD 3,000) were more likely to
approve of adoption. The findings are consistent with previous studies that
have found women to be generally more open and supportive of adoption
than men (Gibbons, Rufener, & Wilson, 2006; National Adoption Attitudes
Survey, 2002). Similarly, those with incomes of more than SGD 3,000 were
more likely to approve of adoption. This finding is consistent with previous
research indicating that people with higher education, an important indicator
of socioeconomic status, are more likely to approve of adoption (Princeton
Survey Research, 1997). In accordance with the findings of previous research
(National Adoption Attitudes Survey, 2002), this study also found that age
was not a significant factor affecting attitudes toward adoption.
Altruistic values toward adopted children were significantly associated
with positive attitudes toward adoption. Values are abstract concepts and
influence prosocial behavior in a variety of contexts and thus are the corner-
stones of attitudes and opinions, especially in situations where information is
scarce. Given the dearth of awareness programs in Singapore, it is not sur-
prising to note that there is little awareness of adoption among the general
public. In such situations, people may fall back on their value system to view
adoption either favorably or unfavorably. Therefore, the altruistic values
related to adoption may positively influence adoption approval. Though not
specific to the context of adoption, the current line of reasoning is consistent
with studies that have found that altruistic values positively predict prosocial
behavior and concerns (Schmidt, Shumow, & Kackar, 2007). However, altru-
istic value was not a significant predictor of intention to adopt. Perhaps the
desire to have an heir may supersede humanitarian considerations. Clearly,
there is a need for more research in this area to understand the role of altruism
in shaping attitudes and behavior.
In this study, I aimed to extend earlier research to examine whether attitu-
dinal variables predict approval of adoption and intention to adopt. The
results show that attitudinal variables explained the largest percentage of
variance associated with adoption approval and intention to adopt. Importance

of blood ties emerged as a significant predictor of adoption approval and
intention to adopt, providing support for Hypothesis 4. This finding is consis-
tent with Kirk (1964) but is in contrast to Bausch (2006), who found the
biological conception of kinship was not significant among a sample of 185
married individuals in the United States. The mean score of 2.41 for blood
ties suggests that Singapore society is still holding on to its notion of family
and the importance of blood ties in family formation.
As hypothesized, attitude toward adopted children was significantly and
negatively related to intention to adopt; however, it was not significantly
related to adoption approval. This finding is consistent with previous research
that has found that parents are concerned about the outcome of adopted chil-
dren and look for information related to the child’s medical and social back-
ground (Lebner, 2000). The findings related to adoption approval and
intention to adopt provide support for the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen,
1991), which suggests that attitudes are an important determinant of intention
and finally the behavior itself.
It is pertinent to discuss some of the limitations of the present study at this
juncture. The purposive sampling and nonrandom nature of the survey data
limits generalization of the findings to the general Singaporean population.
The interviewers were professionals who were experienced in survey
research and who underwent specific training in the context of the present
study. However, it is possible that the respondents may have downplayed
their negative opinions toward adoption. Another issue relates to the ques-
tion measuring intent to adopt. One could have considered adopting in the
past seriously, but might now be “not at all serious” about doing so. However,
the pilot test did not uncover any problems related to this question and the
findings are in the expected direction, providing evidence for construct
validity. Finally, the study focused on attitudes and did not measure the
behavioral component, such as whether the respondents had taken active
steps to adopt a child through contacting adoption agencies or reading the
literature on adoption.
Despite the aforementioned limitations, the study has important implica-
tions for both practice and research. The positive relationship between familiar-
ity with adoption and approval of adoption and intention to adopt highlights the
need to sensitize the public toward adoption and adoption triad members. It is
important that social workers develop and implement education and awareness
programs on adoption issues and services. Such knowledge might also help
modify attitudes toward different types of family formation rather than focus-
ing solely on biological ties. The findings related to the perceived importance
of blood ties and attitudes toward adoption raise some concerns. Research has
Mohanty 725
shown that adoptive family members experience stigma because of the lack of
blood ties in their family structure (Kirk, 1964; Miall, 1987). They may feel
that their adoptive parenthood is second best (Maill, 1987). In addition, adop-
tees may feel ambiguous about their adoptive status (March, 1995). Negative
attitudes may also prevent adoptive families from accessing services. Adoption
agencies should play an active role in organizing events and activities to pro-
mote positive perceptions and debunk the myths about adoption triad members.
Furthermore, adoption agencies and social workers working with adoption
triad members should provide support to help them deal with stigma and
discrimination.
With regard to future research, this study presents baseline information on
adoption attitudes that may inform future research in Singapore and other
Asian countries. There is also a need to conduct attitudinal studies among
social workers and adoption agencies that provide services to adoption triad
members. Finally, future research may also examine how both adoptees and
adoptive parents perceive people’s attitudes toward adoption and their effect
on adoptive family functioning. There is a need for programs to raise the
general public’s awareness of the various issues and concerns of adoptive
triad members and the important role of adoption in creating families in
Singapore. As a society, if we want our families to be strong and stable, we
need to be sensitive toward the specific needs of adoptive families and pro-
vide the support they need, so that they can grow in a happy and enriching
environment.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
Funding for this research was supported by the Singapore Ministry of Education
Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (R-134-000-065-112).
Note
1. The Adoption of Children (Amendment) Act was passed in 1972. The Act recog-
nized adopted children as the legal children of the adoptive parents and the regis-
tration of the date of birth and names of adopted children was made compulsory.
References
Ahmad, I. (1975). Adoption in India: A study of attitudes. Indian Journal of Social
Work, 36, 181-190.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and

Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2000). Attitudes and the attitude-behavior relation: Reasoned
and automatic processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 11, 1-33.
Arkin, H., & Colton, R. R. (1969). Tables for statisticians. New York, NY: Barnes
& Nobel.
Balen, F. V., Verdurmen, J., & Ketting, E. (1997). Choices and motivations of infer-
tile couples. Patient Education and Counseling, 31, 19-27.
Bausch, R. S. (2006). Predicting willingness to adopt a child: A consideration of
demographic and attitudinal factors. Sociological Perspectives, 49(1), 47-65.
Berry, M. (1993). Risks and benefits of open adoption. Future of Children, 3, 125-138.
Cantor-Graae, E., & Pedersen, C. B. (2007). Risk for schizophrenia in intercountry
adoptees: A Danish population-based cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology
and Psychiatry, 48, 1053-1060.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2012). World factbook. Retrieved from https://www.
cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2127.html
Deiner, P. L., Wilson, N. J., & Unger, D. G. (1988). Motivation and characteristics
of families who adopt children with special needs. Topics in Early Childhood
Special Education, 8, 15-29.
Department of Statistics Singapore. (2000). Singapore census of population. Retrieved
from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2000/
census_stat_release4.html
Department of Statistics Singapore. (2010). Singapore census of population. Retrieved
from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/
census10_adr.html
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An intro-
duction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Gibbons, J. L., & Brown, C. M. (2012). Modeling adoption attitudes: Recalled mater-
nal warmth, affection for children, and parenting motivation. Adoption Quarterly,
15, 140-156.
Gibbons, J. L., Rufener, C. A., & Wilson, S. L. (2006). Sex differences in adoption
attitudes. Adoption Quarterly, 9, 105-119.
Gillmore, M. R., Archibald, M. E., Morrison, D. M., Wilsdon, A., Wells, E. A.,
Hoppe, M. J., & Murowchick, E. (2002). Teen sexual behavior: Applicability
of the theory of reasoned action. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 885-891.
Gracia, E., & Herrero, J. (2006). Public attitudes toward reporting partner violence
against women and reporting behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68,
759-768.
Hjern, A., Lindblad, F., & Vinnerljung, B. (2001). Suicide, psychiatric illness, and
social maladjustment in intercountry adoptees in Sweden: A cohort study. Lancet,
360, 443-448.
Heng, H. N. (1957). The adopted child, with particular reference to the child adopted
into a family of a different race (Unpublished manuscript). Singapore.
Mohanty 727
Hoe, A. W. N. (1959). Adoption and the natural mother. Unpublished manuscript,

Singapore.
Islam Online. (2005). What future for Muslim orphans? Retrieved from http://www.
islamonline.net/
Kirk, D. H. (1964). Shared fate: A theory of adoption and mental health. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada: Collier-Macmillan.
Koropeckyj-Cox, T., & Pendell, G. (2007). The gender gap in attitudes about child-
lessness in the United States. Journal of Marriages and Family, 69, 899-915.
Lebner, A. (2000). Genetic “mysteries” and international adoption: The cultural
impact of biomedical technologies on the adoptive family experience. Family
Relations, 49, 371-377.
Lovelock, K. (2000). Incountry adoption as a migratory practice: A comparative
analysis of intercountry adoption and immigration policy and practice in the
United States, Canada and New Zealand in the post W.W. II period. International
Migration Review, 34, 907-949.
March, K. (1995). Perception of adoption as social stigma: Motivation for search and
reunion. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 653-660.
MacDonald, M., & McSherry, D. (2011). Open adoption: Adoptive parents’ experi-
ences of birth family contact and talking to their child about adoption. Adoption
& Fostering, 35, 4-16.
McSherry, D., Larkin, E., Fargas, M., Kelly, G., Robinson, C., Macdonald, G., &
Kilpatrick, R. (2008). From care to where? A care pathways and outcomes report
for practitioners. Belfast, Northern Ireland: Institute of Child Care Research,
Queen University Belfast.
Miall, C. E. (1987). The stigma of adoptive parent status: Perceptions of commu-
nity attitudes toward adoption and the experience of informal social sanctioning.
Family Relations, 36, 34-39.
Miall, E. C., & March, K. (2000). Social support for adoption in Canada. Preliminary
findings of a Canada-wide survey. Retrieved from http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/
sociology/faculty/Miall-News.pdf
Ministry of Community Development, Youth and Sports. (2009). Singapore’s second
and third periodic report to the United Nations Committee on the rights of the
child. Singapore: Author.
Ministry of Manpower. (2011). Report on labour force in Singapore. Retrieved from
http://www.mom.gov.sg/statistics-publications/national-labour-market-informa-
tion/publications/pages/report-labour-force-2011.aspx
Mohd, A. (2009). Protection and adoption of abandoned children in Malaysia: A
comparative overview with Islamic law. Shah Alam, Malaysia: International Law
Book Services.
National Adoption Attitude Survey. (2002). Retrieved from http://www.adoptionin-
stitute.org/survey/survey_intro.html
National Population and Talent Division. (2012). Occasional paper: Marriage and
parenthood trends in Singapore. Retrieved from https://www.nptd.gov.sg/con-
tent/dam/nptd/Occasional%20Paper%20on%20MP%20Trends%20_For%20
Media%20Briefing%2028%20Jun%202012_.pdf
Princeton Survey Research. (1997). Benchmark Adoption Survey: Report on the

