1989 Book ViscousFlowApplications

Topics in
Boundary Element
Research
Edited byC.A.Brebbia
VolumeS
Viscous Flow Applications
With 64 Figures and 9 Tables
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg NewYork

London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
Editor:
Dr. Carlos A. Brebbia
Computational Mechanics Institute

Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst
Southampton S04 2AA
UK
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-83685-5 e-ISBN-13 :978-3-642-83683-1

DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-83683-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

(Revised for volume 5)
Topics in boundary element research.
Includes bibliographies .and indexes.
Contents: v.l. Basic principles and applications - v.2. Time-dependent and vibration
problems - [etc.] - v. 5. Viscous flow applications.
1. Boundary value problems. 2. Transients (Dynamics) 3. Vibration. I. Brebbia, C.A.
TA347.B69T67 1984 620'.001'51535 84-10644
ISBN-13:978-3-642-83685-5 (v. 1.: New York)
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965,
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under the prosecution act of the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg 1989
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1989
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even
in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Typesetting: Asco Trade Typesetting Ltd., Hong Kong
2161/3020-5432 1 0 - Printed on acid-free paper

Contributors
A. Alujevic University of Maribor, Yugoslavia (Chap. 4)
G. Bezine Laboratoire de Mecanique des Solides, (Chap. 8)

Poitiers, France
D. Bonneau Laboratoire de Mecanique des Solides, (Chap. 8)

Poitiers, France
C. A. Brebbia Computational Mechanics, (Chap. 2)

Southampton, UK (Chap. 4)
(Chap. 5)
M. B. Bush University of Western Australia, (Chap. 7)

Nedlands, Australia
J. J. Connor Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (Chap. 2)

Cambridge, USA
U. Gulcat Istanbul Institute of Technology, Turkey (Chap. 3)
K. Kitagawa Toshiba Corp., Consumer Products (Chap. 1)

Engineering Laboratory, Yokohama, (Chap. 5)
Japan
G. Kuhn University of Nuremberg-Erlangen, FRG (Chap. 4)
N. L. Sankar Georgia Institute of Technology, (Chap. 3)

Atlanta, USA
H. Schmitt Deutsche Forschungs- und Versuchsanstalt (Chap. 6)

fUr Luft- und Raumfahrt (DFVLR),
Gottingen, FRG
G. R. Schneider Deutsche Forschungs- und Versuchsanstalt (Chap. 6)

fUr Luft- und Raumfahrt (DFVLR),
Gottingen, FRG
VI Contributors
P. Skerget University of Maribor, Yugoslavia (Chap. 4)
M. Tanaka Shinshu University, Nagano, Japan (Chap. 5)
C. M. Wang Georgia Institute of Technology, (Chap. 3)

Atlanta, USA
J.C.Wu Georgia Institute of Technology, (Chap. 3)

Atlanta, USA
Preface
The Boundary Element Method has now become a powerful tool of

engineering analysis and is routinely applied for the solution of elastostatics
and potential problems. More recently research has concentrated on solving a
large variety of non-linear and time dependent applications and in particular
the method has been developed for viscous fluid flow problems.
This book presents the state of the art on the solution of viscous flow using
boundary elements and discusses different current approaches which have been
validated by numerical experiments. .
Chapter 1 of the book presents a brief review of previous work on viscous
flow simulation and in particular gives an up-to-date list of the most important
BEM references in the field. Chapter 2 reviews the governing equations for
general viscous flow, including compressibility. The authors present a compre-
hensive treatment of the different cases and their formulation in terms of
boundary integral equations. This work has been the result of collaboration
between Computational Mechanics Institute of Southampton and Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology researchers. Chapter 3 describes the gen-
eralized formulation for unsteady viscous flow problems developed over many
years at Georgia Institute of Technology. This formulation has been extensively
applied to solve aer09ynamic problems.
The approach followed in Chapter 4 is the velocity-vorticity formulation plus
the inclusion of special integral expressions for the energy equation and the
computation of pressure fields. The approach has been validated by numerical
experiments and represents the work carried out at Computational Mechanics
Institute, University of Maribor and the University of Nuremberg.
The procedure proposed in Chapter 5 for the solution of steady state Navier-
Stokes type problems is different from that in Chapters 2 and 3 as it is based on
a pseudo-body force formulation employing the penalty function approach.
This technique has been developed at Toshiba in collaboration with Comput-
ational Mechanics Institute.
Chapter 6 discusses how the boundary layer effect can be introduced in
potential flow. It deals with the coupling of FDM and BEM. The authors at
DFVLR Gottingen proposed solving the boundary layer flow using finite
difference and then combining that solution with boundary elements for the
outer flow.
Chapter 7 is based on the research carried out at Western Australia
University for the solution of non-Newtonian fluids using also a concept of
VIII Preface
"pseudo forces" related to that described in Chapter 4. The last chapter of the
book deals with the solution of Stokes flow as a particular type of viscous fluid.
This book presents the state of the art in BEM solution of viscous flow
problems and describes the work carried out up to now at the most important
boundary element research centres. It is essential reading for any scientists or
engineers who need to be aware of the applications of the new method in this
important field.
Southampton, July 1989 Carlos A. Brebbia

Editor
Contents
1 A BRIEF REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK ON VISCOUS

FLOW SIMULATION 1
1.1 Introduction . 1
1.2 Review of Work on Boundary Elements 2
References . 4
2 BOUNDARY ELEMENT FORMULATION FOR VISCOUS

COMPRESSIBLE FWW 10
2.1.1 Finite Differences 10
2.1.2 Finite Elements . 10
2.1.3 Finite Volume 11
2.1.4 Boundary Elements 11
2.2 Proposed Approach . 11
2.3 Statement of the Problems-Governing Equations for
Compressible Fluid Flow. 14
2.3.1 The Navier Stokes Equations. 15
2.3.2 Turbulent Flow Equations 18
2.4 State of the Art in Boundary Elements for Fluids. 20
2.4.1 Basic Integral Equations-Two-Dimensional Case. 21
2.4.2 Procedure for Incompressible Flow 24
2.4.3 Integral Formulation-Three-Dimensional Case. 25
2.4.4 Procedure for Compressible Flow 26
References ., . 29
3 A GENERALIZED FORMULATION FOR UNSTEADY

VISCOUS FLOW PROBLEMS 32
3.2 Mathematical Formulation. 35
3.2.1 Coordinate Transformation. 37
3.2.2 Simplifications in the Boundary Layer Region . 37
3.2.3 Surface Vorticity Determination. 38
3.3 Numerical Formulation 39
3.4 Results and Discussions 40
3.5 Concluding Remarks 47
Acknowledgement. 47
References . 47
X Contents
4 NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTION SIMULATION

USING THE VELOCITY-VORTICITY APPROACH. 49
4.1 Introduction . . . . 49
4.2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Boundary Integral Equation for Flow Kinematics 53
4.4.1 BIE for Stream Function . 53
4.4.2 Vector Elliptic Equation 53
4.4.3 BIE for Vector Potential 55
4.4.4 BIE for External Flows 56
4.4.5 Plane Flow . . . . . . 57
4.5 Discretisation of the BIE for Flow Kinematics. 57
4.5.1 Discretised BIE of Plane Flow Kinematics . . 57
4.5.2 Discretised BIE fo the Kinematics for the 3 D Flow . 59
4.6 Boundary Integral Equation for the Flow Kinetics 61
4.6.1 BIE for Kinetics of Plane Flows. . . . 62
4.6.2 BIE for Kinetics of 3D Flows. . . . . . . 63
4.7 Discretised BIE for the Kinetics of Flow . . 65
4.7.1 Discretised BIE for Kinetics of Plane Flows . 65
4.7.2 Discretised BIE of the Kinetics for 3D Flow. 67
4.8 Boundary Integral Equation fot Energy Transport 70
4.9 Discretised Energy Transport Equation. 71
4.10 Computational Scheme 73
4.11 Boundary Conditions . . . . 74
4.12 Numerical Examples. . . . . 75
4.12.1 Thermally Driven Cavity Flow 75
4.12.2 Channel Flow over a Square Obstacle 77
4.12.3 Natural Convection from a Cylinder in a Closed Cavity. 81
4.12.4 Natural Convection form a Cylinder in an Open Space 81
4.13 Conclusion. 84
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5 A BOUNDARY ELEMENT ANALYSIS FOR THERMAL

CONVECTION PROBLEMS 87
5.1 Introduction . . 87
5.2 Theory· . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.2.1 Basic Equations. . . . . . . 88
5.2.2 Boundary Integral Formulations 90
5.2.3 Evaluation of Convective Terms. 92
5.3 Numerical Implementation. . . 93
5.3.1 Boundary-Domain Element Discretization 94
5.3.2 Self-adaptive Coordinate Transformation Technique 95
5.3.3 Iterative Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4 Numerical Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4.1 Evaluation of Quasi-singular Boundary Integrals. 96
5.4.2 Square Cavity Flow Problem 103
5.4.3 Evaluation of Pressure Field . . . . . . . . . 105
Contents XI
5.5 Conclusion. . . . 107

Acknowledgement. 107
References . . . . 107
6 CALCULATION OF THE POTENTIAL FLOW WITH

CONSIDERATION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER 110
6.1 Introduction . . 110
6.2 Potential Flow . 112
6.3 Boundary Layer 117
6.4 Example . . 119
6.5 Conclusions 127
References . 128
7 APPLICATIONS IN NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID

MECHANICS . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.2 The Behaviour of Non-Newtonian Liquids 135
7.3 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4 Boundary Integral Formulations and Solution Methods. 143
7.5 Applications 148
7.6 Conclusions 158
References . 158
8 VISCOUS FLUID MECHANICS. 161

Abstract . . . . . . 161
8.1 Introduction . . . . 161
8.2 Governing Equations 162
8.3 Integral Formulations 164
8.3.1 Reciprocal Theorem . 164
8.3.2 Integral Representation of 1p 165
8.3.3 Boundary Equations for Stokes Flow 167
8.4 Numerical Procedure 167
8.4.1 Boundary Integrals . . . . . . . . 167
8.4.2 Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . 168
8.5 Numerical Examples for Stokes Flows 169
8.5.1 Flow Around a Steady Infinitely Long Cylinder 170
8.5.2 "Stick-slip" Problem Related to the Motion of a Free Jet 171
8.6 Numerical Examples for Convective Flows . . . . . . 174
8.6.1 Numerical Methods for the Solution of Non-linear Equations 174
8.6.2 Flow Around a Steady Cylinder Between Two Moving
Infinite Planes for Reynolds Numbers up to 40 175
8.7 Conclusion. 179
References 180
SUBJECT INDEX 183

Chapter 1
A Brief Review of Previous Work

on Viscous Flow Simulation
by K. Kitagawa
1.1 Introduction
The numerical analysis of fluid mechanics and heat transfer has become recognized
as a new research field called "Computational Fluid Dynamics" or "Numerical
Fluid Mechanics" [1, 2]. Their emergence has been detected by the rapid develop-
ment of computers and the difficulty of using the experimental approach.
Viscous flow and thermal convection phenomena is one of the most important
problems in engineering. The governing equations of viscous flow are the well-
known non-linear Navier-Stokes equations. In thermal convection problems, the
energy-transport equation coupled with the Navier-Stokes equations must be
solved simultaneously. In these problems, the finite difference method (FDM) has
been the most widely used numerical technique for a long time, and the finite element
method (FEM) has been successfully applied in the last decade. Many books
including the proceedings of conferences on these topics have been published
[1-28]. In the two-dimensional problems, the vorticity-stream function approach
is one of the most popular methods. However, it loses its attractiveness in the
three-dimensional problems because a scalar stream function cannot be defined [29,
30]. So, the primitive variable approach is generally used in the three-dimensional
FEM problems.
The previous works on FDM for viscous flow analyses are briefly summarized.
The artificial compressibility method was early proposed by Chorin [31] in 1967,
the marker-and-cell (MAC) method [32] and the semi-implicit method for pressure
linked equations (SIMPLE) [8, 33] have been recognized as a typical numerical
algorithm. These methods were improved to produce the HSMAC [34] and SIM-
PLE [8, 35] procedures. It is noted that SIMPLE and SIMPLER are sometimes
classified as the finite volume method (FVM) or the control volume method (CVM)
instead of the FDM [8]. The successive overrelaxation (SOR) scheme [36] and the
alternating direction implicit (ADI) scheme [37, 38] were originally developed
for solving the Laplace's equation in the 1950's and they are used extensively
today.
The evaluation of the convective and non-linear terms of the Navier-Stokes
equations depends largely on the stability of the numerical procedure at high
Reynolds numbers. Upwind and hybrid schemes have been widely used for obtain-
ing convergent results [1, 8]. Recently, some new schemes, for example QUICK
(quadratic upstream interpolation for convective kinematics) [39], UTOPIA
2 A Brief Review of Previous Work on Viscous Flow Simulation
(uniformly third-order polynomial interpolation algorithm) [40] and Kawamura

scheme [41], have been proposed for reducing artificial viscosity.
In addition, the body fitted coordinate (BFC) [42] formulation has been applied
for simulating complex geometries including curved boundaries. The BFC can
remove the largest drawback on the FDM, that is, the limitation on discretizing
complex curved geometry, and the BFC has already been implemented in the
general purpose code PHOENICS [43], but it is not widely used because a great
amount of computation time is required.
Three-dimensional analyses must be applied in many practical cases. The region
near the wall must be discretized by fine meshes, so substantial research has been
investigated to reduce the computation time. The multi grid method, for instance
[44, 45] is thought to be one of the interesting approaches.
The FEM has become a widely used numerical technique, although it was in
only 1965 that the first application to fluid flow problems was reported by Zien-
kiewicz and Cheung [46]. Applications to a variety of problems in non-linear
mechanics were contributed by Oden [11] around 1972. He derived the basic
theoretical analogy for the Navier-Stokes equations by using the weighted residuals
criteria. After the first conference on the FEM in Fluid Problems [22] was held in
1974, a great amount of research has been done to solve a variety of fluid problems
[12,13,23-28]. Other applications can be seen in [47].
By employing the primitive variable approaches, applications to viscous flow
problems were investigated by Tong [48], Oden and Somogy [49], Oden [50], Oden
and Wellford [51], Argyris and Mareczek [52], Taylor and Hood [53], Gartling
and Becker [54] et al. in the 1970's. Boundary conditions can be easily applied in
terms of velocity and pressure in these formulations. However, numerical instability
was observed even in slow flow problems. To reduce the instability, the vorticity-
stream function approaches were employed by Cheng [55], Brebbia and Smith [56],
Baker [57], Taylor and Hood [53], Tong [48] at the early stages. Hutton reviewed
these various formulations in 1974 [58]. The vorticity-stream function approaches
are difficult to apply in three-dimensional analyses, so some upwind formulations
were investigated by using the primitive variable approaches [5, 12, 13, 59-63].
Conversely applying interpolation functions which include a similar effect to the
upwind scheme, these codes can obtain stable solutions.
The penalty function formulation was also proposed for evaluating the pressure
terms [64-67]. In this formulation, the so-called reduced integration methods were
needed for the pressure terms due to mathematical reasons [68].
The most uptodate and interesting formulations on the FEM are thought to be
both "the adaptive method" and "the spectral method" [10,27].
1.2 Review of Work on Boundary Elements
Recently the Boundary Element Method (BEM) has become recognized as a power-
ful numerical technique. In particular, the BEM has some advantages over the FDM
and FEM for linear problems, for example, elastostatics and potential type analyses
[69].
A Brief Review of Previous Work on Viscous Flow Simulation 3
It was Betti in 1872 who first applied the integral equation methods to the
classical theory of elasticity [70]. Fredholm [71J applied them to the potential
problems in 1903. In these early stages, due to the difficulty of finding analytical
and numerical solutions, the theoretical investigations were mainly carried out by
mathematicians, in particular, some Russian authors, such as Muskhelishvili [72J,
Mikhlin [73J and Smirnov [74]. In 1965, Kupradze [75J established the founda-
tions of the potential method in elasticity (so-called Indirect BEM), which employs
hypothetical source densities as unknown variables. Using computers, Jaswon [76J
and Symm [71J developed applications of indirect BEM to potential problems, and
Jaswon et al to plate bending problems [78J and biharmonic problems in elasto-
statics [79]. These applications of the indirect BEM can be found in [80, 81J.
It was Jaswon [76J who first applied the direct formulation to potential prob-
lems. Rizzo [82J first developed the Direct BEM, in elastostatics using the physical
quantities as unknowns. Cruse [83-85J, Lachat [86J, Watson [87J and Brebbia
[69, 88J et al developed the direct BEM further and applied it to various fields of
engineering problems. More recently, Telles [89J made remarkable progresses in
inelastic problems, and Wrobel [90J in time-dependent potential problems. In 1984,
a comprehensive book, which contains these recent advances of the Direct BEM,
was written by Brebbia, Telles and Wrobel [81]. Further advances in Boundary
Element Research are reported in references [91-102].
In the field of aerodynamics, the boundary element method, sometimes called
the singularity method or panel method, was successfully applied to inviscid flow
analyses [103-105J and has also been recognized as a powerful numerical tech-
nique. It was only recently that applications of the BEM to viscous flow problems
were investigated because of the difficulty in evaluating the non-linearity of the
govening equations. Lighthill [106J proposed the approach employing vorticity and
velocity as the dependent variables. In this formulation, it is possible to separate
the equations into a kinetic part and a kinematic part. The kinetic part deals with
the vorticity change with time and the kinematic part relates the velocity field to
the vorticity field. The ~sual procedure is to recast the kinematic part of the problem
into an integral equation. For external flows, this integral equation is equivalent to
the Biot-Savart law of induced velocities [29, 106].
Wu and Thompson [107J developed this formulation to study the flow around
an airfoil by coupling F:DM and boundary integral equations, but some difficulties
in the boundary conditions at solid boundaries still remained, as pointed out by
Wu [108]. His latest research is described in Chap. 3 of this book. Formulations
using both the kinematic and kinetic parts of the problem in the integral form have
recently been developed by Brebbia and Wrobel [109, 110J, and Wu and co-wor:kers
[111, 112].
In addition, Skerget, Alujevic and Brebbia [l13J employed the same velocity-
vorticity formulation and extended it to include pressure as a variable, which
produced more stable results [114]. Recently, both formulations were extended to
the natural convection problems by Skerget, Alujevic, Kuhn and Brebbia [115J. A
complete description of this research can be found in Chap. 4.
Onishi, Kuroki and Tanaka [116J proposed a formulation for natural convec-
tion problems in terms of stream-function, vorticity and temperature as variables.
Bush and Tanner [117] proposed formulations based on the Navier equations of
elasticity, using the concept of "pseudo forces" as described in Chap. 7.
The penalty function formulation was applied not only to the unsteady viscous
flow analyses as reported by Tosaka and Kakuda [118], but also the unsteady
natural convection analyses as shown by Kuroki, Onishi and Tosaka [119]. More
recently, Tosaka and Kakuda [120,121] proposed an integral equation formulation
in terms of velocity and pressure for the steady and unsteady viscous flow problems.
In addition, Tosaka and Fukushima [122] successfully applied their formulations
to the natural convection problems.
A "pseudo-body force" formulation employing the penalty function for steady
viscous problems has been proposed by Kitagawa et al. [123]. By regarding the
convective terms in Navier-Stokes equations as body forces in elastostatics, the
standard boundary element analysis of elastostatics, i.e. employing Kelvin's funda-
mental solution, has been extended to solve the viscous flow problems.
The pressure terms described by the penalty function and the diffusive terms can
be evaluated by using boundary integral only, but the convective terms have been
computed by dividing the domain of the problem into internal cells, similar to finite
elements. The accurate evaluation of the convective terms plays a key role in this
formulation. The evaluation of the velocity derivatives involved in the convective
terms was studied by employing both the finite difference schemes (upwind and
central approximations) and the boundary integral equations [124].
The formulation was extended to natural convection analyses, by regarding the
convective terms of the energy transport equation as the pseudo-heat source of the
potential problems [125, 126]. The accurate evaluation of the heat flow near the
boundary, which leads to a great amount of calculation concerning the quasi-
singular boundary integral, is one of the most important parts in this formulation.
Because of this, the self-adaptive coordinate transformation technique proposed by
Telles [127] has been successfully applied [128, 129]. Moreover, quadratic elements
were used to define the internal cells in this formulation and the evaluation of the
pressure field is discussed in detail [130]. Kitagawa et al. formulation is presented
in Chap. 5 for natural convection problems.
Chapter 6 of this book deals with the coupling ofBEM and FDM. The boundary
layer flow is solved using finite differences and then combined with a boundary
element solution for the outer flow. Chapter 8 applies the fundamental solution for
Stokes flow to solve convective problems at low Re numbers.
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Chapter 2
Boundary Element Formulation

for Viscous Compressible Flow
by C.A. Brebbia and J.J. Connor
2.1 Introduction
Three main methods of solution are presently being applied in general Navier
Stokes solvers. 'J:'hey are: (i) Finite Differences, (ii) Finite Elements (iii) Finite Volume
They are all domain type techniques as they involve discretization of the volume.
Their main characteristics are described below. Also Boundary Element is described
as an alternative method, which involves only discretization on the boundary.
2.1.1 Finite Differences

