Thermodynamics

Rules in class
Stop me when you do not understand
Ask me when you have questions
Class interactivies – be active: speak and discuss.
Drop the class if your mid-exam result is E.
No mobile phones – no taking photographs
Take notes!
 Course Overview
Required Textbook
M. J. Moran and H. N. Shapiro,
Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,
7th edition
Reference Book
Cengel and Boles
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
Grades Weight Factors
Assignment+Quiz - 30%
Midterm Exam - 30%
Final Exam – 35%
Class Participation – 5%
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 Course Overview
Topics Covered
– Basic concepts of Thermodynamics.
– Work, Heat and Energy.
– Conservation of Energy (First Law), Internal
Energy. Evaluating properties
– Second Law of Thermodynamics. Entropy
and its application.
– Vapor and gas power systems.
– Internal combustion engine. Gas engine.
– Refrigeration and heat pumps systems.

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 What do you know about…
1. Energy, work and heat
2. 1st law of thermodynamics
3. 2nd law of thermodynamics
4. Vapor power plant
5. Gas power plant
6. Gasoline engine
7. Diesel engine
8. Refrigerator

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 VAPOR POWER PLANT

• Chemical energy • Heat energy • Mechanical energy

• Heat energy • Mechanical energy • Electrical energy
Vapor power plant (Fuel / gas)
Vapor power plant
(Coal)
Combined cycle power plant
Combined cycle power plant
Gas turbine
Jet Engine
Four-stroke engine
 Chapter 1

Introductory Concepts and

Definitions
 Learning Outcomes

►Demonstrate understanding of several

fundamental concepts used throughout this
book.
►Including closed system, control volume,
boundary and surroundings, property, state,
process, the distinction between extensive and
intensive properties, and equilibrium.

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 Learning Outcomes, cont.

►Apply SI and English Engineering units,

including units for specific volume, pressure,
and temperature.
►Work with the Kelvin, Rankine, Celsius, and
Fahrenheit temperature scales.
►Apply the problem-solving methodology used
in this book.

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 What is Thermodynamics?

• Greek: therme = heat and dynamis = power

(The science of energy)
• Lord Kelvin  used for the first time the
word thermodynamics in 1849
• Macroscopic Approach = Classical
Thermodynamics (State and Process)
• Microscopical Approach = Statistical
thermodynamics
• Application areas … are many.

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Applications
 Defining Systems
►System: whatever we want to study;
(Quantity of mass or region in space)
►Surroundings: everything external to the
system.
►Boundary: separates system from its
surroundings. Can be fixed or movable.
Surroundings Boundary
Surroundings
Surroundings System
Surroundings
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 Closed System (Control mass)
►A system that always
contains the same matter
(same mass).
►No transfer of mass
across its boundary can
occur.
►Isolated system: special
type of closed system that
does not interact in any
way with its surroundings
(no energy crosses its
boundary)
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 Control Volume (Open System)
►A given region of space through which mass
flows.
►Mass may cross the boundary of a CV
►Boundary of CV is called Control Surface (real or
imaginary)
Automobile
Engine

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 Selecting System Boundary
Example: compressor and tank

►Boundary 1: How long will the compressor operate?

►Boundary 2: What is the electric power input?
Boundary 1
Boundary 2

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 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views

Systems can be described by:

►microscopic approach: statistical means the average
behavior of the particles making up a system and use this
information to describe the overall behavior of the system.
►macroscopic approach: gross effects of the particles making
up the system – specifically, effects that can be measured by
instruments such a pressure gages and thermometers.

Engineering thermodynamics predominately uses the

macroscopic approach.

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 Property

►A macroscopic characteristic of a system to

which a numerical value can be assigned at a
given time without knowledge of the previous
behavior of the system.
►For the system shown, examples include:
►Mass
►Volume
►Energy Gas
►Pressure
►Temperature
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 Extensive Property

►Depends on the size or extent of a system.

►Its value for an overall system is the sum of its
values for the parts into which the system is divided.
►Its value may vary with time but not position.

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 Intensive Property
►Independent of the size or extent of a system.
►Its value is not additive as for extensive
properties.
►May vary from place to place within the system
at any moment – function of both position and
time.