findings. Retrieved from http://www.adoptioninstitute.org/survey/Benchmark_
Survey_1997.pdf
Raju, S. (1999). Study on social attitudes towards child adoption in Mumbai. Retrieved
from http://csa.org.in/sites/default/files/WHITE_PAPER_ON_ADOPTIONS.pdf
Schmidt, J. A., Shumow, L., & Kackar, H. (2007). Adolescents’ participation in
service activities and its impact on academic, behavioural, and civic outcomes.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 127-140.
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical
advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances
in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-65). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Singapore Government. (2008). Report on the registration of births and deaths, mar-
riages, and persons. Singapore: Author.
Turner, D., & Nachtigall, R. D. (2010). The experience of infertility by low-income
immigrant Latino couples: Attitudes toward adoption. Adoption Quarterly, 13(1),
18-33.
Turkington, S., & Taylor, B. (2009). Post-adoption face-to-face contact with birth
parents: Prospective adopters’ views. Child Care in Practice, 15, 21-38.
Tyebjee, T. (2003). Attitudes, interest, and motivation for adoption and foster care.
Child Welfare, 82, 685-706.
United Nations. (2009). Child adoption: Trends and policies. Retrieved from http://
www.un.org/esa/population/publications/adoption2010/child_adoption.pdf
Verhulst, F. C., Althaus, M., & Versluis-Den Bieman, H. J. M. (1990). Problem
behavior in international adoptees: Age at placement. Journal of the American
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 104-111.
Waltner, A. (1990). Getting an heir: Adoption and the construction of kinship in late
imperial China. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii.
Westhues, A., & Cohen, J. (1997). A comparison of the adjustment of adolescent and
young adult inter-country adoptees and their siblings. International Journal of
Behavioral Development, 20, 47-65.

Attitudes Toward Adoption in Spore

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Attitudes Toward Adoption in Spore

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

500962

1National University of Singapore, Singapore

evidence that indicate attitude as one of the important precursors to intention

Adoption of Children in Singapore

Previous Research on Adoption Attitudes

Importance of Blood Ties

Islamic beliefs and practices are completely antithetical to the concept of

Altruism and Adoption

Familiarity With Adoption

Concerns About Outcomes for Adopted Children

Attitudes Toward Children

Sociodemographic Characteristics and Adoption

Research Questions and Hypotheses

more positive toward intrafamily adoption than extrafamily/non-

Intention to adopt. To measure intention to adopt, we adapted an item

Adoption-related altruism. Five items were developed to measure adoption-

Familiarity with adoption. Two items measured familiarity with adoption:

Concerns about outcomes for adopted children. Six items were adopted

Attitudes toward children. Three items measured general attitudes toward

Sociodemographic variables. Sociodemographic variables were age, gen-

Data Analyses. Hierarchical logistic regression analyses were conducted to

Attitudes Toward Adoption

Factors Related to Attitudes Toward Adoption

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables Based on Complete Cases

Age 38.12 11.67

a. Income—Monthly personal income.

Within family Outside

Education ns 9.09* 30.38*** ns

*p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001.

Model 1 Model 2 Model3

Adoption-related altruism was entered in the second block and explained

Factors Related to Intention to Adopt

Model 1 Model 2 Model3

(2.016). Married individuals were less likely to consider adopting a child

Malay Muslims and Indian communities in Singapore, whereas the Chinese

Factors Associated With Attitudes Toward Adoption Approval

variance associated with adoption approval and intention to adopt. Importance

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and

Hoe, A. W. N. (1959). Adoption and the natural mother. Unpublished manuscript,

Princeton Survey Research. (1997). Benchmark Adoption Survey: Report on the

You might also like

p <.05. p <.01. p <.001.