In this case a usually fixed grid is defined over the volume and quantities such as
pressure, velocities, temperature etc are taken at a series of grid points. It is
comparatively simple to discretize the governing equations of the fluid using the
classical finite difference molecules. The main disadvantage of the technique lays in
the difficulty of describing the boundary conditions in terms of curved surfaces and
the loss of accuracy implicit in their discretization. Although curved finite difference
grids have been proposed to deal with some of these problems they are not easy to
implement and most finite differences Navier Stokes solvers are based on a fixed
grid.
The method is well suited to a series of applications for which a regular grid and
straight boundary are present, but is not appropriate for problems such as turbo
machinery applications which have very complex geometries. The technique is not
well suited to deal with discontinuities, boundary layers, and regions which have
high gradients.
2.1.2 Finite Elements

Because of the shortcomings of finite differences some researchers have more
recently suggested using finite elements instead. The advantage of this method is
that it allows one to model complex geometries by varying the grid or element size.
the presence of high gradients or near singularities. Although the FE grid is more
versatile than a corresponding FD grid it requires a much larger amount of data
to define the geometry, including internal point coordinates, connectivity, element
properties etc. This makes the FE method rather difficult to use particularly in 3D
applications. As with FD, the method cannot easily deal with discontinuities.
Boundary Element Formulation for Viscous Compressible Flow 11
2.1.3 Finite Volume

This method discretizes the volume into a series of cells of arbitrary shape. The
technique works with the governing equations in conservative form and variables
are considered at the centroid of the element. Boundary values over each finite
volume are obtained by interpolating between centroids, and the volume integrals
are simply computed by multiplying the values of the variables at the centroid by
the volume of the cell. One important property is that the technique allows for
discontinuities on the cell boundaries. The main drawback is that the crudeness of
the approximation requires a very fine grid and that the method, being a domain
technique, poses serious problems in data generation and model construction. These
problems are similar to those of finite elements but agravated somewhat by the fact
that constant values are taken over each cell rather than weighted as in FE.
2.1.4 Boundary Elements

This method is a boundary solution technique based on functions which can vary
in a general form over the boundaries, including curved ones. The most important
property of boundary elements is that the solution can be referred to the boundary
without explicit definition of any internal points or cells. The method also uses a
weighted residual procedure which provides more accurate results than considering
constant values at the centroid of each element. Of particular importance is the fact
that the influence functions used in BE can represent better regions of high gradients
or even singularities. The ability to be able to obtain accurate results for both global
and local- high gradient - behaviour without excessive number of unknowns is the
key advantage of the BEM over the domain methods. From the users point of view,
however, the most interesting feature of the technique is that only the shape of the
boundary needs to be described. This considerably reduces the amount of data and
number of points required to run a problem.
2.2 Proposed Approach
The approach to be followed in this chapter is the boundary element method (BEM).
This methQd started to be developed in the 1970's in response to the difficulties
associated with providing the wealth of information required to run a finite element
code.
During the 1970's a small group at Southampton University, England, started
working on the practical application of integral equations to solve stress analysis
and potential - mainly Laplace's type - problems. Developments in finite element
methods occuring at that time started to find their way into the formulation of
boundary integral equations and their relationship to other approximate techniques
was explained [1]. This work culminated in 1978, with the first book in which the
title "Boundary Elements" was used [2] and was extended to encompass time
dependent and non linear problems in a series of references [3, 4]. Ten important
international conferences on the fundamental of boundary elements were held from
1978 to 1988 [5-14], and more recently, two conferences on Boundary Element
Applications and Technology were organized [15,16], all of them by the same group
12 Boundary Element Formulation for Viscous Compressible Flow
at Southampton, where the Institute of Computational Mechanics which deals with

boundary element research was created in 1979. The edited Proceedings of these
meetings are now standard references.
A series of state of the art books [17-24] has summarised some of the more
recent advances in boundary elements, including its application for the solution of
different types of fluid flow problems.
Several important features differentiate boundary elements from other more
classical boundary integral formulations. They are,
(i) The emphasis on energy or weighted residual principles to produce 'direct'

integral formulations, i.e. formulations in terms of variables with a clear physical
or engineering meaning. These formulations are also important because they
allow to find easily the fundamental integral equations of the problem starting
with the governing equations and corresponding boundary conditions.
(ii) Boundary elements emphasize the development of higher order elements, es-
pecially 'curved' ones, which permit proper representation of boundary surfaces.
Higher order elements are important in many practical cases, and their proper
definition is essential to avoid introducing errors into the problem.
The BEM has gained rapid acceptance within the engineering profession, mainly
for the solution of elastostatics, time dependent potential type problems, thermal
analysis and other elliptic cases. More recently however the method has shown to
be an advantageous alternative to finite elements for parabolic and hyperbolic
problems as well, including fluid flow applications.
In general BEM offers important advantages over 'domain' type techniques such
as finite elements, finite differences or finite volume. The main characteristic of the
technique is that it reduces the dimensionality of the problem by one and hence
results in a much smaller system of equations and, more important, considerable
reduction in the data required to run a problem. In addition the numerical accuracy
of the method is generally greater than that of finite elements mainly because of the
use of Green's functions as fundamental - or influence - solutions. The higher
accuracy is also a consequence of the formulation of the 'direct' boundary element
approach being based on mixed formulations which give the same order of accuracy
for all types of unknowns (such as temperature and heat flux, potential and velocity,
displacement and 'stress, etc). The method is also well suited to problem solving with
infinite domains which occur in many engineering fields.
A BE solution is formulated in terms of influence coefficients obtained by
applying Green's type of fundamental solution. In its simplest form, the term
boundary elements indicates the method by which the external surface of the
domain is divided into a series of elements over which the functions under considera-
tion vary in much the same way as those in finite elements. This capability marked
an important development as classical integral equation type formulations were
generally restricted to constant sources and assumed to be calculated at a series of
points on the external surface of the body [25]. Unfortunately the constant source
approach gives poor results in many practical applications and this deficiency
contributed to make boundary integral formulations unpopular with engineers.
The main advantages of boundary elements over domain techniques in com-

puter analysis and design can be summarized as follows.
(a) Simple Data Preparation

This is specially attractive as it cuts down the cost of checking as well as preparing
the data and because the BEM requires only the discretization of the external sur-
face. These changes are easy to implement and this makes the method very popular
with designers. Mesh refinements are also easier to carry out for two reasons: firstly
because the dimensionality of the problem has been reduced and, secondly because
full inter-element continuity is not required for boundary elements - the latter point
offers the possibility of refining a mesh rather abruptly.
(b) Accurate Results

Accurate results are obtained for variables such as stress or flux which tend to be
given with a certain degree of inaccuracy in domain methods. This is a consequence
of applying a mixed formulation as well as having better influence coefficients - i.e.
those produced by the fundamental solution. In many practical problems this means
that one can reproduce regions with high gradients or even singularities, extremely
well.
(c) Internal Results

Internal results are only given at the points where they are required. These can be
computed at the end of the analysis as the internal points results are functions of
the surface values. Post processing becomes simpler in this way.
Boundary elements were initially applied to solve elastostatics problems and in

this respect recent advances have made it possible not only to consider the surface
forces, but to take to the boundary the effects of body and centrifugal forces as well
as temperature effects [4]. This advance, together with the possibility of dividing
the domain into subregions, makes boundary elements a very powerful technique
in engineering practice, capable of solving most elastostatics problems.
More recently the boundary element method has been extended to solve a range
of material non-linear problems, including no-tension materials [19, 22] of interest
in geomechanics and material problems such as plasticity and visco-elasticity. A
review ofthe applications of the technique to plasticity problems can be seen in Ref.
[17]. Material time dependent problems such as viscoelasticity, viscoplasticity and
creep can also be attacked using boundary elements [18]. The method has also been
applied to solve electrostatics and electromagnetic problems with excellent results
[23,24].
Potential problems have been solved using boundary integral techniques for a
considerable time [26]. The use of direct boundary element formulations is more
recent and presents a wide range of applications. Still more interesting is the
development of boundary elements in time and space. The work started with
parabolic problems of the type frequently occurring in heat diffusion [17] but has
been extended to cover a wide range of applications. Wrobel and Brebbia in that
reference [17J have proposed to solve these problems without carrying the initial
conditions from step to step and in this way the definition of internal cells is not
required. This is done by referring always to the initial state at time zero and this
technique has been extended to the solution of hyperbolic problems [27]. More
recently, a new technique has been developed by Brebbia and Nardini [28J and
applied by Wrobel and Brebbia to solve the time dependent problems by trans-
forming domain integrals to the boundary using an approximation. The approach
is nowadays called the Dual Reciprocity Method.
Hyperbolic problems such as the scalar wave equation and the equations of
elastodynamics are particularly difficult to solve using discrete methods. The success
of boundary elements for the solution of parabolic equations has prompted their
extension to hyperbolic cases. Mansur and Brebbia have developed boundary
element solutions in time and space for the solution of the two-dimensional wave
equation [27J and elastodynamics [28, 29]. Their approach is of fundamental
importance because following the procedure of Ref. [28J they do not define internal
cells. This makes the technique specially well suited for problems extending to
infinity. Three-dimensional transient wave propagation problems have been solved
using boundary elements by Groenenboom et al. [30].
The direct integral equation formulation has been applied to harmonic vibra-
tions for some time. This has led to the use of boundary elements to determine the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of structural systems using fundamental solutions
which are frequency dependent but which do not require any internal subdivision.
More recently, however, Brebbia's and Nardini's [28, 50] Dual Reciprocity Method
allows the determination ofthe natural frequencies and modes of vibrations ofthe
system by applying the frequency independent static fundamental solution without
using internal cells. The approach effectively permits the mass integrals which
originally were over the domain to be reduced to boundary integrals. The method
which is highly promissory is now being extended to solve a wide range of time
dependent problems.
Although more work is still required in this topic, the boundary element method
appears to be extremely accurate and efficient for parabolic and hyperbolic prob-
lems by comparison with more classical techniques such as finite elements or finite
differences.
Considerable 'advances have recently been made in the solution of steady and
unsteady transport problems and Navier Stokes solvers. This work indicates that
the method is appropriate to solve these problems and state of the art in BEM has
now reached the point where codes for compressible and incompressible fluids can
be developed with confidence.
2.3 Statement of the Problems -

Governing Equations for Compressible Fluid Flow
The equations governing the mechanics of fluid flow are the well-known Navier
Stokes equations. These equations are based upon the fundamental conservation
laws of mass, momentum and energy. In order to properly pose the equations, the
conservation equations are supplemented by two equations of state. Collectively,
the conservation equations and the equations of state are referred to as the Navier
Stokes equations. Over the years, this set of equations have been derived and
expressed in many mathematical forms to suit a wide variety of applications. A
detailed discussion of the various forms is given by Anderson et al. [31]. For this
chapter a compact indicial notation will be utilized to express the three dimensional
Navier Stokes equations in Cartesian coordinates. It should be noted that in the
general system of equations to be presented, there are seven equations and three
parameters. The conservation laws provide five equations which are then supple-
mented by two equations of state.
For turbulent flow, the continuum assumption is no longer valid and the Navier
Stokes equations must be modified. The set of equations are modified by either the
temporal or spatial averaging schemes. In either approach additional terms enter
into the equations, resulting in closure problems. In this chapter only the more
common time average approach will be presented.
2.3.1 The Navier Stokes Equations
(i) Conservation of Mass
For a compressible fluid, conservation of mass leads to an expression of the

form,
Dp + P OVk = 0 (2.1)
Dt oX k
where p is the fluid mass density, Vk is the kth velocity component, Xk is the kth
coordinate the Dp/Dt represents the material (or total) derivative. The material
derivative is associated with the Langrangian frame of reference. In this system the
coordinate system is attached to a specific fluid particle or group of fluid particles,
and the system moves as the fluid flows. The more common approach is to use an
Eulerian framework, in which the reference frame is fixed in the fluid domain and
the fluid particles flow past the reference frame. The Lagrangian and Eulerian
reference frames are related by the expression,
Df af af
-=-+Vk- (2.2)
Dt at aXk
where f is a general function and the two terms on the right hand side express the
Eulerian equivalent of the Lagrangian derivative. The first term on the right hand
side represents the local rate of change and the second term the convected spatial
derivative.
An alternate convenient form of Eq. (2.1) is
(2.3)
(ii) Conservation of Momentum

The conservation of momentum, which is identical to Newton's Second Law, leads
to the expression,
OVj oVj o(Jij
P-+ PVk-=-+ pfj (2.4)
at OXk OX;
where the first term on the right hand side represents the contribution ofthe surface
forces and the second the body forces fj. The stress tensor components, (J;j, can be
shown to be of the form,
(2.5)
where p is the normal pressure, Il is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid and A is the
second viscosity coefficient. For a Stokesian fluid, A = -ill, in other words there
is only one visc9sity coefficient. Upon substitution of the expression for the stress
tensor components into the momentum equations (2.4) one obtains what is com-
monly referred to as the Navier Stokes equations, that is,
oVj oVj
p-+pvk- = - op
-+-a (, OVj )
11.-
at oX k oXj oXj oX k
(2.6)
+
a [(OV. OV.)] + pfj
OX; Il ox: + 0; .
The Euler equations are then seen to be a special case of the Navier Stokes equa-
tions where viscous effects are neglected. For completeness, the Euler equations
are,
OV· ov· op
P--I-
ut
+ PVk~
UX
= --;-
UX
+ pfj . (2.7)
k j
(iii) Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy law is in fact the first law of thermodynamics and is
commQnly referred to as the energy equation. The energy equation can be expressed
in terms of either the internal energy, the enthalpy, the total energy, or the tempera-
ture. The internal energy form is
oE oE
p-+pv k- = - p - + - k - +«1>
oV k a ( aT) (2.8)
at oX k oXk OXj oXj
where E is the internal energy of the fluid, T is the fluid temperature, k is Fourier's
thermal conductivity coefficient for the fluid and «1> is the dissipation factor. The
dissipation factor is a measure of the rate at which mechanical energy is being
converted to thermal energy and can be expressed as,
(2.9)
(iv) Equations of State

In a functional form consistent with the energy equation, the equations of state are,
p = p(E,p) (2.10)
and
T= T(E,p) . (2.11)
For a perfect gas, it is well known that,
p=pRT (2.12)
where R is the gas constant. In addition, the following relationships exist for a perfect
gas,
E = cvT (2.13)
h = CpT (2.14)
y = cp/c v (2.15)
R
Cv = y _ 1 (2.16)
yR
cP =--1 . (2.17)
y-
Cvand cp are specific heat at constant value and constant pressure, h is the enthalpy,
and y is the ratio of specific heats which is an important relationship in aero-
dynamics. Further, for air at standard conditions
p = (y - l)pE (2.18)
T=(Y~l)E . (2.19)
The fluid viscosity is also a function of temperature which can be evaluated from
tables or by curve fit of experimental data. Functionally,
fl=fl(T) (2.20)
and the thermal conductivity can be determined based on the Prandtl number
specifically,
(2.21)
For a perfect gas one can further modify the energy equation starting with,
aE aE aVk
p- + PVk- = -p- + -a (
kaT)
- + (jJ (2.22)
at aX k aX k aXj aXj
One can then write, E = Cv T. Thus,
(2.23)
or,
Noting that,
(2.25)
leads to
oT + ~(Vk T)
ot oX k
= T ovk
OXk
+ (L) OVk + (_l_)~(k OT)
cvP oX k cvP oXj oXj
+~
cvp
(2.26)
which becomes <
(2.27)
(v) Summary
The equations govening the flow of compressible fluids are as follows,
Mass Conservation
Op 0
::;-
ut
+ ::;-
uX
(pv i ) = 0 . (2.28)
i
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Energy
oE oE OVk 0 ( OT)
P:;-
ut
+ pvk ::;-
uX
=- p::;-
uXk
+::;-
uX
k:;- + if>
uX
. (2.30)
k j j
Equations of State
p =p(E,p)
(2.31)
T = T(E,p) .
2.3.2 Turbulent Flow Equations [31-35]

The detailed level of numerical modelling of turbulent flow phenomena is limited
by the depth of our present understanding of turbulence and to some extent the
computer hardware which will be used. A major problem in the treatment of
turbulent flow is the wide range of time and length scales present in the actual flow
field. The most common approach for deriving the equations governing the turbulent
flow field, beyond the continuum range, is to average the Navier-Stokes equations
in some fashion. For incompressible fluids, time averaging leads to the well-known
"Reynolds" equations, while for compressible fluids a more suitable scheme com-
bines temporal and mass-weighted averaging procedures.
With the introduction of averaging schemes for the Navier-Stokes equations,
there is a recognition that statistical concepts are indeed necessary to analyse the
turbulent flow field and perhaps associated with the turbulent flow field will be
explicitly addressed. That is, one must introduce approximations as part of the
averaging scheme which in turn limits the level of detail and accuracy of the
numerical predictions. This is justified to some extent by the fact that most of the
momentum transport is associated with the large scale eddies.
Another factor which complicates the treatment ofthe turbulent flow equations
is a direct result of the averaging procedures. The introduction of new terms in each
of the governing equations is known as a "closure" problem. As might be expected,
additional assumptions and approximations regarding the turbulent flow field are
required to insure a matching number of unknowns and equations. There are many
closure models but perhaps the best known' are the family of eddy viscosity models.
Details of this and other more elaborate approaches are presented and discussed
in advanced books on turbulence.
(i) Combined Temporal and Mass-Weighting Averaging
For turbulent flow, it is convenient to separate quantities of interest into their mean
and fluctuating parts. So for any general variable, f,
1=1+1' (2.32)
where the time averages at a point fixed in space are
_ 1 to+T
1= -
T
J Idt
to
(2.33)
_ 1 to+T
f' = - f f' dt == 0 (2.34)
T io
The period,T, over which these variables are averaged is assumed to be much
larger than those of the turbulent fluctuations. This averaging procedure is used
only for the fluid density and the pressure for compressible flows, and it follows
that
P= 15 + p' (2.35)
P= p+ p' (2.36)
For compressible flows, one can introduce a mass-weighted averaging, where
the variable, f, can be expressed as
!=p! (2.37)
p
and the variable f is decomposed as

f=l+f" (2.38)
Again, the integral of the fluctuating quantity PI", is identically zero. The remaining
variables are then expressed in this form as
(2.39)
T= f+ Til (2.40)
Fluctuations in the viscosity, thermal conductivity and specific heat are usually
small and neglected.
(ii) Turbulent Compressible Flow Equations

Based upon the combined averaging procedure, the continuity, momentum and
energy equations can be expressed in the following form, valid for turbulent com-
pressible fluid now
(2.41)
(2.42)
(2.43)
where
2.4 State of the Art in Boundary Elements for Fluids

Boundary integral methods were applied to study potential flow problems in the
1960's. Their extension to various flows was initiated in the early 1970's. The initial
viscous developments were confined to incompressible flow until recently, when
some treatment of viscous compressible flow was reported. In what follows, we
present first the original approach developed by Wu, [36J and Brebbia and Wrobel
[37]. This boundary element formulation works with vorticity and streamfunctions
for 2D and vorticities and velocities (vector potential) for the 3D case. We then
describe some alternative formulations for incompressible flow. In Sect. 2.3 we
discuss the strategy for treating compressibility.
2.4.1 Basic Integral Equations - Two-Dimensional Case [38-46]

To present the essential ideas of the BEM for fluids, let us consider initially the
two-dimensional case and later extend the results to the three-dimensional case.
Our starting point is the governing momentum equations in nonconservative form,
i.e.
(2.46)
k= 1,2 . (2.47)
The vorticity is defined as
W3 = !(OV2 _ OV!) == W • (2.48)

2 oX l oX 2
Taking k = 1, I = 2 and k = 2, I = 1 in (2.47) and then subtracting one equation

from the other, results in
Dw
PDt + pwev = J.lV2W +F (2.49)
which can also be written as

ow a
-+-(WV;) =-V w+-
J.l 2 F
(2.50)
at OX; p p
where F contains terms involving the derivatives of p and J.l,
2F = ~ DVl _ ~ DV2 + ... (2.51)

OX2 Dt OXl Dt .
An equation relating the pressure and volumetric strain rate is established by
taking I = k in (2.47) and then summing over the range of k. This yields,
(2.52)
where
OVl OV2 OV2 OV1) 1 op DVk
G = 2(- - - - - - - - - + (terms . . ..
mvolvmg the denvative of Jl) •
OXl OX2 OXl OX2 P OXk Dt
(2.53)
One can now establish a kinematic relation between the velocity components,
vorticity, and volumetric strain rate which provides a procedure for computing the
velocities once the vorticity and volumetric strain rate are known [31]. Noting that
OVl OV2
e =-+-
" oX 1 OX2
(2.54)
and
(2.55)
and differentiating gives
V2Vl =oe" _ 2 ow (2.56)

OXl OX2
V2V2 = oe" + 2 ow . (2.57)

OX2 oX 1
Equations (2.56) and (2.57) are converted to integral expressions by multiplying
each equation by a function, w*, and integrating over the domain [1-4]. This gives,
r ( V2Vl--+2-
oe" ow) w*dQ=O (2.58)
b OXl OX2
! (V V2 - -OX2
2 oe" - 2ow)
- w* dQ = 0 .
OXl
(2.59)
Integrating by parts, one obtains after some manipulation,
(2.60)
! [V2 V2~ + e" ~:: + 2w ~:]dQ = ~ {-V/:* - V2 O:*}dr . (2.61)
We now take w* to be the solution of