Give examples of extensive and intensive

properties!
Extensive: mass, volume, energy.
Examples: pressure, temperature. 1-26
 Extensive & Intensive Properties
Give examples of extensive and intensive properties!
Extensive: mass, volume, energy.
Intensive: pressure, temperature.
 Types of Properties

• Extensive
– Depends on mass of system
– Examples: mass, volume,
energy, etc.
• Intensive
– Independent of mass
– Examples: pressure and
temperature.
• Specific
– Extensive property divided
by mass of the system

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 State
►The condition of a system as described by its
properties.
►Example: The state of the system shown is
described by p, V, T,….
►The state often can be specified by providing the
values of a subset of its properties. All other
properties can be determined in terms of these few.
State: p, V, T, …

Gas

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 Process
►A transformation from one state to another.
►When any of the properties of a system
changes, the state changes, and the system is
said to have undergone a process.
►Example: Since V2 > V1, at least one property
value changed, and the gas has undergone a
process from State 1 to State 2.
State 1: p1, V1, T1, … State 2: p2, V2, T2, …

Gas Gas

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 Types of Processes

Isothermal  ΔT = 0
Isobaric  Δp = 0
Isochoric  ΔV = 0
Adiabatic  No heat transfer
Other important terms: Steady flow  constant
mass flow rate, Steady state  system
properties ≠ f(t)

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 Thermodynamic Cycle

►A sequence of processes that begins and ends

at the same state.
 Phase
►A quantity of matter that is continuous throughout
in both chemical composition and physical structure.
►A system can contains one or more phases.
The three principal phases:

Solid Liquid Gas

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 Phase

►How many phases?

►air ►Single gas phase
►a mixture of water and ►Two phases
water vapour
►alcohol-water mixture ►Single liquid phase
►oil-water mixture ►Two liquid phases

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 Pure Substance

►Uniform and invariable in chemical composition.

►Can exist in more than one phase, but its chemical
composition must be the same in each phase.
►Example: a two-phase system containing liquid
water and water vapour.

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 Equilibrium
►When a system is isolated, it does not interact with
its surroundings; however, its state can change as a
consequence of spontaneous events occurring
internally as its intensive properties such as
temperature and pressure tend toward uniform
values. When all such changes cease, the system is
at an equilibrium state.
►Equilibrium states and processes from one
equilibrium state to another equilibrium state play
important roles in thermodynamic analysis.

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Equilibrium
 Quasi-equilibrium

• Quasi-equilibrium or quasi-static process: A

process conducted in such a manner that the
system is almost in thermodynamic
equilibrium at every stage of this process.
 Units, System of Units
►A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by
comparison with which any other quantity of the
same kind is measured (e.g., meter, kilometers,
feet, and miles are all units of length).
►Two systems of units:
►Metric SI System (Système International
d’Unités)
• Simple, based on decimal relationship
►English Engineering System of units.
• no apparent systematic numerical base

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 Dimensions and Units
►Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions ant their magnitude is called unit.
►Primary or
Fundamental
Dimensions 

►Secondary
or derived
dimensions:
Expressed in terms of the primary dimensions)
Eg: Velocity v, energy E, and volume V
SI Unit Prefixes
Other prefixes
1024 - yotta, Y
1021 - zetta, Z
1018 - exa, E
1015 - peta, P

10-15 - femto, a
10-18 – atto, a
10-21 - zepto, z
10-24 - yocto, y
 Units: Example

Mass, length, and time are base units and force has a unit
derived from them using,
F = ma – Newton Second Law of Motion
SI: 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2) = 1 kg∙m/s2
English: 1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2) = 32.1740 lb∙ft/s2
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 Derived Units: Examples
Work = force x distance [J]
SI: 1J = 1 N * m
English system: Btu (British thermal unit) =
energy required to raise the temperature of 1
lbm of H2O at 68°F by 1°F.
Calorie(cal): 1g H2O: 14,5°C by 1°C.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1Btu = 1055.1J = 1.0551 KJ
Power [W] = time rate of energy [J/s]
1 kW = 1.34 Horsepower
KW and KWh! | 1KWh = 3600 kJ
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 Dimensional homogeneity

►All equations must be dimensionally

homogeneous.
►Excellent tool to spot errors

IMPORTANT!
To be dimensionally homogeneous,
all the terms in an equation must
have the same unit.
 Source of errors: lb, lbf, lbm
►lbm (lb) – pound mass
= 0.4536 Kg (MASS)
►lbf – pound force
(FORCE)
UM: lbf (lbm·ft/s2)