V2 w* = -~(r - rp) (2.62)
where ~ stands for the Dirac delta function. Using (2.62), Eqs. (2.60) and (2.61) yield
(2.63)
vll =
P!l
J ( -e,,-
ow* -
OX2
oW*) dQ
2w-
aXl
+ }r (ow*
-Vl- -
as
oW*) dr
V2-
an
(2.64)
where [4],
1
w* = --lnlr - r I
2n p
(2.65)
aw* aw aw
-a-=n l -a +n 2 -a
n Xl X2
aw* aw aw
- a =n 2 -a +n l -a
S Xl X2
where nl and n 2 are the direction cosines of the normal to the boundary with respect
to Xl' x 2 axis.
Equations (2.63) and (2.64) show that the velocity field is defined once the
vorticity and volumetric strain rate are known in the interior and the velocity
components are known on the boundary.
Equations (2.50) and (2.52) are similar in form and can be viewed as special cases
of the following general equation.
af + ~(vJ) = aV 2 f +B (2.66)
at ax;
where a is a constant and B is a function of X; and t. Proceeding in a similar way
as before - i.e. weighting the equation by w* and integrating over the domain - one
finds,
af aw* )
J( afV
Q '
2 w* - w*-a + fV;-a + Bw* dQ
t X;
(2.67)
+ A{Vnfw* + a ( w* in - a:n* f ) } dr = 0 .
The time derivative of f can be passed over to w* by integrating (2.67) with respect
to time. The result is
!
A{ If f ( aV 2 w* + at
aw*)
dQ + A !
{If [ w*B + fv; aw*] }
ax; dt dA
+ J {-w*(tf)f(tf ) + w*(O)f(O)} dQ (2.68)

Q
+ J{If! [ aw* onaf + f ( vnw* - aw*)] dt dr .

a on
One can then specialize w to be a Dirac delta function in both space and time. The
result is an expression for f at tf , rp in terms of boundary and domain integrals.
Solving
(2.69)
gives [4J
w* = 1
4na(tF - t)
exp [Ir - 4a(tF
rpl2 ] ,
- t)
(2.70)
and
w* =0 for t ~ tJ .
Then, noting (2.69) one obtains,
(2.71)
= J w*(O)f(O)dQ + J J
Q Q
{
If [
0
w*B + fVi-
aw*]
Xi
}
a - dt dQ .
One then applies (2.71) to (2.50) and (2.52). Details of this procedure are discussed
in what follows.
2.4.2 Procedure for Incompressible Flow

Two research groups, one led by WU [36J, and the other by Brebbia [37J, have
developed computer programs which generate the time history of viscous incom-
pressible flow. Their approaches are similar in that they both use the vorticity
transport equation, (2.50) converted to the generalized integral form defined by
(2.71). The value of vorticity on the boundary is determined such that the velocity
boundary conditions are satisfied. Equations (2.63) and (2.64) allow one to evaluate
the velocity distribution in the interior domain, once the vorticity is known in the
interior. Taking point P to the boundary, r, yields a set of relations between w on
the boundary and w in the interior. The solution is stepped out in time. Boundary
values of w at time t k - 1 are used to compute aw/an on rand w in Q at time t k • Once
w is known in Q, Eqs. (2.63), (2.64) are applied to generate the velocity field.
Brebbia and Skerget use an integral form of (2.50) to determine the pressure
[40-43]. Starting with (2.52) written as
V2 p + G' = 0 (2.72)
they convert (2.72) to
p(rp) = AG' w* dQ + J ap
( w* an -
aw*)
P----a;;- dr (2.73)
where
-1
w* = -lnlR - R I
2n p
Taking the point to the boundary and specifying op/on gives a solution for p on r.
This computation is carried out at each time step.
2.4.3 Integral Formulation - Three-Dimensional Case

The integral expressions presented in Sect. 2.2.1 can be readily extended to the case
of three dimensional flow. The vorticity equation (2.48) expands to three equations
having a similar form since there are now three components of vorticity;
w. = !(OVj _ OVk) (2.74)

I 2 OXk oXj
where i, j, k are to be interpreted in cyclic order (1,2,3).
Applying (2.74) leads to a generalized form of Eq. (2.50).
OWi 0 oV i P. 2 Fi
:1
u.t
+ -;-(VjW
uX
i) = Wj-;- + wie v
uXj
+ -V
p
Wi +-
p
(2.75)
j
where i = 1, 2, 3.
The expression relating the volumetric strain rate and pressure, (2.52), has the
same form, except that now the indices range from 1 to 3.
0
-oe
ot
v
+ -(e
OXi v I
4 p. 2
v.) = --V e -
3p v
1 2
-V P
p
(2.76)
where V2 is the Laplacian.

The volumetric strain rate and the density are related by the continuity equation.
1 Dp OVi
e =--=- (2.77)
v p Dt ox i ·
The last set of equations relate the velocity components to spatial deriva-
tives of ev and the vorticity components. The three-dimensional form of (2.56),
(2.57) is,
V2 V1 = oe v _ 2 oW 3 + 2 oW 2
oX 1 oX 2 oX 3
V 2V2 = oev _ 20W1 + 2 0W3 (2.78)

oX 2 oX 3 OX1
V2V3 = oev _ 20W2 + 2 0W1 .

oX 3 oX 1 oX 2
Myltiplying each equation in (2.78) by the three dimensional form of the funda-
mental solution for the Laplacian operator, [4J, i.e.
1
w*=---- (2.79)
41tlr - rpl
and integrating by parts leads to expressions for the velocity components. A typical
expression is
aw* aw* aw*}

vllp=f { eV-a--2W3-a-+2w2-a dQ
Q Xl X2 X3
+ f {-evnl + 2Wn2 - 2w 2n3}w*dr
r
+ f {w*aVI aW*}dr
- - VI - - (2.80)
r an an
aw* aw* aw*}
=f { ev-a--2W2-a-+2w2-a- dQ
Q Xl X2 X3
+ f { -Vl-a-+w
aw* * [av
n2-a 2 -n l -aaV 2 -n l -aaV 3 +n 3-aaV 3 J} dr.
r n Xl X2 X3 Xl
A fuller discussion of the application of the vorticity velocity approach for the
solution of incompressible Navier Stokes equations can be seen in Chap. 12 of Ref.
[4J and Chap. 1 of "Computational Techniques for Fluid Flow" book [47]. The
formulation of the two dimensional problem in terms of streamfunction and vor-
ticity approach can be seen as early as 1978 in Ref. [39]. Results for the vorticity
velocity formulation have been presented by Skerget and Brebbia in several pub-
lications [41, 42J using a time and space dependent fundamental solution. The same
authors proposed introducing an integral formulation to determine the pressure
distribution in a better manner than previously d.one and in this way more stable
results were obtained [40J.
The solution of time independent Navier Stokes type equations has also been
postulated in terms of the 'primitive' variables (i.e. pressure and velocities) using a
penalty function approach [46]. This also allows for a special form of the Kelvin
solution of elastostatics to be used as fundamental solution.
2.4.4 Procedure for Compressible Flow

(i) Governing Equations
One possible strategy for the compressible flow case is to work with vorticity,
density and temperature as the primary variables. The vorticity equations are given
by (2.75), written below in an abbreviated form,
(2.81)
where
F[ =f(w,v,ev,p), i = 1,2,3.
The corresponding integral equation is given by (2.71) with f taken as Wi.
The density, temperature and volumetric strain rate are related by the continuity
and energy equations, the equations of state and the equation for ev obtained by
suitably differentiating the momentum equations. These equations are,
Continuity
ap ap
-at + v aXi =
i- -pev • (2.82)
Energy
(2.83)
where,
Q = external heat source
aT
q.= - k -
• aX i
i" _ 2 (aVi avj )
't 1 - -3J1.evbij + J1. aXj + aX i
(J'ij = -pbij + 'tij .
Equations of State (for a perfect gas)

p = cvT
(2.84)
p = (y - 1)pE .
(ii) Pressure-Volumetric Strain Rate - Density Formulation
p~
aev + p-;-(evVi)
a =
4 2
3J1.V ev - V P + G
2
(2.85)
ut uXi
The velocity components can be found from the kinematic relations (2.78),
expressed in integral form. In what follows, we focus on generating the expressions
for p and T.
Combining the energy equation with the state equations leads to an expression
for temperature which has the form of a transport equation, i.e.
aT a 2
--;- + -;-(Vi T) = rxV T +G (2.86)
ut uXi
where
G = _1_{'tij aVi + aQ} + (2 - y)evT
pC v aXj at
+ terms due to variable k.
The corresponding integral form is (2.71) with f replaced by r.
An expression for density is generated from (2.85) by substituting for ev using
the continuity equation, and substituting for p using the equation of state. The first
substitution yields,
(2.87)
Operating on (2.83),
ap aT)
V 2p = {(y - 1)cv} ( TV2p + pV 2T + 2aXi aXi . (2.88)
After some algebra, one obtains

02p 02p
~ = ~[ViVk + (y - 1)cv Tb ik ]
ut uXiuX k
(2.89)
One can now generate a pseudo-integral form for p by writing (2.89) as,
0 2
-.!!... = C2 V2 P + H (2.90)
ot 2
where H contains terms due to the variable coefficients and non-linear terms, and
c represents the wave celerity. Using the fundamental solution of the transposed
problem [48],
(2.91)
where e, tf are spatial and time points. The solution at (e, tf ) is given by,
c2 ! [(OP*)
P+ 1 at Po*] dQ
at /0 - (op)
+ t[ h [p* :: - O:n* p] dr} dt + terms due to H (2.92)
Mansur and Brebbia [49] have applied this approach to study the linear scalar
wave equation. They discussed different time stepping techniques and use one that
start always from the initial conditions at to. The technique does not require the
computation of new volume integrals at the beginning of each At step. Numerical
solution obtained using this method validate the approach and demonstrate the
potentialities of using boundary elements for wave propagation problems. The
approach has been extended to three dimensional applications by Groenenboom
and Brebbia [30] to study pressure wave propagation inside containers of arbitrary
shape. Nardini and Brebbia [49] have suggested using an approximation - the so
called Dual reciprocity method - to determine the dynamic matrices resulting from
wave equation type solutions [50]. The approach has given excellent results when
compared against previous boundary elements and exact solutions.
(iii) Summary of Fundamental Relationships for Compressible Flow

The governing equations are
i) Vorticity - Eqs. (2.81)
ii) Temperature - Eqs. (2.86)
iii) Density - Eqs. (2.89)
Notice that
• Vorticity has to be determined only in the boundary layer which usually is small
in comparison to the representative dimensions of the body.
• Density and temperature are computed throughout the domain. The pressure is
determined from the state equation p = {y - l)cvpT.
• The velocity components are determined from the kinematic relations, in terms
of ev and Wi'
• The volumetric strain rate is determined from the continuity equation
• The computation steps out in time. At each time point, one needs to enforce
boundary conditions on Wi' p, and T as follows.
- The vorticity boundary condition is generated from the interior velocity distri-
bution and is determined such that the "no-slip" velocity boundary conditions
are satisfied.
- The density boundary condition is of the form op/on prescribed, usually O. The
justification is p '" p, and op/on '" :t Vn , and Vn = 0 for a rigid boundary.
- The temperature boundary condition is usually well defined.
A realistic approach to the problem would be to express the velocity and density
as
Vi = J!; + c5v i
(2.93)
p = Po + c5p
where J!;, Po are the "far field" values and c5v, c5p represent the change due to the
presence of interior "bodies". Using (2.93), we express the continuity and momen-
tum equations in terms of c5v, c5p, with Vo, Po taken as constant The classical
treatment of compressible flow is based on equations which are "linearized" in c5p,
c5v, and also c5T. This strategy is actually the approach we have followed by
"collecting" all the nonlinear terms and treating them as pseudo distributed
domain terms.
References
1 Brebbia, C.A. Weighted residual classification of approximate methods, App!. Math. Modelling 1978,
2,160.
2 Brebbia, C.A. The Boundary Element Method for Engineers, Pentech Press, London; Halstead Press,
New York, 1978.
3 Brebbia, c.A. and Domingurz, J. Boundary Elements - A Course for Engineers, Computational
Mechanics Publication, Southampton, UK, and McGraw-Hili, NY, 1989.
4 Brebbia, C.A., Telles, J. and Wrobel, L. Boundary Element Methods - Theory and Applications in
Engineering, Springer-Verlag, Berlin and New York, 1984.
5 Brebbia, C.A. (Ed.) Recent advances in boundary element methods, Proc. 1st Int. Seminar on
Boundary Element Methods, Southampton University, Pentech Press, 1978.
6 Brebbia, C.A. (Ed.) New developments in boundary element methods, Proc. 2nd Int. Seminar on
Boundary Element Methods, Southampton University, CML Publications, Southampton, 1980.
7 Brebbia, C.A. (Ed.) Boundary element methods, Proc. 3rd Int. Seminar on Boundary Element
Methods, California, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1981.
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13 Brebbia, c.A. and Wendland, W. (Eds) Boundary Elements IX. Proc. of the 9th Int. Conf. on
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15 Brebbia, C.A. and J. Noye (Eds) "Betech/85" Proc. of the Ist Int. Conference on Boundary Element
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16 Connor, J.J. and Brebbia, C.A. (Eds) "Betech/86" Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conf. on Boundary Element
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17 Brebbia, C.A. (Ed.) Progress in Boundary Element Methods, Vol. 1, Pentech Press, London, 1980.
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No.1, March 1987.
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convective diffusion problems, Topics in Boum;lary Element Research, Vol. 2, Brebbia, CA., ed.,
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the integral equation method, Innovative Numerical Methods in Engineering, Springer-Verlag,
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46 Koichi, K., Brebbia, C.A. and Wrobel, L.c. Boundary Element Analysis of viscous flow by penalty
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1976.
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equations, Chapter 4 of Topics in Boundary Element Research, Vol. 2, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985.
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Computational Machines Publications, Southampton, UK, and Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985.
Chapter 3
A Generalized Formulation for Unsteady

Viscous Flow Problems
by J.e. Wu, U. Guicat, e.M. Wang, and N.L. Sankar
3.1 Introduction
With the increased availability of high speed computers and improved numerical
algorithms, it is now possible to solve numerically many steady and unsteady
viscous flows past arbitrary airfoils. A survey of literature shows that investigators
in the past have taken one of the following two avenues:
a) weak viscous-inviscid interaction and its extension to separated flows,
b) numerical solution ofthe Navier-Stokes equations over the entire computational
domain.
The weak viscous-inviscid interaction techniques were the first techniques to
mature because of their simplicity and computational efficiency. A description of
some reliable techniques in this category may be found in [1,2]. In this approach
the flow field is divided into an external potential flow field and a boundary layer
around the airfoil. The potential flow field is usually computed using a panel
method. The viscous flow region on the airfoil, and in the wake is usually computed
using integral boundary layer techniques. The interaction between the potential
flow with the viscous region is accounted for, either using the modified airfoil
approach or the transpiration velocity approach. In the modified airfoil approach
the displacement thickness is added to the basic airfoil shape to arrive at a new
airfoil shape with an opening trailing edge. The trailing edge is closed somewhere
downstream of the original trailing edge, using a fictitious extension of the modified
airfoil. The transpiration velocity approach uses Lighthill's analogy whereby the
zero normal velocity at the solid surface is replaced by a non-zero normal velocity
Vn = ~(Peue.5*)s where Pe(s), ue(s) and .5*(s) are the edge density, edge velocity and
Pe
the displacement thickness at a location s, on the airfoil surface.
Recently the viscous-inviscid interaction approach has been extended em-
pirically for separated flows and trailing edge stall [3, 4]. In the method of Maskew
and Dvorak [3] for example, the boundary layer is allowed to leave the upper and
lower surface separation points as free vortex sheets of constant vorticity. (If there
is no separation on the lower surface, then the corresponding vortex sheet leaves
the lower surface trailing edge.) The shape of the free vortex sheets is iteratively
adjusted to conform to the local streamlines. The Kutta condition is modified to
state that the strength of the vortex sheet at the upper surface separation point and
A Generalized Formulation for Unsteady Viscous Flow Problems 33
the lower surface separation point (or trailing edge) are equal in magnitude, but
opposite in sign.
The viscous-in viscid interaction techniques, particularly those that model
massive trailing edge separation, have become very useful tools for airfoil design
and analysis. They can predict lift, drag and moment as a function of IX, the angle
of attack, to a reasonable level of accuracy. The computer time is of the order of 15
to 30 seconds on a CDC 7600 per angle of attack. The main drawbacks of the weak
viscous-inviscid interaction methods are
a) they are limited to steady flows,
b) they do not model separated regions accurately,
c) they rely heavily on empirical relationships to predict quantities such as separa-
tion location, profile drag etc.
The second popular approach for solving the viscous flow past airfoils is the
direct numerical solution of Navier-Stokes equations. In this approach the com-
putational domain surrounding the airfoil is divided into a number of quadrilateral
cells using a grid generation technique such as a numerical conformal mapping. The
governing equations and the boundary conditions are recast in the new grid system.
The equations are then solved in a time-accurate manner by marching in time, one
step at a time. For incompressible flows the ellipticity of the kinematics requires
several inner iterations at each time step to satisfy the kinematics of the problem.
Successful numerical procedures for steady and unsteady incompressible Navier-
Stokes equations have been developed by Mehta [4], Lugt and Haussling [6], Wu
and Sampath [7], and others. For compressible Navier-Stokes equations, successful
numerical methods have been developed by Steger [8], Deiwert [9] and others.
Direct numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations has several attractive
features:
a) No empirical relationships or ad hoc assumptions are used except in the tur-
bulence models,
b) Both the steady and unsteady viscous flow equations may be solved using
currently available techniques,
c) Programs developed for one configuration (e.g., single element airfoils) may be
easily modified to handle other configurations (multielement airfoils, internal
flows, etc.)
Direct numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations, however, are com-
putationally expensive, requiring approximately 1 to 4 h of CDC 7600 time for a
typical case. They are also at present incapable of predicting drag and pitching
moments accurately. This is in part due to the relatively coarse mesh used in the
boundary layer regions. The use of a single grid to resolve both the attached regions
and separated regions is convenient, but leads to poor accuracy in both regions.
Finally, direct Navier-Stokes solutions usually do not take advantage of the fact
that a large section of the flow field is inviscid and irrotational. In conventional
numerical formulations, these inviscid regions are also represented by computa-
tional nodes, leading to an excessive amount of nodes, larger number of arithmetic
operations, but poor resolution.
34 A Generalized Formulation for Unsteady Viscous Flow Problems
Some improvements in the solution efficiency may be achieved by confining the

calculations only to regions of significant vorticity, as pointed out by Wu and
Sampath [7]. In their work, the total number of nodes required was about half that
required by a finite difference method leading to a two or three-fold improvement
in the computational efficiency. Recent developments in their formulation, com-
monly called the integro-differential approach, and its extension to internal flows
and turbulent flows may be found in Wu [10] and Sugavanam and Wu [11].
An alternative to viscous-inviscid interaction and the full Navier-Stokes equa-
tions is the zonal approach, which is the subject topic of the present paper. In this
approach, the flow field is divided into three regions:
a) an external, inviscid, irrotational region,
b) an attached thin boundary layer region over the lower surface and part of the
upper surface of the airfoil,
c) a fully separated region aft of the upper surface which includes the wake.
These three .regions are shown in Fig. 1 for a stalled stationary airfoil placed in
a steady free stream. In the zonal approach; as implemented by the present workers,
no nodes are placed in the outer inviscid region. If there is a need to find the flow
properties such as velocity and pressure at any point in the inviscid region, these
values can be readily found, as discussed in the section on mathematical formula-
tion. In the boundary layer region a dense grid is used, which has a sufficient
resolution near the wall to accurately predict the skin friction and the velocity
profile. The boundary layer equations are solved in this region, in a non-iterative
manner by a time-space marching scheme. Calculations start at the leading edge
stagnation point, and are carried to downstream locations by a straightforward
marching procedure.
In the separated region, a relatively coarse grid is used, and the full Navier-
Stokes equations. are used. At each time step, because the flow may be reversed and
because of the elliptic nature of the kinematic equations, inner iterations are usually
needed to compute the flow properties.
Free slream ve{ocily - - - - . Jrw iscid zone

Surfoce vorl icily
00, from eq. (5) 00 =0
Oemorcolion
brundory
Oeloched viscous zone

Forword
slo!Jlolion
brundory
viscous zone
Oemorcol ion
(nviscid zone brundory
* va-ticity RUleS and g-odierlls at demarcatim OOJnOOries are transferred frem attached viscoos zll'le 10 detached viscous zone
Fig. 1. Computation zones and boundaries
Because the zonal approach treats each of the regions as separate zones, there
is a great deal of flexibility in organizing grids that will resolve the diverse length
scales found in these problems. It is also economical because only the separated
region usually requires time consuming iterations, and because of the low number
of nodes. Thus the zonal procedure approaches the viscous-inviscid interaction
procedure in speed and efficiency, but does away with many of the latter's empirical
assumptions and approximations. The present zonal procedure currently requires
approximately 5 min of computer time on the CDC 7600 class of computers. It has
also been extended to turbulent flows past oscillating airfoils.
The present work is organized as follows. In Sect. 3.2, the mathematical and in
Sect. 3.3 the numerical formulation is given. In Sect. 3.4 this procedure is compared
to other solution procedures by considering a number oftest cases. Some additional
ideas and suggestions for improving the present approach are also given in Sect. 3.4.
3.2 Mathematical Formulation
For incompressible viscous flows, it is convenient to work with the vector potential
IfI and vorticity (}) as the primary variables, rather than the primitive variables,
velocity and pressure (v,p). The 1fI- (}) formulation in vector-form may be written
for laminar flows as
VxVXIfI={J) (1)
and
(2)
where v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

For two-dimensional flows considered here, one has the IfI = ",k, (}) = (})k where
k is the unit vector normal to the plane of the flow.
For isolated airfoils placed in a steady freestream the boundary conditions for
the above equations are the velocity VB = 0 at the solid surface or
"'B = const , (3)
where the subscript B denotes the solid surface. Also, V approaches the freestream
velocity Voo very far away from the airfoil surface even for unsteady viscous flows,
so that", approaches uooy - VooX, where Uoo and Voo are the cartesian components
of velocity v. In this section and elsewhere the subscript "00" stands for the free-
stream conditions.
The boundary conditions on the vorticity are handled in a variety of ways by
various investigators. At the far field, ()) approaches zero except at the downstream
boundary where the vorticity shed from the airfoil leaves the computational domain.
At the downstream boundary a linearized form of the vorticity transport equation
is more appropriate:
(4)
36 A Generalized Fonnulation for Unsteady Viscous Flow Problems
The above equation states that the vorticity is convected out of the downstream
boundary at the free-stream velocity.
The vorticity at the surface must also be prescribed at each time step. In the
past, investigators have used Eqs. (1) and (3) to arrive at the following condition:
o2~1 = -WB (5)

oy y=O
where y corresponds to a direction normal to the airfoil. WU [12J has argued that
such representations do not ensure the total conservation of vorticity, and that they
may lead to incorrect results. A more desirable form of the surface vorticity will be
given following some discussions on the grid generation, and the transformation of
the governing equations.
The specification of the problem is complete once w(t = 0) is specified every-
where in the flowfield. Since the vorticity transport equation is parabolic, the initial
conditions will in all cases be damped out of the numerical solution at large time
levels.
As discussed earlier in this work the flowfield is divided into a number of zones
or regions, which are coupled strongly to each other through the kinematics of
the problem [Eqs. (1) and (3)]. The influence of one region on the other needs to
be inexpensively computed. In conventional schemes these regions communicate'
with each other through the nodes in the outer, inviscid region and also through
the nodes in the viscous region. A more efficient way of ensuring that every point
in the flow field is influenced by every other point in the flowfield is by recasting
the differential form of the kinematics through the following integral form:
(6)
The above relationship links the stream function at a point r with every other point
in the flow field with a non-zero vorticity. A formal derivation of the above equation
may be found in Wu and Sampath [7]. By differentiating t/J(r) with respect to x and
y, the familiar Biot-Savart law for v in terms of w may be obtained.
It should be pointed out that the first two terms on the right-hand side of Eq.
(6) represent the contribution of boundary conditions to t/J. In the present problem,
this contribution turns out to be simply the freestream conditions [7]. Equation (6)
contains, in addition to the boundary contributions, an integral over the region
occupied by the fluid. The integrand of the integral in Eq. (6) is zero everywhere
where the vorticity is negligibly small. In particular, in the case of a steady potential
flow, the vorticity is zero everywhere away from the solid boundary. The integral
therefore reduces to a boundary integral, and the formulation of the problem
becomes similar to those utilized in familiar boundary element methods. In general
viscous flows, however, the region of non-zero vorticity extends beyond the solid
boundary and the use ofEq. (6) as presented above is necessary. The present work,
which deals with viscous flows and which utilizes Eq. (6), therefore represents a
generalized boundary element method. The linkage between the present generalized
method and the more familiar boundary element methods using boundary integrals
are discussed in detail in [10]. This linkage is particularly relevant in the deter-
mination of surface vorticity values discussed later in this paper.
3.2.1 Coordinate Transformation

The first step in the zonal procedure is to outline the approximate extent of each of
the zones in the flow field (boundary layer region, inviscid region, wake, separated
flow region), and map these regions into a regular region. The zonal procedure has
been formulated such that each of these regions can be handled independent of each
other, and that they communicate with each other through
a) vorticity flux and gradients at zonal interfaces and
b) through the integral form of the kinematics, given by Eq. (6).
Thus each of the regions may be mapped into a regular, rectangular or annular
region through a different mapping. For example one can use the boundary layer
coordinates in the boundary layer region, a conformal mapping in the separated
region over the upper surface, and a cartesian grid in the wake region. In the present
study, in order to keep the development simple, a single mapping was used to map
all the zones to corresponding zones exterior of a unit circle. This mapping may be
symbolically written as
z = x + iy = F(w) = F(reit/J) (7)
where (x, y) are the physical coordinates, (r, rjJ) are the polar coordinates in the circle
plane and F is an analytic function of (r, rjJ). The scalar factor of the transformation
is denoted by H, given by 1:: I· The function F was chosen such that r = 1
corresponds to the solid surface in the physical plane. In most mappings, in order
to return H as 1 at infinity, it is not possible to simultaneously prescribe the airfoil
chord as unity. The airfoil chord resulting from the mapping is denoted L in the
following discussions.
Under the above mapping the vorticity transport equation becomes,
2 OW 1 1 L 1 1
H -;- + -(rvrw)r + -(vt/Jw)t/J = -Re -(rwr)r + -zwt/Jt/J . (8)
ut r r r r
The kinematics may be expressed in the circle plane in the following differential
form
(9)
or in the following integral form:
I/!(r) = UooY - VooX

1 S wo(ro)lnl-r-IH2ro dro dr/Jo
+ -2 (10)
TC R r - ro
3.2.2 Simplifications in the Boundary Layer Region

The vorticity transport equation in the boundary layer region may be simplified by
dropping the streamwise diffusion terms, which for the present coordinate system
become the w# term. Thus the kinetic equation in the boundary layer region
becomes
I l L
H wt + -(rv,w), + -(v~w)~ = -(rw,), .
2
(11)
r r Rer
The kinematics is also simplified in the boundary layer regions if we write the
velocity components v~ and v, in terms of w as
1
--(rv~),
r
+ (v,)~ = H 2 w . (12)
Since gradients in the ,p direction and velocity components in the r direction are
small, the above equation may be written as
v~ = --1 J' wrH2 dr (13)

r 0
and
,
t/J = Jv,dr . (14)
o
The above two relationships give an economical way of computing the velocity and
streamfunction. Note that Vr> the radial component of velocity in the transformed
plane may be obtained from the continuity equation.
3.2.3 Surface Vorticity Determination
As mentioned earlier, determination of the surface vorticity in the works by other

investigators has been based on Eq. (5). Wu [12] has pointed out that improved
accuracy will result if the surface vorticity W B is determined on the basis of the
following two criteria:
a) the contributions to the streamfunction t/J at a point r B on the boundary, arising

from all the vorticity in the fluid and the freestream, should add up to a constant
i.e., !/I(rB ) = copst,
b) the area integral of all the vorticity in the fluid surrounding the airfoil should
add to zero, both in steady and unsteady flows. The vorticity that has left the
computational domain through the downstream boundary should be included
in the area integral.
These two conditions lead to a system of integral equations for the surface
vorticity W B in terms of the freestream velocity and the exterior vorticity field. The
form of these integral equations is quite similar to the integral equations that arise
in boundary element methods. The surface vorticity W B may be solved for directly
in the physical domain. However, in the present case where the airfoil has been
mapped onto a unit circle, the above integral equation may be analytically inverted
to yield the following explicit relationship:
u'" . V",
- 2-smrP + 2-cos'l' .
A.
(15)
H H
Here R - is the entire vortical field excluding the surface vorticity field. The quantity
Lln is the width of the first row of cells at the body surface. Note that wBLln
constitutes an approximation to the surface vortex sheet strength y, and that the
above formula, for the case where the exterior vorticity field is zero, yields the
potential flow as the solution, with y being the tangential velocity at the surface.
3.3 Numerical Formulation
The details of the numerical formulation, are given in Gulcat [13]. Here we only
outline the order in which calculations are carried out in each of the zones. It may
be noted that there are three zones in the flowfield: Boundary Layer, Navier-Stokes,
and the external potential flow. The external potential flow region is not explicitly
represented by nodes, and does not require any computations. The vorticity bound-
ary conditions along the various boundaries are illustrated in Fig. 1. At any given
time step, the calculations proceed in the following order:
1. The vorticity transport equation in the boundary layer region is solved (Eq. (11))
through a simple marching scheme, starting from the forward stagnation point,
and ending just upstream of the anticipated separation line.
2. The vorticity fluxes and gradients at the last downstream boundary layer station
are transferred as inflow conditions of the Navier-Stokes region.
3. The vorticity transport equation is solved in the Navier-Stokes region, using a
standard time marching scheme.
4. The integral relatibnship for the surface vorticity W B is used to determine the
surface vorticity at all the surface nodes, including those in the boundary layer
regions. It is this step which links the different regions together. Thus a large
separated region will affect the surface vorticity production in the boundary layer
and the boundary layer characteristics, and vice versa.
5. The velocities in the boundary layer are updated using the vorticity profile
obtained in Step 1, and using Eq. (13).
6. The streamfunction in the separated flow region is solved for, by solving the
Poisson's equation [Eq. (19)] using a standard relaxation procedure such as an
SLOR or ADI procedure. The boundary condition needed at the boundaries of
the separated regions are computed using the integral representation for t/I, given
by Eq. (10).
7. Steps 1 through 6 are iteratively repeated at each time step, until the surface
vorticity converges satisfactorily everywhere.
At the end of Step 7, the velocity field and vorticity field are known at the new
time level.
In many calculations, where only a first order time accuracy is desired, the
stream function and velocity information obtained in Steps 5 and 6 may be per-
formed after Step 7. This results in considerable time savings, because the kinematics
needs to be performed only once per time step.
The above outline shows that the calculations in each of the zones is more or
less independent of other zones. All the regions are connected to each other through
the surface vorticity relationship, much as in a panel method the integral equation
for the surface vortex sheet is the basic relationship that holds all the vortex regions
together.
The above approach allows individual zonal algorithms to be upgraded inde-
pendent of each other. For example, the SLOR scheme in Step 6 may be replaced
with an ADI procedure or a direct Poisson solver. The boundary layer equations
in vorticity form may be replaced by existing velocity-pressure form of boundary
layer equations, such as those described by Cebeci and Smith [14]. If additional
configurations are considered such as multielement airfoils, the subroutines devel-
oped here for ea,eh ofthe zones may be used again, provides care is taken to interface
the various regions properly.
Perhaps the most significant advantage arises from the zonal method as a result
ofthe low operation counts. The boundary layer equations are solved very efficiently
at each time step. The vorticity transport equation may be solved non-iteratively if
an ADI algorithm is employed in the separated region. Thus the majority of the
operation counts results from two sources:
a) surface vorticity calculations through Eq. (15),
b) kinematics in the separated region.
The present conformal mapping has some advantages over other non-
orthogonal grids because Eq. (15) may be replaced by a numerical quadrature over
a number of cells, inside each of which the integration may be performed analy-
tically. Likewise, the Poisson solver in Step 6 may be replaced by a direct Poisson
solver developed by Bunemann [15] to obtain additional savings. The computer
code developed iil its present form does not have these new features, but is still an
order of magnitude more efficient than the full Navier-Stokes solvers.
For additional details on the numerical formulation the reader is referred to
Gulcat [13], and Wu, Wang and Gulcat [16].
3.4 Results and Discussions

As discussed earlier, the incompatibilities of diverse length scales associated with
various zones for high Reynolds number viscous flows present serious difficulties
in the computation of such flows. In particular, it is extremely difficult to design a
single computational grid for high Reynolds number flows that provides a sufficient
solution resolution in the attached viscous zone and yet does not require an
excessively large number of grid points, and hence also excessively large amount of
computation, in the detached viscous zone and the inviscid zone. This difficulty is
removed by the present zonal method with which the inviscid zone is removed from
the computation procedure and different grids can be used in the two viscous zones.
With the present zonal procedure, the full Navier-Stokes equations are used only
in the detached zone. Boundary layer equations are used in the attached zone.
Repeated computation and matching of the different zones at each time level are
not required with the present procedure. Since the solution of the boundary layer
equations requires drastically less amounts of computation than the solution of the
Navier-Stokes equations, the overall solution efficiency is greatly improved. The
zonal procedure also leads to substantial improvements in solution accuracy.
Special attributes of the zonal procedure have been utilized in the present work to
establish a highly accurate and efficient computer code. This code is utilized to study
unsteady flows around circular cylinders, airfoils at high angles of attack, airfoils
undergoing flapping motion, and airfoils encountering a passing vortex. This code
is established on the basis of the general procedure described in this paper. Selected
numerical results obtained using this code are presented below.
In Fig. 2 are shown two sets of pressure distributions around a circular cylinder
at a Reynolds number of 107,000 based on the freestream velocity and the diameter
of the cylinder. The'distributions are
a) numerical results obtained by J. Singh using the present zonal approach and
b) experimental results reported in [7].
The numerical results are obtained by setting the cylinder, initially at rest, into
translational motion impulsively and thereafter keeping the cylinder moving at a
constant speed. The computed pressure values presented in Fig. 2 are asymptotic
values obtained at large time levels after the impulsive start. The agreement between
the numerical results and the experimental results is remarkably good. Remarkably
good agreement i.s also observed [13] for the cylinder problem at a Reynolds
number of 40,000. The good agreements are unexpected since no provisions are
made in the present computation to model flow turbulence that should be present
1.0
0.5 \ \
l'"
\1
-l.(} \ \,-:/ y
-"
0 0,../
-1.5
0' 30' 60' 90' 120' 150' 180'
Angle from forward stagnation point
Fig. 2. Pressure distribution on a circular cylinder at a Reynolds number of 107,000. 1 Results using
zonal procedure; 0 experimental data [17]
at these Reynolds numbers in the recirculating flow and in the wake downstream
of the cylinder. Obviously, this flow turbulence does not substantially influence the
flow in the attached zone.
Flow around a 9% thick 10ukowski airfoil at an angle of attack 15° and Reynolds
numbers of tOOO and tOO,OOO based on the chord length and the freestream velocity
have also been studied using the zonal procedure. The airfoil is set impulsively into
motion and thereafter kept moving with a constant speed. A conformal transfor-
mation is employed to map the exterior of the airfoil onto the exterior of a unit
circle. A bilinear transformation is made a part of the transformation to provide
control over grid spacing [13]. Computations are performed in the transformed
plane. Figure 3 shows a sequence of flow patterns at different time levels after the
initiation of the airfoil motion at the Reynolds number of tOOO. The lines in Fig. 3
are streamlines and are spaced 0.04 apart.
Immediately after the impulsive start, the vorticity is non-zero only at the airfoil
surface. The flow in the remainder of the fluid domain is inviscid. The streamlines
shown in Fig. 3a are identical to those for a potential flow with zero circulation
around the airfoil. The rear stagnation point for this flow is located upstream of the
trailing edge on the upper surface ofthe airfoil.
After the onset of the motion, the rear stagnation point moves rapidly towards
the trailing edge. This movement is accompanied by a curling up of the vorticity
near the tailing edge of the airfoil. A starting vortex is then formed from the
curled-up vorticity and is shed from the airfoil as shown in Fig. 4. The lines in Fig.
4 are equivorticity contours. The starting vortex moves downstream and diffuses
rapidly. During the formation and shedding of the starting vortex, the vorticity
diffuses from the airfoil boundary into the fluid. Boundary layers are formed around
the airfoil. The presence of the boundary layers is evident from the presence of the
vorticity around the airfoil shown in Fig. 4 as well as from the displacement of
streamlines away from the airfoil surface shown in Fig. 3b.
The streamline pattern shown in Fig. 3c indicates the appearance of a small
clockwise rotating separation bubble on the upper surface of the airfoil. This bubble
grows in size until the reattachment point reaches the trailing edge, as is shown in
Fig. 3d.
The next stage of development beings when the separation bubble bursts and
the reattachment point of the bubble lifts off from the airfoil, as shown in Fig. 3e.
The bursting of the bubble is followed by the shedding of vorticity from the vicinity
of the airfoil. While the starting vortex is counterclockwise, the vorticity shed after
the bursting of the bubble is clockwise.
Two secondary bubbles appear shortly after the burst of the separation bubble
which, for convenience, is called the primary bubble. One of the two secondary
bubbles is located near the trailing edge and the other is located near midchord, as
shown in Fig. 3f. While the primary bubble is clockwise, the secondary bubbles are
counterclockwise. The secondary bubbles grow slowly with time while the primary
bubble weakens and shrinks. Eventually, the secondary bubble near the trailing
edge opens up and is shed into the wake, as shown in Fig. 3g. The midchord bubble
continues to grow until it divides the primary bubble into two parts, as shown in
Fig. 3h. After this stage, the midchord bubble begins to shrink gradually. Eventually,
A Generaliz
ed F or m ul at
io n {or U ns 43
te ad y Visco
uS Fl ow Pr ob
le m s
b ,-0.11
c T~ O.S6
d Ts1.89
Fig 3 a- . St
i reamlines ar
ou nd a Jo uk o wski
airfoil
cous Flow Problems
lation for Unsteady Vis
A Generalized Fonnu
44
y contours arOUnd
Fig. 4. Equi-vorticit T = 0.08
at
a Joukowski airfoil
the midchord bubble vanishes, leaving the primary bubble again covering almost
the entire upper surface of the airfoil, as shown in Fig. 3i. The flow pattern shown
in Fig. 3i resembles that shown in Fig. 3d. In both Figs. 3i and 3d, a closed clockwise
separation bubble exists on the upper surface of the airfoil. The reattachment point
of the bubble is located close to the trailing edge. The flow has undergone a cyclic
sequence of events, during which vorticities of opposite senses have been sequen-
tially shed, between the time levels for Figs. 3d and 3i.
The behavior of the computed lift force acting on the airfoil is consistent with
the observed shedding of vorticity during this period oftime. That is, when clockwise
vortices are shed, the decrease in clockwise circulation around the airfoil leads to
a decrease in the lift force. Similarly, the increase in clockwise circulation associated
with the shedding of counterclockwise vorticity is accompanied by an increase in
the lift force. Time histories of the computed lift and drag forces acting on the airfoil
are shown in Fig. 5.
The airfoil problem studied here has been treated numerically by several other
researchers [18-21] using non-zonal procedures. The results of these studies are in
good agreement with the present zonal results in terms of the qualitative behavior
of the flow. There exists, however, quantitative differences between the numerical
results. A comparison of several computed quantities are presented in Table 1.
In view of the differences in the grids and the numerical methods used in these
studies, the difference of results are not unreasonable. As shown in Fig. 5, the lift
and the drag coefficients obtained in the present study are in good agreement with
those presented in [21]. The present results, however, differ considerably from those
presented in [18-20]. The agreement and disagreement are likely attributable to
the use of upwind differencing in the kinetic part of the present computation and
in [21]. In [18-20] central differencing was used in approximating the convective
transport of vorticity.
The present procedure requires approximately 12 min of CDC 855 CPU time
to carry the airfoil solution from the initial time level to the time level T = 7.41 for
the case Re = 1000. Thus the average CPU time required to advance the solution
by one unit of dimensionless time, during which the airfoil advances one chord
length relative to the freestream, is less than 2 min. For the case Re = 100,000, with
Table 1. Quantitative flow features
References Present
solution
[18] [19] [20] [21]
Appearance of
primary separation
bubble (time level) 0.436 0.517 0.428 0.474 0.497
Initial location of
separation point
(chord wise station) 20% 23% 26% 25% 22%
Strouhal no. 0.216 0.196 0.238 0.160 0.180
1.6 0.5
~ ~-
r\, -
1.2 0.4
--- •
-
"...-0
• V z~~
0.4 ~~ 'b., I" ~-

/' 0.2
o
-
r--..~- ~
0.1
o 8
T----
Fig.5. Time histories of loads. 1 Zonal procedure, lift coe/I. CL [21]; 2 drag coetT. Co [21]
Table 2. Computer time requirements in min of CDC-6600 CPU for

the circular cylinder problem
Reynolds Non-zonal Zonal

number procedure procedure
40 40
1000 80 12
40,000 200 12
100,000 12
3,600,000 300 30
a denser grid near the body surface, convergent solutions are successfully obtained
and the computational time is about the same as that in the case of Re = 1000.
A distinguishing feature of the present zonal method is that the computation
requirements of the present procedure are insensitive to the flow Reynolds number.
In Table 2 are summarized computer time requirements for computing asymptotic
steady flow around a circular cylinder at various Reynolds numbers. Computer time
requirements listed under the heading "non-zonal procedure" are based on earlier
experiences of the present authors and their coworkers. In these earlier works, an
integral representation was utilized in the kinematic part of the computation to
remove the inviscid zone from the solution procedure. The two viscous zones,
however, were treated together on the basis of the full Navier-Stokes equations in
these earlier works. Two factors contributed to the superior computation efficiency
of the present zonal procedure. First, the use of boundary layer simplifications
makes the computation of the attached zone extremely efficient. In the present study,
the computer time required for the computation of the attached zone, which covers
approximately one half of the solid surface, is found to be roughly 5% of the total
computer time used. Second, with the zonal procedure, the number of computation
points for which the Navier-Stokes equations are solved is drastically reduced. As
is well known, iterative solutions are usually required in solving the Navier-Stokes
equations, and the number of iterations required decreases with a reduction in the
number of computational points. The present zonal procedure therefore benefits

greatly from the large reduction of the number of computational points involved
in the Navier-Stokes computations.
Table 2 shows that, with the present zonal procedure, the computer time
requirements for flows at Reynolds number of 1,000, 40,000, and 100,000 are
identical. A larger amount of computer time is required for the case Re = 3,600,000,
because of the additional computation required for the turbulence modeling. The
present zonal procedure is not suitable for the computation oflow Reynolds number
flows since boundary layer simplifications are not justifiable in the attached zone
for low Reynolds number flows. In consequence, a peculiar feature appears in Table
2 in that the "best" computer time is larger for the case of a Reynolds number of
40 than for the higher Reynolds number cases.
3.5 Concluding ~emarks