Force and mass

are fundamentally
different!
 Weight and Mass!
► Weight is not mass,
it is force: F = m·g
g = 9.807 m/s2
= 32.174 ft/s2
(gravitational acc.)
► Weight of 200 lb or
200 Kg is wrong!
(Scales should show
Newtons or lbf)
► If you jump on scale
the weight changes!
► In space w/ no g scale will show “0” NO MASS?
 Density (r) and Specific Volume (v)
►Density is mass per unit volume
r = m / V kg/m3 (SI) or lb/ft3(English)
►Specific volume is volume per unit mass and
is the reciprocal of density: v = 1/r .
►Specific volume is an intensive property that
may vary from point to point.
►SI units: (m3/kg), English units: (ft3/lb).
Specific volume is usually preferred for
thermodynamic analysis when working with
gases that typically have small density values.
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 Pressure (p)
►Consider a small area A passing through a point
in a fluid at rest.
►The fluid on one side of the area exerts a
compressive force that is normal to the area, Fnormal.
An equal but oppositely directed force is exerted on
the area by the fluid on the other side.
►The pressure (p) at the specified point is defined
as the limit
 Fnormal 
p  lim  
A A '  A 
where A' is the area at the “point”: the smallest area for
which a definite value of the ratio exists.

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 Pressure Units (Many!)
►SI unit of pressure is the pascal:
1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
Multiples of the Pascal are frequently used:
►1 kPa = 103 N/m2 ; 1 MPa = 106 N/m2
►1 bar = 105 N/m2
►1 atm (standard atmosphere) = 101,325 N/m2
►Other: mmHG, torr(1 mmHG) 1 mmHg = 1 Torr
= 133.3Pa
►English units for pressure are:
►pounds force per square foot, lbf/ft2
►pounds force per square inch, lbf/in.2 (PSI)
►1 Atm = 14.696 PSI 1-49
 Absolute Pressure
►Absolute pressure: Pressure with respect to
the zero pressure of a complete vacuum.
►Absolute pressure MUST be used in
thermodynamic relations.
►Pressure-measuring devices often indicate
the difference between the absolute pressure of
a system and the absolute pressure of the
atmosphere outside the measuring device.

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 Gage and Vacuum Pressure

►When system pressure is greater than

atmospheric pressure, the term gage pressure is
used.
p(gage) = p(absolute) – patm(absolute)

►When atmospheric pressure is greater than

system pressure, the term vacuum pressure is used.
p(vacuum) = patm(absolute) – p(absolute)

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Gage and Vacuum Pressure

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Bourdon Tube Gage: Details

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 Temperature (T)
►If two blocks (one warmer than the other) are
brought into contact and isolated from their
surroundings, they would interact thermally
with changes in observable properties.
►When all changes in observable properties
cease, the two blocks are in thermal
equilibrium.
►Temperature is a physical property that
determines whether the two objects are in
thermal equilibrium.

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 Temperature (T)
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies
are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the
zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature
reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies
reaching thermal
equilibrium in
isolated enclosure.
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 Temperature Scales(1)
►Kelvin scale: An absolute thermodynamic temperature
scale whose unit of temperature is the kelvin (K); the SI base
unit for temperature.
►Rankine scale: An absolute thermodynamic temperature
scale with absolute zero that coincides with the absolute zero
of the Kelvin scale; the English base unit for temperature.
T(oR) = 1.8T(K)

►Celsius scale (oC):

T(oC) = T(K) – 273.15
►Fahrenheit scale (oF):
T(oF) = T(oR) – 459.67

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 Temperature Scales(2)

►Rankine Scale(oR):
T(oR) = 1.8T(K)
►Celsius scale (oC):
T(oC) = T(K) – 273.15

►Fahrenheit scale (oF):

T(oF) = T(oR) – 459.67
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 Problem-Solving Methodology
Use step-by-step process: reduce complicated
problem to solution of series of simple problems

Design
Constrains

Analysis:
Engineering
Model

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 Problem-Solving Methodology
►Problem Statement / Known: Read the
problem, think about it, and identify what is known.
►Find: State what is to be determined.
►Schematic: Draw a sketch of system and label
with all relevant information/data.
►Engineering Model: List all simplifying
assumptions/ idealizations and approximations
made. Physical Laws. Properties.
►Calculations / Analysis: Reduce appropriate
governing equations and relationships to forms that
will produce the desired results.
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Example: Solving Methodology
►Known
►Find
►Schematic:
►Engineering
Model
►Calculations
/ Analysis

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