For engineering design applications, the ultimate goal of computational fluid
dynamics is to be able to simulate three-dimensional high-Reynolds number flows
routinely. It is anticipated that the difficulties associated with the accuracy of
time-dependent solutions, with the efficiency of three-dimensional computations,
and with the reliability of turbulence models in recirculating flows will require
extensive and persistent efforts over a number of years to resolve. In this regard, the
present zonal approach offers some encouragement because of its inherent efficiency
and its ability to accommodate the complex and diverse physical features present
in a viscous flow.
Acknowledgement
Work supported by ARO under Contract No. DAAG-29-82-K-0094.
References
1 Smetana, F.O., Summey, D.C., Smith, N.S., and Carden, R.K., "Light Aircraft Lift, Drag and Moment
Prediction - A Review and Analysis," NASA CR-2523, 1975.
2 Morgan, H.L., "A Computer Program for the Analysis of Multielement Airfoils in Two-Dimensional
Subsonic Viscous FloW," Aerodynamic Analyses Requiring Advanced Computers, Proc. Conf. NASA
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, 1975.
3 Maskew, B. and Dvorak, F.A., "The Prediction of CL-max Using a Separated Flow Model," J. Am.
Helicopter Soc. April 1978.
4 Le Balleur, "Strong Matching Method for Computing Transonic Viscous Flows Including Wakes
and Separations, Lifting Airfoils," La Recherche Aerospatiale, 1981, pp. 21-45.
5 Mehta, "Dynamic Stall of an Oscillating Airfoil," Proc. AGARD Fluid Dynamics Panel Symp. on
Unsteady Aerodynamics, 1977.
6 Lugt, H.J. and Haussling, J.H., "Laminar Flow Past an Abruptly Accelerated Elliptic Cylinder at
45° Incidence Incidence," J. Fluid Mech.,65, 711-734 (1974).
7 Wu, J.C. and Sampath, S., "A Numerical Study of Viscous Flow Around an Airfoil," AIAA Paper
76-337.
8 Steger, J.L., "Implicit Finite Difference Simulation of Flow About Arbitrary Geometries," AIAA J.
July 1978, pp. 679-686.
9 Deiwert, G.S., "Computation of Separated Transonic Turbulent Flows," AIAA J., 14, 735-740 (1976).
10 Wu, J.C., "Problems of General Viscous Flows," Chapter 4 of Developments in Boundary Element
Methods, R. Shaw and P. Banerjee, Ed. Applied Science Publishers, 1982, pp. 69-109.
11 Sugavanam, A. and Wu, J.e., "Numerical Study of Separated Turbulent Flow Over Airfoils," AIAA
Paper 80-1441.
12 Wu, J.e., "Numerical Boundary Conditions for Viscous Flow Problems," AIAA J., 14, 1042-1049
(1976).
13 Gulcat, U., "Separate Numerical Treatment of Attached and Detached Flow Regions in General
Viscous Flows," Ph.D. Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, March 1981.
14 Cebeci, T. and Smith, A.M.O., "Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layers," Academic Press, 1974.
15 Bunemann, 0., "A Compact Non-Iterative Poisson Solver," Stanford Univ. Inst. for Plasma Re-
search, Rept. 294, 1969.
16 Wu, J.e., Wang, e.M. and U. Gulcat, "Zonal Solution of Unsteady Viscous Flow Problems," AIAA
Paper 84-1637.
17 Achenbach, E., "Distribution of Local Pressure and Skin Friction Around a Circular Cylinder in
Cross Flow Up to Re = 5 x 106 ," J. Fluid Mechanics, 1968, pp. 625-639.
18 Mehta, U.B., "Starting Vortex, Separation Bubbles and Stall - A Numerical Study of Laminar
Unsteady Flow Around an Airfoil," Ph.D. Thesis, Illinois Institute of Technology, 1972.
19 Sampath, S., "A Numerical Study ofIncompressible Viscous Flow Around Airfoils," Ph.D. Thesis,
Georgia Institute of Technology, 1977.
20 Rizk, Y.M., "An Integral Representation Approach for Time Dependent Viscous Flows," Ph.D.
Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1980.
21 El-Refaee, M.M., "A Numerical Study of Laminar Unsteady Compressible Viscous Flow Over
Airfoils," Ph.D. Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1981.
Chapter 4
Natural and Forced Convection Simulation

Using the Velocity-Vorticity Approach
by P. Skerget, A. Alujevic, C.A. Brebbia, and G. Kuhn
4.1 Introduction
The partial differential equations set, governing the laminar motion of viscous
incompressible fluid}s known as nonlinear Navier-Stokes equation. They constitute
the statement of the basic conservation ballance of mass, momentum, and energy,
applied to a control volume, i.e. the Eulerjan description. This equation system is
generally considered to be the fundamental description for all laminar as well as
for turbulent flows, although some statistical averaging procedure is needed (e.g.
Reynolds equations for turbulence) to simulate numerically the flow at high Re
number values due to the enormous computational effort required.
In many practical applications there is no interest in the time dependent be-
haviour, but only for the steady state solutions. It is quite common to all numerical
techniques, that the most successful numerical flow simulations, even for steady
state problems, have to be based on the time dependent equations, and the steady
state solution (if it exists) is being obtained as an asymptotic time limit of the
unsteady equations. The time dependent set of equations is easier to handle, it is
stabler, and - what turns to be very important - the time dependent approach does
not presume the existence of a steady state solution, which indeed may not even
exist.
Although it is possible to obtain numerical solutions from the physical variables
approach (Tosaka et al. [26-28]), a very successful numerical solution, based on
the vorticity-stream function (Onishi [9]), and the vorticity-velocity formulations
can be used. The last formulation by the boundary integral method was originated
by Wu et al. [31-33], and further developed by Skerget et al. [14-23]. Vorticity
formulation due to the diffusion fundamental solution, results in a very stable
numerical scheme.
One of the attractive features of the velocity-vorticity formulation is the com-
putational decoupling of the kinematics and the kinetics of the flow from the
computation of the pressure. Hence, the pressure determination is reduced to a
post-processing operation, involving numerical solution of linear equations for
pressure only.
The buoyancy force can play an important role in nonisothermal flows, espe-
cially in the case of mixed or pure natural convection which is characterised by high
Rayleigh or Grasshoff number values, compared to Reynolds number values with
forced convection. The viscous dissipation term can generally be neglected in the
50 Natural and Forced Convection Simulation
energy equation. In the contrast, the density variation must be accounted for in the
term representing the body forces. As far as the continuity and inertia are concerned,
the density can still be assumed constant. This is the basis ofthe so-called Boussinesq
approximation. The influence of the diffusion momentum and energy transport
becomes diminished as Reynolds or Peclet numbers respectively go to the infinity.
As a consequence the character of the transport equations is changed, making the
numerical simulation difficult.
In this paper the boundary integral equations are given for a general mixed
convection case, while the pure forced convection equations may be readily ob-
tained by neglecting the buoyancy force term.
4.2 Governing Equations
Time dependent laminar flow of viscous isochoric fluids may be described by

conservation ballances of mass, momentum and energy
V·v =0 (1)
"V 2 v - p[~; + (v.V)v] - Vp + pg = 0 (2)
aT
aV 2 T - at - V(vT) = 0 . (3)
This nonlinear system of equations for the initial-boundary value problem has been
formulated above by primitive variables of velocity v, pressure p and temperature
T. Material properties, density p, dynamic viscosity" and thermal diffusivity a =
ko/cp (where ko is conductivity, c specific heat), are assumed here to be constant
parameters. Equations (1) to (3) represent a closed system for the determination of
velocity v(r, t), pressure p(r, t) and temperature T(r, t) fields, subject to appropriate
initial and boundary conditions of velocity and temperature
v=V on Ffor t > to (4a)
v =vo in Q at t = to (4b)
T=T on Fl for t > to (4c)
aT 1
-=--q on F2 for t > to (4d)
an ko
aT h
- = --(T- T.) on F3 for t > to (4e)
an ko S
T= To in Qat t = to (4f)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient and 1'. ambient temperature.
In many practical cases buoyancy forces have to be included in Eq. (2). They
can be taken into account by Boussinesq approximation, where the temperature
Natural and Forced Convection Simulation 51
influence on density is used only with body forces, while it is neglected in all other
terms, where the fluid density is considered to be invariant. Relating density with
temperature by an expression
P = Po[1 - P(T - To)] (5)
where Po is a reference density at temperature To and P is the volume coefficient of
thermal expansion, Eq. (2) can be written in the following form
2
vV v -
av
at - (v·V)v - VP/Po - pg(T - To) = 0 (6)
with P = p - pogr, while r = (x, y, z) is the position vector, and v kinematic viscosity
(v = 11/p).
Introducing vorticity
w=V x v=curlv (7)
the numerical scheme is divided into its kinematic and kinetic part computations.
The kinematic relation of velocity v and vorticity w fields is given by Eqs. (1) and
(7), while the kinetic phenomenon is included in momentum and energy equations
(3) and (6).
Substituting the convection term by the identity
(v·V)v=Vv 2 /2+wxv (8)
the momentum equation (6) can be rewritten as
vV
2
V -
av
at - w x v - Vh - pg(T - To) = ° (9)
where h = P / Po + v2 /2 is the total pressure. By the vector relation

V x V x v = V(V· v) - V 2 v = V X w (10)
Eq. (9) can be transformed into
vV x w +
av
at + W x v + Vh + pg(T - To) = °. (11)
Transport equation for vorticity may be derived by using curl on Eq. (11), bearing
in mind the following vector relations
V x V x w = V(V·w) - V 2 w (12a)
V x (v x w) = v(V· w) - (v· V)w - w(V· v) + (w· V)v (12b)
rendering
For two-dimensional flow the vorticity vector has just one component, perpen-
dicular to the plane offlow. Thus (w· V)v = 0, reducing Eq. (13) to a scalar transport
equation of vorticity
(14)
Vorticity transport equation is nonlinear due to the product of velocity v and

vorticity w, which are kinematically dependent, and also owing to the temperature
dependence of the flow field. Vorticity and energy equations are related through the
temperature field, included in the buoyancy term.
4.3 Vector Potential
Kinematic part of the flow computation is described by the continuity equation (1)
and vorticity definition (7). If the velocity field is solenoidal (V . v = div v = 0) due
to the limitation to the isochoric fluid case, it can be represented by the curl of vector
potential 'P
v=Vx'P (15)
which may also be selected solenoidal
V· 'P = 0 . (16)
Combining directly Eqs. (15), (16) and (7), the following equation is derived
V2'P + w = 0 . (17)
Kinematics of the flow (compatibility of the velocity and vorticity fields at a given
point in time) is given by the above vector elliptic Poisson's equation for the vector
potential (17).
Mathematical formulation for the plane flow is much simpler, since the vector
potential in this case has only one component (stream function), orthogonal to the
xy plane in z direction. Kinematic compatibility of the velocity and vorticity fields
is thus expressed by scalar elliptic Poisson's equation for the stream function
V 2 'P+w=0 (18)
where the velocity vector is defined as
v = (vx, vy) = V x 'Pk =

a'P - alP)
(ay' ax (19)
On the boundary of the plane domain Q the normal n and the tangent t are given by
n = (nx,n y) , (20)
while the normal component Vn and the tangential component Vt of the velocity
vector are
Vn = v·n , (21)
connected to the vector v and its cartesian components like
(22)
The overall mass ballance is given by integrals

JV·vdQ=Jv·ndF=O. (23)
4.4 Boundary Integral Equation for Flow Kinematics
4.4.1 BIE for Stream Function

Kinematic dependence of two-dimensional velocity and vorticity fields is given as
a nonhomogeneous elliptic equation for the scalar function
V2'l' + b = 0 in Q (24)
subject to Dirichlet's and Neumann's boundary conditions
'I' = Iji (25)
iJ'l'
~=-Vt . on 12 (26)
Term b represents body forces and vanishes for potential flow, while with viscous
flow gives the vorticity field influence.
Using Green's theorems for scalars, or by the weighted residual method, the
following elliptic integral equation is derived
iJu* iJ'l'
c(O'l'(e) + J 'l'a;dF = J ~u* dF + J wu*dQ (27)
e,
where u*( S) is the elliptic two-dimensional fundamental solution. Boundary
integrals in the above equation contain boundary velocity values. With them the
potential part of the motion is described, while the domain integral shows the
influence of the vorticity field on the development of the velocity distribution.
Velocity componc;mts in the domain can be obtained by the derivative ofEq. (27)
iJ'l'(e) iJ iJu* iJ'l' iJu* iJu*
iJxj(e) = - J 'I' iJxj(e) a;dF + J ~ iJxj(e) dF + J w iJxj(e) dQ . (28)
4.4.2 Vector Elliptic Equation

Let us find integral equation of the elliptic vector Poisson's differential equation for
the vector function U(s)
(29)
Corresponding integral formulation can be found by the use of Green's theorem for
vectors in the form
HE' V2F - F· V2E)dQ = J(E x (V x F) + E(V· F) - F
x (V x E) - F(V . E)) . n dF (30)
E and F are finite uniform vector functions of the position Y, having continuous
second derivatives. Equating vector Fwith the fundamental solution v*(e,s) of the
e
vector Laplace's equation (V 2 F = 0, #- s) yields
v* = Vu* x e =V x (u*e) (31)
where e is an arbitrary unit vector. Taking into account the vector relation
V2 F = V(V· F) - V x (V x F) (32a)
and with Eq. (31) the following relations are valid (e #- s)
V·v*=O (32b)
V x v* = V x V x (u*e) = - V 2 (u*e) + V(V· u*e) = V(e· Vu*) (32c)
V x V x v* = 0 . (32d)
e
Let's limit the consideration to the case where the source point is not in the
solution domain Q. In the Green's formula (30) the vector field E becomes U, while
F is replaced by v*, and for the solenoidal field (V· U = 0, V· v* = 0) it yields
J<Vu* x e)·BdQ = HU x V(e·Vu*)]·ndF- H(Vu* x e) x (V x U)]·ndF.
(33)
A more convenient form of Eq. (33) can be obtained by the application of the
following vector relations on the domain, first and secpnd boundary integrals
F·(G x H) = (F x G)·H (34a)
F x Vf = fV x F - V x (fF) (34b)
f V x (fF)· n dF = f V· [V x (fF)] dQ = 0 (34c)
J. [(F x G) x H] = [(H x J) x F]·G . (34d)
Thus the following integral equation is obtained
f e·(B x Vu*)dQ = J<e·Vu*)[(V x U)·n]dF- f e·{[(V x U) x n] x Vu*}dF.
(35)
Since the vector e is an arbitrary constant vector, it can be omitted from the
formulation (35), i.e.
H(V xU), n]Vu* dF = f[(V x U) x n] x Vu* dF + f B x Vu* dQ. (36)
Scalar integral equation (27) contains in its boundary integrals strong elliptic
operators: the fundamental solution and the normal derivative of it, while the vector
integral equation (36) includes in its boundary integrals the gradient of the fun-
damental solution. In this case boundary integrals exist only if the singularity point
lies on a smooth boundary.
Using vector relations
F x (G x H) +G x (H x F) +H x (F x G) = 0 (37a)
F x (G x H) = G(F· H) - H(F· G) (37b)
G x (F x H) - G(F·H) = H x (F x G) - H(F·G) (37c)
the formulation (36) can be rewritten in the form of

J(Vu* . n)(V x U) dr = J(Vu* x n) x (V x U) dr + SB x Vu* dQ. (38)
Source point ~ can be transfered in the domain in the same way as it has been done
when developing the boundary integral equation for the scalar functions. The
singularity at ~ is to be separated from the domain by a small surface Fe with radius
6, which fences the interior of the domain. Boundary r encompasses the domain on
the outside. Equation (38) can now be integrated on r+ = r + Fe
S(Vu*· n)(V x U)dr+ = S(Vu* x n) x (V x U)dr+ + SB x Vu* dQ . (39a)
In the limit process (6 ~ 0) the domain Q becomes the whole solution domain, fenced
by the boundary r, while the part inside Fe vanishes. On Fe there is Vu* = n/4rt6 2
and the contribution of the integral on Fe is
41rte""O
lim {S[612 (n'n)(V x U) - 4(n
6
x n) x (V x U)] d Fe} = V x U(~) .
(39b)
If the result (39b) is included into (39a), the integral equation is obtained in the
following form
V x U(~) + S(Vu*· n)(V x U)dr = S(Vu* x n) x (V x U)dr + S B x Vu* dQ
(40)
which is valid for any point inside of the domain.
Boundary integral equation can now be developed further using the limit
process, in which the source point is transfered to the contour. On a smooth
boundary the point has to be fenced by Fe. Equation (40) has to be formulated for
r and Fe. Integration contributions on Fe are now, bearing in mind Vu* = - n/4rt6 2
1
-4 lim{-S[~(n.n)(v x U)- 12 (n x n) x (V x U)Jd Fe } = -tv x U(~).
1t e""O 6 6 (41)
For all source point in/out-side positions, the following general formulation of the
vector integral equation is valid
c(~)V x U(~) + J(Vu*· n)(V x U) dr = J(Vu* x n) x (V x U) dr + SB x Vu* dQ .
(42)
4.4.3 BIE for Vector Potential
Kinematics of the three-dimensional flow is included in vector Poisson's equation

(17) for velocity potential
(43)
Since every component of the velocity potential satisfies the Poisson's equation (24),
the integral equation for vector potential may be developed in such manner, that
the integral equation takes vector 'P into account in place of the stream function
'P in (27).
An alternative integral formulation of the fluid flow kinematics can be obtained

by applying the Green's theorem for vectors (30) or from the vector boundary
integral equation (42), where the vector U is to be replaced by 'P, and vector B by
w, rendering
c(e)v(e) + J(Vu*·n)vdF= J(Vu* x n) x vdF+ J w x Vu*dQ . (44)
This boundary integral equation (44) is equivalent to the continuity equation and
vorticity definition, expressing kinematics of the three-dimensional flow in the
integral form. Boundary velocity conditions are included in boundary integrals,
while the domain integral gives the contribution- of the vorticity fields to the
development of the velocity field. Equation enables the explicit determination of
velocity components in the domain. Boundary vorticity values are expressed in the
integral form within the domain integral, excluding a need for use of approximate
formulae determining vorticity on the boundary, which wbuld bring some addi-
tional error into the numerical scheme employed.
Vector equation (44) can also be given in the component form for individual x,
y, z directions
ou* (ou* oU*) (ou* oU*)

c(OvAe) + J Vx a; dF = J Vz Tznx - ~nz dF - J Vy ~ny - Tynx dF
ou* ou*
+ JwYTzdQ - JWz oj dQ (45a)
c(Ovy(O + J Vy °oun* dF = J Vx(o;: ny - °ouy* nx )dF - J Vz (0;; nz - o;z* ny) dF
ou* ou*
+ Jwz~dQ - JwXTzdQ (45b)
ou*
c(e)vAe) + J vz,a;dF = J Vy (ou*
Tynz -
oU*) (ou* oU*)
Tzny dF - J Vx Tznx - ~nz dF
ou* ou*
+ J wxTydQ - J wy~dQ (45c)
4.4.4 BIE for External Flows

Let us consider a body sunk in an infinite domain ofisochoric fluid. Velocity in the
free stream Voo can be introduced in the kinematic formulation (44), splitting the
domain by two separate boundaries, F dividing solid body from the fluid, and Foo
at a very large distance where the free stream velocity Voo applies.
The contribution of the velocity field at the infinite distance, or the influence of
the potential flow to the development of the velocity field, can be determined in the
following way. The boundary Foo should be a very large spherical surface of radius
R, with the solid body in the middle.
Boundary integral equation (44) can now be written for F + Too = T+
c(Ov(O + J(Vu*·n)dT+ = J(Vu* x n) x vdF+ +J w x Vu*dQ. (46a)
The contribution on roo can be evaluated using the value Vu* = -n/4nR2
~ lim {- J[~(n.n)voo - ~(n x n) x vooJdroo } =

4n R-oo R R
-V oo (46b)
and the boundary integral equation of the external flow around the immerged body,
which has the surface r, becomes
c(~)v(~) + J(Vu*· n)vdr = J(Vu* x n) x vdr + J w x Vu* dQ + Voo. (47)
For the case of a nonrotating impermeable surface r (with v = 0), the above
equation (47) simplifies to
(48)
which may be recognised as the Biot-Savart's law of induced velocity, which
represents a relationship between the velocity and vorticity fields of an infinite
domain. Since only the vorticity distribution in a viscous domain contributes to the
velocity, while the domain integral in a potential flow part vanishes (w = 0), the
solution procedure (discretisation) has to be made only for the vorticity part of the
whole domain.
4.4.5 Plane Flow

Kinematics of internal plane flows is described by two scalar equations, obtained
from the vector equation (44)
which for external flows simplifies further to

ou*
c(~)vA~) = - Jway-dQ + Vxoo ,
4.5 Discretisation of the DIE for Flow Kinematics

Boundary r has to be divided into E boundary elements with Ne boundary nodes,
while the domain Q into C internal cells with Nc internal points. Functions v and
ware approximated in each individual element and cell by interpolating poly-
nomials {<P} or {<p} respectively, of an arbitrary degree, requesting a corresponding
number of nodal point values required for fitting.
4.5.1 Discretised BIE of Plane Flow Kinematics

The following function approximations on the boundary and in the domain are to
be used (where T stands for the transposition)
Vi = {tPY{v;}n , i = 1,2 (51a)

w = {~Y{w}n . (51b)
The discrete form of the integral equations (49) is now
c(e)vx(e) + J1 (HtPyo;: dF,,){vx}n= et1 (HtPyO;t* dF,,){vy}n
- ct (H~YOo~ d.Qc){w}n (52a)
c(e)vy(e) + et (HtPYOoU: dF,,) {vy}n = - et1 (HtP}TO;t* dF,,) {vx}n

+ ct (H~}TOO~ d.Qc){w}n (52b)
Integrals in the formulation (52) are dependent upon the geometry only. Using the
following notation
(53a)
(53b)
(53c)
the Eqs. (52) can be transformed into

E E C
c(e)vx(e) + L {hY{vx}n = e=l
e=l
L {htY{vy}" - c=l
L {dyY{w}n (54a)
E E C
c(e)vy(e) + L {h}T{Vy}n = - e=l
e=l
L {ht}T{v x}" + c=l
L {dx}T{W}". (54b)
Discretised formulations (54) are used first for all boundary nodes, resulting in a
system of 2Ne algebraic equations
[c(e)] {vAe)} + [11] {vJ = [HtJ{vy} - [Dy] {w} (55a)
[c(e)] {vy(e)} + [H]{vy} = -[Ht] {v x} + [DxJ{w} (55b)
or
[H] {v x} = [Ht] {vy} - [Dy] {w} (56a)
[H]{vy} = -[HtJ{vx} + [Dx]{w} . (56b)
The system of Ne equations for Ne unknown boundary values of the vorticity can
be developed from (56) by multiplying it with an unit tangent t(e) = (t1' t 2) and
summing up
what is identical to the application of the tangential velocity component at all

boundary nodes (vt(e) = v(e)· t(e), e = 1, N e ).
If the velocity boundary conditions are given at the whole boundary r, the only
remaining unknowns in the equation system (57) are the boundary vorticity values
at Ne nodes
([DY]l - [D,,]2)r{W}r = -([H]1 + [Ht]2){V,,} + ([Ht]l - [H]2){Vy}
(58)
Boundary values of the first derivative of the vorticity have yet to be determined in
the kinetic part of the numerical scheme.
On a part of the boundary r, symmetry conditions may be applied (awl
an = 0, Vn = 0) or (w = 0, Vn = 0) respectively.
Using Eq. (20), Eq. (57) can be transformed to
[EJ{vn } = [F]{vt } - ([DY]l - [D"]2){W} . (59)
On this part of the boundary the unknown values in (59) are the nodal velocity
components in the tangential direction, while the boundary vorticity values or its
normal derivatives have to be determined in the kinetic part. The velocity vector
follows then from relations (20).
The explicit evaluation of velocity values in the domain is given by Eq. (55), with
the value of c(e) = 1, i.e.
{v,,(e)} = -[11] {v,,} + [HtJ{vy} - [DyJ{w} (60a)
{vy(e)} = -[11] {vy} - [HtJ{v,,} + [D"J{w} . (60b)
4.5.2 Discretised DIE of tbe Kinematics for tbe 3D Flow
The following appro.ximations of the velocity vector on the boundary, and of the
vorticity vector in the domain shall be used
Vi = {<p}T{VI}n , i = 1,2,3 (61a)
WI = {~V{WI}n , i = 1,2,3 (6Jb)
producing the disretised form of the equations for individual x, y, z directions
(62a)
C(~)Vy(~) + etl [Htl>}TO;n* dI: }vy}n
= etl [Htl>V(o;: ny - O;y* nX)dI: }VxY

- etl [Htl>}T(O;; nz- o;z* ny)dI: }VzY
+ ct [HqJVoo~ dQc}WzY - ct [HqJYo;z* dQc}wJn (62b)
(62c)
Boundary and domain integrals in Eq. (62) are dependent on the geometry only,
and abbreviated as follows
(63a)
(63b)
(63c)
(63d)
(63e)
and thus Eqs. (62) are transcribed into

c c
+ L {dxY{wzt - L {dz}T{Wx}n
c=l c=l
(64b)
c c
+ L {dy}T{Wx}n - L {dx}T{Wy}n.
c=l c=l
(64c)
Discretised equations (64) have to be written first for all boundary nodes (e = 1, Ne)'
rendering a system with 3Ne algebraic equations for 3Ne unknown boundary vor-
ticities Wi (i = 1,2, 3)
[c(e)J{vAe)} + [HJ{v x } = [HzxJ {v z} - [HxyJ{vy} + [DzJ{wy} - [DyJ{wz }
(65a)
[c(e)] {v,(e)} + [HJ{vy} = [HxyJ{v x} - [HyzJ{v z } + [DxJ{wz } - [DzJ{wx}
(65b)
[c(e)J{vAe)} + [.8J {v z } = [HyzJ {vy} - [HzxJ{v x} + [DyJ{wx} - [DxJ{wy}
(65c)
or
[HJ {v x } = [Hz~J{vz} - [HxyJ{vy} + [DzJ{wy} - [DyJ{wz } (66a)
[HJ{vy} = [HxyJ{v x } - [HyzJ{v z } + [DxJ{wz } - [DzJ{wx } (66b)
[HJ {v z } = [HyzJ{vy} - [HzxJ{v x } + [DyJ{wx } - [DxJ{wy} . (66c)
These equations can be transformed into a system of simultaneous equations for
boundary values of vorticity vector Wi (i = 1, 2, 3)
[DyJr{wz}r = -[HJ{vx } + [HzxJ {v z } - [HxyJ{vy} + [DzJ{wy} - [DyJ,Q{wz},Q
(67a)
[DzJr{wx}r= -[HJ{vy} + [HxyJ{v x } - [HyzJ{v z } + [DxJ{wz } - [DzJ,Q{wx},Q
(67b)
[DxJr{wy}r = -[HJ{vz } + [HyzJ{vy} - [HzxJ{v x } + [DyJ {wx } - [DxJ,Q{wy},Q.
(67c)
The explicit evaluation ofthe velocity vector in the domain is obtained with c( e) = 1.
4.6 Boundary Integral Equation for the Flow Kinetics

Vorticity transport equation describes the development of the vorticity field with
respect to time. It is a parabolic equation, representing an initial-boundary value
problem. In addition to the initial vorticity distribution, all boundary vorticity
values have also to be known at all instants oftime. These boundary vorticities have
been determined from the kinematic relation of velocity and vorticity fields in the
kinematic part of the numerical scheme.
4.6.1 BIE for Kinetics of Plane Flows

Governing transport equation for vorticity of plane flows (14) is a nonhomogeneous
scalar parabolic equation
ow + b =
vV 2 w - - 0 in Q (68)
ot
with corresponding essential and natural boundary conditions
W=W (69a)
ow
-=-q
_ (69b)
on
Initial conditions with Eq. (68) are
in Q . (69c)
The nonhomogeneous term b represents pseudo-body forces.
There is a corresponding boundary integral equation to (68)
ou* ow
c(~)W(~,tF) + v If w-;-drdt = v If ~u* drdt + If bu*dQdt + f WF-1U;-1 dQ
~ un n~
where u* is the parabolic two-dimensional fundamental solution. Body forces bare

equal to the convective and buoyancy term
ou*
c(~)W(~,tF) + v If wa;drdt
ow
= v If on u*drdt
- If[V(vw) + P{gy, -gx}VT]u*dQdt + f WF-1U;-1 dQ . (71)

In the first domain integral of Eq. (71) there are direction derivatives of vorticity
and temperature. These can be eliminated in various ways, e.g. explicitly from the
corresponding integral equations, what may not be economic due to the required
solution of four additional equations at each point in the domain. Also the derivative
of shape functions, known in the finite element method, is not adequate since it
causes some stability problems in the numerical scheme. The alternative possibility
is of course the usage of Gaussian theorem on the domain integral, resulting in an
integral equation without derivatives of functions within the domain
ou* ow
c(~)W(~,tF) + v If wa;drdt = v If on u*drdt - If[wv n + PgtT]u*drdt
+ fHwv + P{gy, -gx}T]Vu*dQdt
+ f WF - 1 U;-l dQ (72)
where gt = g' t is the tangential component of the gravity acceleration. Equation

(72) represents the vorticity transport in the integral form. Vorticity diffusion is
described by the first two boundary integrals, while the third boundary integral
represents the convective flow on the boundary, which vanishes for Vn = 0, and the
vorticity generation on the boundary due to buoyancy forces. The first domain
integral gives the influence of forced and natural convection, while the second
domain integral is due to the initial vorticity distribution effect on the development
of the vorticity field in the next time interval.
4.6.2 BIE for Kinetics of 3D Flows

Describing the spatial vorticity transport in the integral form, it has to be taken
into account that each component of the vorticity vector Wi (i = 1, 2, 3) obeys a
nonhomogeneous parabolic equation
vV'
2
W. -
,
OWi
-
ot
+ b·' = 0 in Q (73)
subject to the corresponding boundary conditions of the first and second kind
Wi=Wi (74a)
an = -qi
OWi _
(74b)
and some initial conditions

Wi = WiO in Q (74c)
while bi represents the vector of pseudo-body forces.
For each vorticity component Eq. (70) applies in the following form
ou* ow·
c(e)wi(e, t F ) + v I I Wi a; dFdt = v I I on' u* dFdt + I I biu* dQ dt
+ I Wi •F - 1 U;-l dQ (75)
where u* is now the three-dimensional parabolic fundamental solution. Body forces
include convective, deformative (twist or stretching) and buoyancy terms from (13),
rendering equation
ou*
c(e)wi(e, t F ) + v I I Wi a; dFdt
= v II --;-u*dFdt
oWi - II[Vj-;-
oWi - oVi
Wj-;- OTgk] u*dQdt
+ peijk-~-
un UXj UXj UXj
+ I Wi,F-l U;-l dQ (76)
where eijk is the permutation symbol (e ijk = + 1 for even combinations, eijk = -1
for odd combinations, and eijk = 0 for any double or triple combination of indices).
Domain integrals in Eq. (76) incorporate derivatives of field functions. This
problem may be sorted out in various ways, as described with plane flows. By the
use of Gaussian theorem the derivatives may be transfered to the fundamental

solution, and the following integral equation, given in cartesian tensor notation, is
obtained
ou*
- JJ[WiVj - J
Vi Wj + peljkgk T] OX dQ dt + Wi,F-l U;-1 d.Q . (77)
:J
Equation (77) expresses the 3D vorticity transport in the boundary integral for-
mulation. It shows a complete analogy with Eq. (72) for plane flows, with an
exception of the deformation (twist-stretching) transport term, which appears only
in three dimensional cases.
Let's give Eq. (77) also in the component form for x, y, z directions
ou*
c(e)wx(e,tF) + v JJwxa;drdt
= v H °o:Xu*drdt - H[wxv n - VxWn + p(gzny - gynz)T]u*drdt
+ H[(WxVy - VxWy + pgzT)O;; + (wxv z - VxWz - pgrT) O;z*] d.Q dt

+ JWx 'F-1 U;-1 d.Q (78a)
ou*
c(e)w,(e,tF) + v JJwya;drdt
= v H °O~ u*drdt - H[wyvn - VyWn + P(gxnz - gznx)T]u*drdt
+ H[(wyV z - vywz + pgxT)O;z* + (WyVX - VyWx - pgzT/;:]d.Qdt

+ JWy 'F-1 U;-1 d.Q (78b)
ou*
c(e)wAe,tF) + v JJwza;drdt
= v H 00; u* drdt - H[wzvlI - VzWn + p(gynX - gxny)T]u* drdt
+ JJ[(WzV x - VzWx + pgyT) 0;: + (WZvy - vzwy - pgxT ) O;;]dQdt
+ JWz 'F-1 U;-1 d.Q . (78c)

4.7 Discretised HIE for the Kinetics of Flow

Searching for an approximate solution of velocity, vorticity and temperature fields
the boundary r has to be discretised in E elements with Ne boundary nodes, and
the domain D into C internal cells with Nc points. Values of the field variables are
to be approximated in individual elements and internal cells by the use of interpola-
tion polynomials {cP} and {~} with respect to space, and by time interpolation
polynomials {IP}.
4.7.1 Discretised BIE for Kinetics of Plane Flows

For two-dimensional flow case the following approximations on the boundary and
in the interior of the domain are used
W= {cP?{'l'} {w}::, (79a)
ow = {cP?{'P} {Owr (79b)

on on m
gtT = {cP?{'P} {gtT}::' (79c)
WVn = {cP} T{'PH wvn}::. (79d)
T = {~?{'PHT}::' (7ge)
WVi = {~}T{'l'}{WVi}::' , i = 1,2 (79f)
WF-l = {~?{W}~-l . (79g)
Index n refers to the number of nodes in each boundary element or internal cell, i.e.
also relates to the degree of the respective spatial interpolation polynomial, while
index m means the degree of time polynomial {'P}, e.g. m = 1 for constant, m = 1,
2 for linear fitting etc. .
Let us select the constant interpolation distribution of field variables within
individual time increments ('P = 1, r = tF - tF- 1 ), yielding from (72) and (79) the
following discretised equation
cR)wR,tF) + vetl [f{cP}T (J 0;: dt)dI;,] {w}~

= vetl [f{cP?(J u*dt)dI;,J {~:}:
E
- L [f{cP}T(J u*dt)dI;,J{wvn + pgtT}~
e=l
+ ct [f{~}T(J ~~ dt)dDcJWVx + pgyT}~
+ ct [f{~?(J °o~ dt)dDcJ{WVY - pgxT}~

c
+L [f{~}TU;_l dDcJ {W}~-l (80)
c=l
Time integrals in Eq. (SO) may be evaluated analytically (where the integration limits
are from t F - 1 to t F )
(S1a)
(S1b)
(S1c)
where E1 = J~(e-t/t)dt is the exponent integral function and X F -1 = r2/4vr: its

argument, while d(e, S) = (xi(e) - Xi(S)· ni(S), i = 1,2.
In the discretised equation (SO) there are the following space integrals, which are
functions of the geometry, time step and material properties
hen = JtPnoU
on* dre (S2a)
g; = JtPnU* dr., (S2b)
d~i = J(pn O~U* dD c , i = 1,2 (S2c)

vXi
b: = v JrU;-1 dD c • (S2d)
With these integrals the discretised equation can be written as
c(e)w(e,tF ) + et1 {hY{w}j,= et1 {g}T{~:}: -tet1 {g}T{WVn + pgtT}j,

1 C
+- L {dxY{wv x + pgyT}j,
v c=1
1 c
+- L
V c=1
{bY{W}j,-1 . (S3)
This equation has to be used first for all boundary nodes (e = 1, Ne )
[HJ{wh = [GJ{~:L -t([GJ{WVn + pgtTh - [DxJ{wv x + pgyTh
- [DyJ{wvy - PgxTh - [BJ{wh-d . (S4)

If on the whole boundary the velocity vector is prescribed in cartesian components
v = (vx, vy), or by its normal and tangent components (v n, Vt), the solution ofEq. (S4)
for unknown normal derivatives of vorticity on the boundary can be obtained, since
the boundary values of the vorticity itself are already known from the kinematic part
of the numerical scheme.
Boundary values of vorticity are unknown only on the part of r, where sym-
metry conditions apply (ow/on = 0, Vn = 0).
The remaining explicit computation of the vorticity in the domain [c(e) = 1] is
performed by the use of the following equation
~
{w(e)h= -[H]{wh+[G] {ow} 1
on F -~([GJ{wvn+pgtTh
- [DxJ{wv x + PgyTh - [DyJ{wvy - PgxTh - [B]{W}F-d . (85)
4.7.2 Discretised BIE of the Kinetics for 3D Flow

For the numerical solution of the spatial transport equation for vorticity the
following approximations of field variables on the boundary and in the domain
have to be considered
Wi = {<PY{P} {Wi}::' , i = 1,2,3 (86a)
O~i = {<P Y{'I'} {OWi}" (86b)

on on m
WiV" = {<P}T{P}{WiVn}::' (86c)
ViWn = {<P}T{P}{ViWn}::' (86d)
(gjni - gin)T = {<PY{P}{(gjni - ginj)T}::' , (i,j) = 1,2,3 (86e)
WiVj = {~Y{P}{WiVJ::' (86f)
(86g)
for all functions and function products, playing role in (78). Index n refers to the
degree of the spatial interpolation polynomial, while index m means the degree of
time polynomial used.
Discretised equations shall be given below for the constant approximation with
respect to time ('I' = 1,'r = tF - t F - 1 ) for x, y, z directions (where time integration
limits are from tF - 1 to t F )
c(e)wAe,tF) + v ~1 [H<pY(J 0;: dt)dI: }wJj,

= v et1 [H <P} T (J u* dt) dI:] {oo:x }:
E
- I [H<pY(J u*dt)d~J{wxvn -
e=1
VxWn + p(gzny - gynz)T}j,
+ c~ [H~Y(Joo~ dt)dDcJ{WxV Y - VxWy + pgzT}j,
+ ct1 [H~Y(J o~* dt)dDcJ{wxvz - VxWz - pgyT}j,

c
+I [H~}TU;_1 dDc] {Wx}j,-1 (87a)
c=1
C(~)Wy(~,tF) + vet1 [J{4>V(Sa;: dt)d~] {wy}p

=V e~ [J{4>}T(SU*dt)d~J{~~}:
E
- e=l
I [J{4>V(J u*dt)d~J{WyVn - VyWn + P(gxnz - gznJT}p
+ c~ [J{<bV(S a;z* dt)dQc}wyv Z - VyWz + pgxT}p
+ c~ [J{<b}T(S aa~ dt)dQc}WYVX - VyWx - pgzT}p

c
+ I [J{<bV U1-1 dQcJ{WY}P-1 (87b)
c=1
and
C(~)WA~,tF) + e~ [J{4>V{Sa;: dt)d~}wz}p

V
= vet1 [J{4>}T(S u*dt)d~J {aa;}:

E
- I [J{4>}T(J u*dt)d~J{wzvn - VzWn+ p(gynX - gxny)T}p
e=l
+ ~ [J{<b}T(S aau: dt)dQc] {wzVx - VzWx + pgyT}p
+ c~ [S {<b}T (S a;y* dt) dQc] {WzVy - VzWy - Pgx T}p

c
+ I [J{<b}Tu1-1 dQcJ{Wz}P-1
c=1
. (87c)
Tim~ integrals,in discretised equations (87) may be calculated analytically, where

(integrating from t F - 1 to t F )
* _ Su* d t -- 41t3/2r(~,S)r
U -v
1 (12,XF - 1 ) _ 41tr(~,S)(1-erfxF-d
-
1 1/2 (88)
where r(-!-, x) = S~ e- t C 1/2 dt is the incomplete gamma function with an argument

of X F - 1 = r2j4vr, while erfx is the error function.
The spatial integration terms become now in elements and cells
hen = S 4>n au
an* dTe (89a)
(89b)
dci" = J."",,,OU*
OXt
...In
\D4c , i = 1,2,3 (89c)
b: = J¢J"U1-1 dQ
V c • (89d)
Integrals (89) are dependent upon geometry, time increment and material prop-
erties. The discretised form of integral equations can thus be written for individual
x, y, z directions
E
c(e)wx(e,tF ) + L {hV{wx}~
e=l
= f {gV{OWx}"
e=l an F
1 E
- -Ve=l
L {gV{wxv" - vxw" + p(g"ny - gyn,,)T}~
1 c
+ - L {d"}T{wxV,, - VxWz - pgyT}~
V c=l
1 c
L {bV{W,$-l
+ -V c=l (90a)
E
c(e)wy(e,tF ) + L
e=l
{hV{wy}~
= f {gV{OWy}"
e=l an F
1 c
+- L
V c=l
{b}T{WY}~_l (90b)
and
E
c(e)w"(e,tF ) + L
e=l
{hV{wz}~
= f {gV{OW"}"
e=l an F
(90c)
Equations (90) can be written for all boundary nodes R = 1, Ne )
[H] {wxh = [G] {Oo; L-~([G] {wxvn - VxWn + p(gzny - gynz)Th
- [DyJ{ WxVy - Vx Wy + pgz Th - [DzJ{ WxV z - Vx Wz - pgy Th

- [BJ{wxh-d (91a)
[HJ{wyh = [G] {Oo~ L-~([GJ{WyVn - VyWn + P(gxnz - gznx)Th
- [DzJ{wyv z - vywz + pgxTh - [DxJ{wyv x - VyWx - PgzTh

- [BJ{wyh-d (91b)
[H] {wzh = [G] {~:z L-~([G] {wzv n - VzWn + p(gynX - gxny)Th
- [DxJ{ WzV x - VzWx + pgy Th - [Dy] {WZvy - Vz Wy - Pgx Th

(91c)
These equations ,are to be solved for unknown derivative of the vorticity vector
(owdon), while the boundary vorticity values (Wi' i = 1, 2, 3) are determined in the
kinematic part of the numerical scheme. Vorticity vector in the domain is then
determined explicitly from Eq. (90) with the value of c(~) = 1.
4.8 Boundary Integral Equation for Energy Transport

Governing Eq. (3) for temperature is a nonhomogeneous scalar parabolic equation
oT
aV2T--+ b = 0 in .Q (92)
Ot
with its boundary conditions of the first and second kind
oT 1
T=T -=--q (93)
On ko
The nonhomogeneous term includes arbitrary pseudo-body forces. Due to the

formal similarity to the vorticity equation, energy equation may directly be re-
written into its integral formulation
ou*
c(e)T(e, t F) + a JJ T a;drdt
= a II ~: u* drdt + II bu* dQdt + J TF-1U;-1 dQ .
(94)
where u* is the parabolic (3D or 2D) fundamental solution. Body forces may be
equated with the convective term, rendering
c(e)T(e, tF) + a JJ T ou*

on drdt
=aJ f~: u*drdt - JJV(JlT)u*dQdt + JTF-1U;-1 dQ . (95)
The body force domain integral involves temperature derivatives which can be
eliminated by an integration by parts, or by Gaussian divergence theorem, yielding
the following integral statement
ou*
c(e)T(e,tF) + a II Ta;drdt
oT
= a II on u*drdt - II Tvnu*drdt + II TV'Vu*dQdt + J TF-1U;-1 dQ
(96)
This integral statement describes the diffusion-convective transport of thermal
energy in the integral formulation. The first two boundary integrals give heat
diffusion from the surface. Convection from the surface is described by the third
boundary integral, while the remainder of the convection is included in the first
domain integral, and the second domain integral represents the effect of initial
temperature conditions in the development of the thermal field in the next time
interval.
Equation (96) is valid both for spatial as for plane energy transport of thermal
energy in fluids, subject to the use of appropriate 2D or 3D parabolic fundamental
solutions.
4.9 Discretised Energy Transport Equation
Approximative numerical solution of the energy transport equation may be ob-

tained by discretisation of the boundary r with E elements (Ne nodes), and the
interior Q by C cells (Nc points). Functions T, oT/on, Vn T and TVi are to be
approximated in individual element or cell using shape functions {tP} and {tfi} in
each time increment, with time interpolation functions {'l'} and nodal values
T = {tPr{'l'}{T}::' (97a)
oT = {tPr{'l'} {OTf (97b)

On On m
TVn = {tPr{'l'}{Tv n}::' (97c)

TVi = {tfir{'l'}{Tv i }::' (97d)
TF- 1 = {tfir {T}~-l . (97e)
With these functions (97) the discretised integral equation may be formulated, using
constant time interpolation ('l' = 1)
c(e)T(e,t~) + a etl [HtP}T(SO;; dt)dF"J{T}~

=a etl [H tPr (J u* dt) dF,,] {~~}: - etl [H tP} T(S u* dt) dF"J{ TVn}~
+ c~ [Htfi}T(S ~:: dt)dQc}TVi}~ + c~ [Htfir u1-1 dQcJ{T}~_l . (98)
The time integrals involved in the discretised equation (98) can be evaluated analy-
tically as given by (81) for plane and by (88) for space problems, just replacing
viscosity v with diffisivity a. Using integrals (82) or (89) respectively, Eq. (98) is
transformed into
(99)
Equation (99) can be written for all boundary nodes, obtaining the equation system
-~([G]
for unknown boundary values of temperature and thermal flux respectively
[H] {Th = [G] {~:t {Tvnh - [DJ {TV;}F - [B] {Th-d (100)
where i = 1,2 for plane, and i = 1,2, 3 for spatial problems. First part of Eq. (100)
represents diffusion from the surface, while the second part describes convective
transport, and is nonlinear due to products TVn and Tv;. The equation thus becomes
[HJ{Th = [G] {~:t + {FN(T, v)} (101)
and taking into account given boundary conditions it follows

[A] {X} = {F} + {FN(T, v)} (102)
where [A] is the system matrix of Ne order, {X} is vector of unknown boundary
values of temperature and normal derivatives, {F} represents known boundary
conditions, while {FN} is the nonlinear convection contribution. In the case of pure
diffusion (v = 0) the nonlinear part vanishes. For larger Peclet number (Pe = Re Pr)
values the nonlinearity due to the product TVi become more and more important.
The temperature in the domain can be evaluated explicitly from
{Th = - [11] {Th + [G] an {aT} F -

1
a([G] {Tvnh - [D;] {TVi} - [B] {T}F-d .
(103)
4.10 Computational Scheme
Kinematic, kinetic vorticity and temperature equations are coupled in the set of non-
linear equations. Ite~ative point under-relaxation solution procedure has to be em-
ployed to compute new domain temperature and vorticity values at each time step,
where the under-relaxation parameter K depends on Rayleigh or Reynolds numbers
value. The solution procedure requires the following steps for each time increment:
- Start with some initial values for wO, TO
Kinematic part
- Solve the system for boundary vorticity values
- Calculate domain velocity components in an explicit manner
Energy part
- Solve the system of equations for unknown boundary temperature and energy
fluxes
- Explicit calculation of internal temperatures with reversed sweep
Ti+l = KTi+1 + (1 - K)Ti .
Kinetic part
- Solve the system of equations for unknown boundary vorticity fluxes
- Explicit calculation of internal vorticities with reversed sweep
Wi+l = K Wi+l + (1 - K)w i .
With reversed sweep the convergence is accelerated and greater stability of the
iterative scheme achieved. The iterative procedure is continued until a convergence
criterion is satisfied
max ITi+1 - Til/max IT i+1 1 < e
j j
j j
where e is some small positive number depending on desired accuracy, which is also
checked by computation of circulation, vorticity and energy ballance.
4.11 Boundary Conditions

In general the flow solutions are distinguished only by the boundary and initial
conditions, as well as by the flow parameters, like Reynolds and Rayleigh number
values. Most of the boundary conditions given are either of the Dirichlet's or
Neumann's type.
Figure 1 represents a two-dimensional back step problem suitable for identifica-
tion of appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
By imposing a no-slip condition on a solid wall segment of the boundary, both
the normal and the tangential velocities on the surface must vanish
v(S,t) =0 on I;, .
At no-slip boundaries, vorticity is produced and enters in the flow by diffusion and
subsequent convection creating the flow field.
On segments of the solution domain boundary with inflow, the velocity vector
is assumed to he known
v(S, t) = v(S, t)inflow on I;nflow .
The evaluation of the outflow boundary values represents the critical and the most
interesting case in computing boundary values. In general, no a priori knowledge
exists regarding the detailed. distribution of the effiux velocity vector. One has
somehow to neglect details of farther downstream flow to obtain realistic answers
on the upstream. But the numerical experience shows that the instabilities due to
the non-physical outflow conditions may be propagated upstream from the outflow
boundary, and in the last consequence destroy the" whole solution. Hence, to
prescribe the effiux velocity vector, it is too constraining and in many cases also far
from the physical reality. Therefore the aim is to allow the most free-flow adjustment
of outflow boundary con<;litions which still give the physical solution.
The least constraining outflow boundary conditions are free traction conditions,
where no restriction for effiux velocity vector is defined. Using an extrapolation
procedure, the velocity values close to the outflow boundary are evaluated on the
boundary
free traction on I;,utflow •
The symmetry boundary conditions can be given to minimise the computational

mesh in some cases where the mirror image of the flow patters exists. In the example
Symmetry
3r---------------------~
"'"r------__
:s 3
,g
----....J'S
=
Solid wall c=::::>

fo-~==--~~----~
Symmetry
Fig. 1. Solution domain with boundary conditions

shown on Fig. 1, the upper and lower segment of the boundary may be solid
boundaries, but they can also be the symmetry boundaries representing a slip
splitter plate, and the boundary conditions in this case are very simple. Since Vy = 0
(v n = 0) everywhere on the centreline (ovy/ox = 0) and because Vx is symmetrically
distributed above and below the centreline (ovx/oy = 0), thus
w(S,t) =0 on I',.ymmetry •
In some special cases the following symmetry boundary conditions may be of

interest, which are given in the form of
ow(S, t)/on(S) = 0 on I',.ymmetry •
In general, the symmetry boundary conditions have no great practical importance,

but can be used to test the numerical scheme.
The initial conditions for velocity and vorticity must satisfy the continuity
equation and kinematic compatibility
vo(s, t = 0) = vo(s) in Q
wo(s, t = 0) = wo(s) in Q
Usually, the computation of the time dependent equations starts from the rest, i.e.
velocity and vorticity fields are zero, or some initial steady state solution may be
used. When only the steady state results are of interest, some arbitrary initial
conditions have no effection on final results.
4.12 Numerical Examples
4.12.1 Thermally Driven Cavity Flow

The pure buoyancy driven natural convection is considered here. This problem has
been proposed by de Vahl Davis et al. [6] as a standard example for comparing
different numerical techniques in computational fluid mechanics.
Various uniform meshes oflinear boundary elements and linear triangular cells
are used:
a) M = 10 x 10,
b) M = 20 x 20,
c) M = 30 x 30,
in order to determine the temperature and velocity distributions.
The motion is caused by buoyancy force due to the heated left wall subject to a
unit temperature, while the right wall is kept at zero temperature. The remainder
of boundaries is assumed to behave adiabatically (see Fig. 2). The motion has been
analysed for Rayleigh number values in the range of 103 < Ra < 106 , with Prandtl
number value of Pr = 1.
Figure 3 summarises the steady state solutions. One large circulation cell is
predicted for Ra < 104 with the cell strength increasing with Ra number. At greater
Rayleigh number values Ra > 105 two circulation cells create.
y
q=O
'0=0
'=1 T=O
9
0
q=0
I
0 x
Fig.2. Definition of thermally driven cavity flow
, "
/
/
--
;" ...- .....
"
\
\
/ I
\
.;'
\
J
J
\
/ /
",.
\ " ;"
/
..-
\
" /
~ ~
~
I • , I , ... _ -
"I\~~----------------'~
-- _\
~
'." ..... __ ---------------,"
.. ------_ ................. _-,
I,,\~
."
• I
__ ........... . ...... ,
• ' .. .. .. ... ...... ....... .......... \
' .. t· ...... ........ . .. . . . . . . . . .. .... ,. \
" ...... .. .... .. ...... .... ................ . I
'- ... -_ ..... _-_

, .. ,
.. - .. _-_ .. '"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. .... '"' , , t ,
,
\"-----------------~'\'I
~,-----------------,' l"
\'----------------'" ",
\k _ :: ~ ~ : : : I
I~ ~~~~~~ - $
K ~~
~ ~~:J
P'I'
Fig.3. Steady state velocity fields for Ra = 104 , 10 5
~ and 106
Time dependent case was studied for Ra = 105 with time step .. = 0.1. Figures
4 and 5 present the velocity fields and temperature contours for the time dependent
phenomenon at time instants t = 0.2,0,8, 1.2, 3.2, 6.4 and 40. The solution converges
to steady state solution.
The computation of the average Nusselt number, defined by
1
Nuo = J oTjox Ix=o dy
o
represents no extra work, since the boundary solution provides both the tempera-
tures and fluxes of the same order of accuracy at all boundary nodes. The results
obtained by BEM are compared with the numerical data obtained by FDM and
FEM.
The BEM results for the average Nusselt number are shown in Table 1. Three
different uniform meshes of the first order linear boundary elements and linear
triangular cells have been employed in the range of 103 < Ra < 106 , with Pr = 1.
In Table 2 de Vahl Davis [6J original solutions and bench mark data obtained
with finite difference method are collected for the same Rayleigh number values
range, and Pr = 0.71. The stream function-vorticity formulation was used and
various FDM meshes employed. The bench mark solution was obtained with
extrapolation procedure from the original solutions with an aim to generate a
solution of greater accuracy.
In Table 3 the finite element results by Stevens [24J are shown. Again, stream
function-vorticity formulation was taken to determine the average Nusselt number.
The triangular Lagrangian finite elements with the interpolation from first to fourth
order were considered, but mainly the third order elements recommended for
greater Rayleigh number values. Various uniform and non-uniform meshes were
studied and generally these meshes have been made finer towards the boundaries.
Also the following fact was observed that the increase in interpolation order of finite
element (second to third) for the same number of total nodes, has much greater
effect on the Nusselt n,umber value than the discretisation refinements.
Comparison of the boundary element solutions with those obtained by finite
difference or finite element methods shows reasonable good agreements. In general
better results have been obtained using BEM comparing with FDM solution for
the same mesh. One pf the reasons is that the fluxes are part of the boundary
solution, and a second one is due to the inclusion of boundary vorticity values in
the kinematic integral formulation, and so there is no need to employ approximate
formulae in order to determine vorticity values on the boundary. Much higher order
finite element have been used, so that it is difficult to compare these results directly,
but in general they show a fair degree of agreement. Figure 6 shows a comparison
of the bench mark solution of FDM to the BEM data for the average Nusselt
number.
4.12.2 Channel Flow over a Square Obstacle

Transient flow has also been analysed in a channel with a step, at various Reynolds
number values (forced convection). Geometry and boundary conditions are shown
~---
/ - ............... .... .
--...,,
- .. . ........
--
.... ... ... ... ... .. . .
, ,,, ,
I " " " , ......... . N .....-;..::..""'IO:"c-""~~~........- .........
\ . . . .... , ~ ... . . . ..
~\'\\"""'''''''. '''' ' ..
. ,
. \ \ \ ' , ' \ ' ... " . . . . . . .
\ \ \ \ \ \ , , , . . . . . .
• , \ I 1 1 , • • , , , ...... ..
.. I , I , I , I I • t •• I .... .
. , I I , ,
~~7.H/!ili
I , I • I , , I ... .
.. , , I , I , , r , •• , , .. ..
.. I I I I I , , , I r , • , I • •
;;-~~~~~~:: :
\ ... " 1, " " ... .... .
\'11,"" .. · · · #' ...... .
' / / / / " , .... #' #' .... .
'///""",,.,
\'// ........ '~~- .. - ...
............ .
\\: ...............-................./ ...... / /
;:::.-///////// / / I
, ,
I
. •
--
.. . ~..........- /' /
-""....,.",,.,. - - - ................ . "b ~~......--.........--~......- . . . . ...-,.."" ..

'------- - .... ~ ~ .. . . . . . . . . ~- =- ... --..-:--:~:::: : : :
=- / , •
~-----~---
~,.......,......///
-,. . , . ...--------.- ..... , ,

~-------------- ...
~~----------~\ ""
~--------......;..- .. .... ,
Fig. 4. Transient velocity fields for Ra = lOS at t = 0.2, 0.8, 1.2, 3.2, 6.4 and 40s
Fig. S. Transient isotherms for Ra = 105 at t = 0.2,0.8, 1.2, 3.2, 6.4 and 408
Table 1. Mean Nusselt number, 103 < Ra < 106 , Pr = 1.0 (BEM)
Mesh
11x11 1.113 2.274

21 x 21 4.677
31 x 31 9.102
Table 2. Mean Nusselt number, 103 < Ra < 106 , Pr =0.71 (FDM)
Mesh Ra = 103 104 105 106
11x11 1.105 2.307 4.767 6.790

21 x 21 1.113 2.255 4.716 9.502
41 x 41 1.116 2.242 4.564 9.270
61 x 61 4.531 9.035
81 x 81 4.523 8.928
ben,ch
mark 1.117 2.238 4.509 8.817
Table 3. Mean Nusselt number, 103 < Ra < 106 , Pr =0.71 (FEM).
Using third order triangular finite elements
Mesh Ra = 10 3
13x13 1.1136 2.222

19 x 19 1.1155 2.232
19 x 19a 1.1165
28 x 19a 2.241 4.497 8.773
28 x 19a 2.242 4.512 8.769
aNon-uniform meshes
---
10
B i--'
.,~
--- - I--" V
- Bench mark FOM
~
...---- I-- o BEM
j 1
r-
I
6 B 10 4 1 4 6 B 105
Rayleigh number Ra
Fig. 6. Average Nusselt number

10
o
I I
o 1.2 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 (8 6.0 xlh
Fig. 7. Channel flow with a square obstacle (geometry)
on Fig. 7, where also the discretisation model employed (linear boundary elements
and internal cells). So;ne 113 boundary nodes and 360 internal points have been
used for the analysis.
With small Re number values ( < 100) only one recirculation zone appeared after
the cascade, while for Reh = 200 (Fig. 8) during the transient (t < 8 s) two induced
recirculation zones may be observed, which remain present after the stabilisation
of the flow. The analysis has also been conducted with Reh = 300. Results obtained
have a good agreement with finite element data (Yang [34]).
4.12.3 Natural Convection from a Cylinder in a Closed Cavity

A case of natural convection in a rectangular compartment due to a heated tube
has been analysed using relative normalised temperature T = 1 on the surface of
the cylinder, and T = 0 on the cavity wall. The boundaries have been discretised
by 42 isoparametric (quadratic) elements with 84 nodes, while the domain divided
into 84 Lagrangian (nine points) cells, with some 294 internal points. The develop-
ment of velocity field at times t = 0.1, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 2 and 8 s is shown on Fig. 9 for
the Rayleigh number (Ra = 10000) defined for the tube diametre (d = 5). Evolution
of the recirculation can be seen from these pictures. The steady state has been
reached at t = 8 s.
4.12.4 Natural Convection from a Cylinder in an Open Space

This example represents convection from the heated cylinder (T = 1) to the un-
limited environmental fluid (T = O). Since there was no need to use boundary
elements at a very large distance (included in the fundamental solution), the dis-
cretisation required only 16 elements (32 nodes) on the surface of the tube, while
the domain was taken into account as in the above case of the closed compartment.
Results on Fig. 10 illustrate the development of the recirculation flow at times
t = 0.2,0.4 and 0.8 s, with the given Rayleigh number value (Ra = 10000).
Fig. 8. Velocity field development for Reb = 200 (t = 1,2,8 s)
. . .... .
·· ···0:
·······;.···":.:: .'
.. . :: ::: ....
: .:()\L:)·"::;:' '.
t o' \ ,'
. . "",<.\.
•• • •• • 1
.../.~:: .' ...

I ••••••
"::::0::::"
: .: .. :... .
..: . .... ....
" t , " •
... :: : : : . . ' .
.. " I
~: ~~
""
..... .
'
- .
,
, ,
, " - ,
I \
,
......
I .",
\
I /
Fig. 9. Natural convection from the cylinder in a cavity, Ra = 10 000 (t = 0.1, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 2, 8 s)
"
....
'. -t
.
. "'-"~I':;-"
::::':'(0\":::::
I
~ ~
. ..
l
""
. or../ ) "~(I'-'
."
.... ' ,
"':',"
.
\ \. " , , .'
~
,\:
i i j,', ,~ ... :
I' '"
....
'" •
. . II,.' ..
, I
, ,
I
.
I'
Fig. 10. Natural convection from the cylinder in open space, Ra = 10 000 (t = 0.2,0.4,0.8 s)
4.13 Conclusion
Boundary element method has been applied to the numerical simulation of viscous
isochoric fluid flow and energy transport problems (with case studies for plane flow
only). The buoyancy force was included using Boussinesq approximation. The
velocity-vorticity (v - w) formulation has been used, partitioning the problem into
its kinematic and kinetic parts. The behaviour and physical meaning of different
terms in the integral equations was discussed. Due to the fundamental solution a
part of the transport mechanisme has been transfered to the boundary, producing
a very stable numerical scheme.
In general the boundary integral equations behave well when the source point
coincides with the boundary nodal points. The problems may arrise with integral
equations involving tangential derivatives of the fundamental solution if the source
point'does not coincide with boundary nodes (Schmidt [13J, Wendland [30J).
Comparison of BEM results with those obtained with FDM and FEM shows
good agreement. In order to improve BEM solution, higher order Lagrangian (nine
points) elements have been implemented.
References
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Convection." Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, 2, 349-366 (1982).
25 Taylor, c., Hughes, T.G., "Finite Element Programming of the Navier-Stokes Equations." Pineridge
Press, Swansea, 1981.
26 Wah bah, N.M., "Computation of Internal Flows With Arbitrary Boundaries Using the Integral
Representation Method." School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Inst. of Technology, DAAG
29-75-G-0147,1975.
27 Tosaka, N., Kakuda, K., "Numerical Simulation for Incompressible Viscous Flow Problems Using
the Integral Equation Methods." 8th Int. Conf. on Boundary Element Method, Tokyo, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, 1986.
28 Tosaka, N., Fukushima, N., "Integral Equation Analysis of Laminar Natural Convection Problems."
8th Int. Conf. on Boundary Element Method, Tokyo, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1986.
29 Tosaka, N., Kakuda, K., "Numerical Simulations of Laminar and Turbulent Flows by Using an Inte-
gral Equation." 9th Int. Conf. on Boundary Element Method, Stuttgart, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1987.
30 Wendland, W.L., "Asymptotic Accuracy and Convergence for Point Collocation Methods." Topics
in Boundary Element Research, Vol. 2, pp. 230-250. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985.
31 Wu, J.e., Thompson, J.F., "Numerical Solution of Time Dependent Incompressible Navier-Stokes
Equations Using an Integro-Differential Formulation." Computers and Fluids, 1, 197-215 (1973).
32 Wu, J.C., "Problems of General Viscous Flow." Developments in Boundary Element Method. Vol.
2, Chap. 2, Elsevier Appl. Sci. Publ., London and New York, 1982.
33 Wu, J.e., Rizk, Y.M., Sankar, N.L., "Problems of Time Dependent Navier-Stokes Flow." Develop-
ments in Boundary Element Methods, Vol. 3, Chap. 6, Elsevier Appl. Sci. Publ., London and New
York, 1984.
34 Yang, e.T., Atluri, S.N., "An Assumed Deviatoric Stress-Pressure-Velocity Mixed Finite Element
Method for Unsteady Convective Incompressible Viscous Flow." Part II: Computational Studies.
Chapter 5
A Boundary Element Analysis for Thermal Convection

Problems
by K. Kitagawa, C.A. Brebbia, and M. Tanaka
5.1 Introduction
In recent years, the rapid development of computers has been utilized for applying
numerical analyses to solve a variety of problems in the scientific and engineering
fields. Especially, the numerical analysis of fluid flow problems has become recog-
nized as a new subject called Numerical fluid mechanics or Computational fluid
mechanics.
Viscous flow problems, governed by non-linear Navier-Stokes equations, have
been investigated by using the Finite difference method (FDM) for a long time [1,
2]. In the last decade, the Finite element method (FEM) has been sucessfully applied
to some problems [3, 4].
It was only recently that the boundary element method (BEM) ·has been well
developed as a powerful numerical analysis technique which presents some ad-
vantages over FDM and FEM [5, 6]. At first, the merits of BEM were recognized
mainly for the analysis of potential and elastostatic linear problems but more
recently a substantial amount of research has been directed to solve non-linear
problems[7].
Applications of boundary integral equations to viscous flow problems were
originated by Wu and Thompson [8] and further developed by Wu and his
co-workers [9]. Their formulation was presented in terms of vorticity and velocity
and was confined mainly to flow passed an airfoil. The far field was at first accounted
for by a coupling between fmite difference and boundary integral equations but this
method has been more recently developed into a BEM formulation.
Brebbia and Wrobel also proposed the velocity and vorticity formulation [10].
In addition, Skerget, Alujevic and Brebbia employed the same velocity-vorticity
formulation [11] and extended it to include the pressure as a variable, which
produced more stable results [12]. Recently, both formulations were extended to
the natural convection problems by Skerget, Alujevic, Kuhn and Brebbia [13].
Onishi, Kuroki and Tanaka proposed a formulation for natural convection
problems in terms of stream-function, vorticity and temperature as variables [14].
Bush and Tanner proposed formulations based on the Navier equations of elasticity,
using the concept of "pseudo-body forces" [15].
On the other hand, the penalty function formulation was applied not only to
the unsteady viscous flow problems reported by Tosaka and Kakuda [16], but also
the unsteady natural convection problems reported by Kuroki, Onishi and Tosaka
88 A Boundary Element Analysis for Thermal Convection Problems
[17]. More recently, Tosaka and Kakuda proposed an integral equation formula-
tion in terms of velocity and pressure regarding the steady and unsteady viscous
flow problems [18, 19]. In addition, Tosaka and Fukushima successfully applied
their formulations to the natural convection problems [20].
In our first paper, a "pseudo-body force" formulation employing the penalty
function was proposed for steady viscous flow problems [21]. By regarding the
convective terms in Navier-Stokes equations as body forces in elastostatics, the
standard elastostatics analysis was extended to solve the viscous flow problems. The
evaluation of convective terms is the most important and difficult part, when solving
the viscous flow problems at high Reynolds number. An upwind scheme (first order)
has been widely used [22] and some new schemes, for example, QUICK (Quadratic
Upstream Interpolation for Convective Kinematics) [23] UTOPIA (Uniformly
Third-Order Polynomial Interpolation Algorithm) [24] and Kawamura scheme
[25] are being studied in the FDM. Similarly, applications of interpolation functions
which have a similar effect on the upwind scheme, were studied in the FEM [26,
27]. Therefore the finite difference scheme (including both central and upwind) and
the boundary integral formulation (BIF) for evaluating the derivatives of convective
terms were examined in the second paper [28]. The use of BIF indicated more
accurate results in their evaluations. Thus this formulation was next developed to
analyse the natural convection problems, coupled with thermal phenomenon [29,
30].
The evaluation of heat and viscous flow near the boundary, which leads to the
calculation of a great amount of quasi-singular boundary integral, is one of the most
important parts in this formulation. So, the self-adaptive coordinate transformation
technique proposed by Tells [31] was successfully applied [32].
In the FEM, the pressure terms described by the penalty function must be
evaluated by using the so-called reduced order integration method [33]. In this
paper, the evaluation of pressure field is discussed.
5.2 Theory
In this section, the boundary integral formulation for thermal convection problems
is described.
Firstly, the governing equations of thermal convection are summarized. The
correspondence between viscous flow analyses and elastostatics is explained next.
After that, the boundary integral formulation in elastostatics is briefly reviewed.
The last part deals with the evaluation of convective terms.
5.2.1 Basic Equations

In this work, the fluid is assumed to be steady and incompressible. Boussinesq's
approximation is employed, that is, the fluid is assumed to have constant properties
except for the generation of buoyancy forces. When a rectangular Cartesian coordi-
nate system is selected so that the axis X 2 coincides with the opposite direction of
gravity, the basic equations of thermal convection problems can be described by
using a tensor notation as follows:
A Boundary Element Analysis for Thermal Convection Problems 89
"Continuity Equation"
V·=o
',' (1)
"Navier-Stokes Equations"
1
J-j V;,j = - - P,i + v(V;,j + J-j,;},j + J2i gP(T - To) (2)
Po
"Energy Transport Equation"
(3)
where V; components of the velocity vector, T temperature, TO reference temperature,
p pressure, Po density at the reference temperature, v kinematic viscosity, 9 gravita-
tional constant, Pcoefficient of volumetric expansion, (/. thermal difTusivity.
The indices following a comma represent the spatial differentiation, i.e. ( ), i
= a( )faxi . When the same letter subscript appears twice in a term, the summation
rule should be applied. And Jij is the Kronecker delta symbol.
For natural convection problems, the basic equations are made dimensionless
by choosing L [spacing between a hot wall (temperature TH ) and a cold wall (TdJ
and L21(/. as scale factors for length and time, respectively. The dimensionless tem-
perature is expressed bye = (T - Td/(TH - Td. Thus the basic equations (1) to (3)
can be described as follows:
V·=o
',' (4)
(5)
J-je,j = e,jj (6)
where Pr and Ra indicate Prandtl number (= vi(/.) and Rayleigh number
[ = gPU(TH - Td/v(/.J, respectively.
At first, a penalty function technique is employed in order to evaluate the
pressure term in Eq. (5). That is, pressure is approximated as
P = -AV','. (7)
where A represents the penalty parameter. Since the pressure p has a finite value,
taking the value of A, which approaches infinity will make V;,i approach zero,
enforcing to the limit the automatic satisfaction of the continuity equation (4). In
the actual numerical calculations a large but finite positive value is selected as A, so
the analysis is carried out taking a slight compressibility into consideration. By
substituting Eq. (7) into (5), the following equations are obtained:
(A + Pr) J-j,ji + Pr V;,jj = J-j V;,j - J2i RaPre . (8)
Notice that under conditions of homogeneity and isotropy, the governing equa-
tions of elastostatics, the so-called Navier equations, are as follows:
(A.' + p/)Uj,ji + p'Ui,jj = - bi (9)
where A' and p' are Lame's constants, Ui and bi stand for components of the
displacement vectors and body force, respectively. Comparing Eqs. (8) and (9), it
will be noticed that they have similar left hand sides. Thus, Eq. (8) can be treated
analogously to a standard elastostatics problem, if the right hand side terms of Eq.
(8) are regarded as pseudo-body forces.
In a similar manner, regarding the convective terms of the energy transport
equation (6) as pseudo-source terms b of a poisson equation,
a,jj = b (10)
the standard potential analysis will be analogously applied to solve Eq. (6).
5.2.2 Boundary Integral Formulations
Initially, boundary integral formulations of Eq. (9) will be reviewed. The starting
point is the weighted residual statement of Eq. (9),
J {(A.' + Jl')Uj,ji + Jl'Ui,jj + bi}uti dQ =
Q
0 . (11)
The weighting functions uti are selected to satisfy the following equation in an
infinite elastic medium,
(A.' + Jl')Utj,ji + Jl'Uti,jj + bkib(x, y) = 0 (12)
where b(x, y) is a Dirac delta function.
These fundamental solutions uti are known as Kelvin's solutions, and have the
following form for plane strain problems:
uti = 8n(1 ~ v')Jl' {(3 - 4v')lnrbkl - r,kr,l} (13)
for two dimensions, and
uti = 16n(1 ~ v')Jl'r {(3 - 4v')bkl + r,kr,l} (14)
for three dimensions.

The tractions ttl corresponding to ut are expressed by
ttl = 4om(1-:-~ v')r" [{ (1 - 2v')bkl + pr,kr,l} ~: - (1 - 2v')(r,k nl - r,lnk)] (15)

where a = 2, 1; P= 3,2 for three- and two-dimensional problems, respectively. Also,
r = r(y, x) represents the distance between the load point y and the field point x,
and nk means the direction cosines of the outward normal to the boundary of the
body. v' indicates Poisson's ratio, which can be related to Lame's constants as
follows:
A.'
v'=-,------- (16)
2(A.' + Jl')
Integrating by parts and applying Gauss's divergence theorem twice to Eq. (11),
the following equations will be obtained:
Ckl(Y)UI(Y) + J tMy, y')ul(y') dr(y') - J utz(y, y')tl(y') dr(y')

r r
= J utz(y, x)Mx) dD(x) . (17)
Q
The coefficients Ckl(y) can be determined by the position of the source point y, for
example, Ckl = bkl for y E D, Ckl = bkd2 for y E r (smooth boundary).
The boundary conditions of the problem are as follows:
(18)
where the superimposed bar indicates a prescribed value.

In standard elastostatic analysis, the boundary integral equations (17) are solved
numerically for the boundary conditions (18) and known body forces bi' However,
it should be noted tl}at the pseudo-body forces include the unknown velocity vector
Jtj, its derivatives and the temperature e. Therefore, an iterative technique, which
will be discussed in the next section, is employed.
On the other hand, a boundary integral equation for Poisson's equation (10)
can be obtained in a similar manner as follows:
C(y)e(y) + Jq*(y, y')e(y') dr(y') - J. e*(y, y')q(y') dr(y')

r r
= Je*(y, x)b(x) dD(x) (19)
Q
where q = oejon is the normal flux and the fundamental solutions for three-
dimensional problems are
e* =_1_ (20)
4nr
q * = -1- - or (21)
4nr2 on
and for two-dimensional problems are
-1
e* =-lnr (22)
2n
-lor
q*=-- . (23)
2nr on
The boundary conditions of this problem are such that
onre
onrq = r - rq .
Similarly, the pseudo-source term includes the unknown temperature derivatives
and the velocity, so an iterative technique is employed.
5.2.3 Evaluation of Convective Terms

Velocity derivatives or temperature derivatives included in the convective terms
must be evaluated at the internal nodal points with respect to the domain integrals
which relate to pseudo-body force and pseudo-source terms.
The simplest approach for calculating their derivatives numerically is the use of
a finite difference scheme. The upwind scheme, previously used in the FDM and
FEM, was tested and compared with the central scheme and the boundary integral
scheme in the previous paper [28]. The general conclusion was that the boundary
integral formulation for the convective terms was the most accurate scheme at a
high Reynolds number. Therefore this formulation was used in this paper.
The boundary integral formulation for the derivatives of the velocities can be
obtained by differentiating Eq. (17) with respect to the coordinates of an internal
source point y, which gives
Ckl(Y)UI,m(Y) + J tttm(Y, y')UI(Y') dr(y') - JU:lm(Y, y')tl(y') dr(y')
r r
= Juttm(Y, x)Mx) d.Q(x) (24)
Q
where
U:lm = u:I,m
(25)
t:lm = t:I,m
that is
1
u:lm = 8 (1
1t
')' {2r kr Ir m
-vllr '"
+ (3 - 4v')r mbkl - r kblm - r Ibkm }
'"
(26)
for two dimensions and

1
u:lm = 161t (1 -vllr kr Ir m
')' 2 {3r'" + (3 - 4v')r' - r kblm - r Ibkm }
mbkl" (27)
for three dimensi'ons
t:lm = 4
-1
(1 ') IX
[or
f3 -;- {(f3 + 2)r kr Ir m + (1 - 2v')r mbkl - r kblm - r Ibkm }
1X1t - V r un ' '.' '"
+ f3{(1 - 2v')(nkr,lr,m - nlr,mr,k) - nmr,kr,l}
- (1 - 2v')(nkblm - nlbmk + nmbkl )] (28)
where IX = 2, 1; f3 = 3, 2 for three- and two-dimensional problems, respectively.

Similarly the temperature derivatives can be computed by the following equa-
tions, which can be obtained by differentiating Eq. (19),
C(y)e,m(Y) + J q!(y, y')e(y') dr(y') - J e::;(y, y')q(y') dr(y')
r r
= Je::;(y, x)b(x) d.Q(x) (29)
Q
where
8: = 8,~
(30)
q;: = q~m .
That is
.0* 1 (31)
17m =-2 rm
nr '
(32)
for two dimensions and

1
8*=
m
---r
4nr2 ,m (33)
(34)
for three dimensions;respectively.
5.3 Numerical Implementation

This section presents numerical implementation for boundary integral equations.
Firstly, the numerical discretization of boundary integral equations is briefly
discussed. In this work, the boundary and domain under study are divided into a
number of small elements and cells, respectively. In order to calculate the elements
of the matrices described in the previous section, a great amount of integration of
fundamental solutions and interpolation functions over the boundary elements and
the internal cells must be evaluated. It should be noticed that fundamental solutions
have singularity when the source point coincides with the field point. In this work,
the linear element was applied to the boundary element. In this case, the boundary
integration including a singular point is analytically evaluated and the Gaussian
collocation method is generally employed for non-singular cases.
In order to evaluate accurately the heat flow through the boundary and the
effect of the boundary layer, many internal points must be located near the boundary.
In addition, Jhe fundamental solutions for derivatives have stronger singularities
than those for the velocity or temperature. Hence the efficiency and accuracy of
numerical evaluation in the quasi-singular boundary integral are very important.
The self-adaptive coordinate transformation technique proposed by Telles [31] was
applied in this work. Section 5.3.2 deals with the above technique briefly.
On the other hand, the linear triangular cells were applied to the internal cells
in this work. The semi-analytical approach previously proposed by Telles for
inelastic problems was applied for numerical evaluations [6]. That is, by using a
polar coordinate system (r, 8), the integration concerning r is carried out analyti-
cally, so finally the non-singular integration concerning 8 is carried out with the
normal Gaussian integration formula.
The last section describes the iterative technique which is employed for solving
the coupled non-linear equations.
5.3.1 Boundary-Domain Element Discretization

As a basis for the flow analysis, the numerical implementation for elastostatics will
be briefly written first. In order to solve the boundary integral equations (17), the
boundary and domain of the region under study are divided into a number of small
elements and cells, respectively. Following the collocation procedure, a system of
algebraic equations is obtained, which can be described in matrix form as
Hu = Gt + Cb (35)
where u and t denote the nodal vectors of displacement and traction on the
boundary, and b indicates the nodal vector body fotce in the domain. The coefficient
matrices H, G and C can be computed by integrating the fundamental solutions
and interpolation functions over the boundary elements or the internal cells.
Taking the boundary conditions (18) into consideration, the matrix equation
(35) can be modified into the following systems of simultaneous equations
Ax=y+ Cb (36)
where x represents the vector of unknowns at the boundary nodal points; A and y
denote known matrix and vector. Since the body force vector b is given in the
standard elastostatic analysis, Eq. (36) can be numerically solved for x.
Now let us consider the application to the natural convection problems. The
pseudo-body force bi can be described as the following equation:
(37)
The velocity vector l'l and its derivative vector d l'l at the internal nodal points
are computed by the following equations, obtained from boundary integral equa-
tions (17) and (24).
l'l = Alx + YI + CIb (38)
dl'l = AdIx + ydI + CdIb (39)
where AI, Ylt CH AdI , ydI and CdI represent known matrices_and vectors computed
from fundamental solutions and interpolation functions and boundary conditions.
These equations include not only the unknown vector x but also the vector b,
which depends on the vectors l'l and dl'l themselves. Therefore, iterative techniques
must be employed in order to solve Eq. (36).
In a similar manner, the boundary integral equations (19) and (29) for the energy
transport equation can be written in the following matrix forms:
Ax, = ~ + Cb, (40)
e l = AIx, + ~I + CIb, (41)
/'0. /'0. /'0.
del = AdIx, + yd I + CdIb, (42)
where x, the nodal unknown vector on the boundary, el the nodal temperature
vector in the internal domain, del the nodal temperature gradient vector in the
internal domain, b, the pseudo-source vector in the internal domain, others: known
matrices and vectors, computed from fundamental solutions, interpolation functions
and boundary conditions.
As the vector bt includes the vector deb the iterative technique must also be
applied to solve Eq. (40).
5.3.2 Self-adaptive Coordinate Transformation Technique

In this section, the numerical evaluation of quasi-singular boundary integral is
discussed in the two-dimensional problems. The self-adaptive coordinate transfor-
mation technique, originally proposed by Telles, is employed and briefly explained
in this section.
Let us start with the following general expression of the boundary integral:
1
I = J f('1) d'1
-1
(43)
where the integrand f('1) is assumed to be singular at '1 = 1].

Then the following cubic transformation is applied.
'1(~) = a~3 + b~2 + c~ + d . (44)
Four constants ofthe above equation are determined by the following equations:
'1(1) = 1 (45)
'1(-1)= -1 (46)
d'1l -r_ (47)

d~ ~=~ -
2
d '11 -0 (48)
d~2 ~=~ -
where ~ represents the value of ~ which satisfies '1(~) = 1];ris a free parameter which
can be taken as a function of D (minimum distance between the source point and
the field point).
Thus, Eq. (43) can be written as follows:
1
1= J f(~)J(~)d~
-1
(49)
where J(~)is a Jacobian of the transformation, that is,
(50)
Thus, from Eqs. (47) and (49), it can be noticed that the singularity is removed
ifr = o. On the other hand, ifr = 1 the transformation becomes '1 = ~, that is, the
effect of the transformation disappears. Therefore, rshould always satisfy 0:::;; r:::;; 1.
And the following relations between rand D were recommended by Telles [31].
r = 0.85 + 0.24 In (D) 0.05:::;; D:::;; 1.3
r = 0.893 + 0.0832 In (D) 1.3 :::;; D :::;; 3.618 (51)
r=1 3.618 < D
5.3.3 Iterative Technique

To analyse thermal convection problems, Eqs. (36) and (40) must be solved simul-
taneously.
The iterative technique employed in this work comprises the following steps:
1. Assume J-[, dJ-[ and del> allowing the vector bt to be calculated.
2. Solve the system of equations (40), evaluating the unknown vector XI.
3. With vectors bl and X t obtained in the previous steps, compute the internal nodal
temperature e 1 and its derivatives del by using Eqs. (41) and (42).
4. Calculate the vector b with vectors J-[, dJ-[ and e/.
5. Solve the system of equations (36) for x.
6. Using the vectors X and b obtained in the previous steps, re-compute the internal
velocity vector J-[ and its derivatives dJ-[ by applying Eqs. (38) and (39), respec-
tively.
7. Examine the convergence of J-[, dJ-[, e l and del at all of the internal nodal points.
Unless convergence is obtained, go back to step 1 with the updated value of
assumed variables and repeat the procedure.
During the iteration steps, all matrices and some vectors which appear in Eqs.
(36) to (42) are kept constant. In particular, matrices A and A are constant during
the iteration, so their inversion is performed only once.
Finally, it is noted that an under-relaxation method has been employed at high
Rayleigh numbers to achieve convergence.
5.4 Numerical Results

This section presents some numerical results in the two-dimensional problems.
Firstly, the effect of the self-adaptive coordinate transformation technique was
tested in the boundary integral. Secondly, this formulation was applied to the
natural convection problem in a square cavity and compared with the previously
published results. The last part deals with the evaluation of the pressure field.
Computation was carried out by using TOSHIBA AS3260 (Sun 3).
5.4.1 Evaluation of Quasi-singular Boundary Integrals

The numerical evaluation of the quasi-singular boundary integrals is discussed in
this section. The effect of the self-adaptive coordinate transformation technique was
tested in the following kinds of boundary integrals which appeared in this formula-
tion.
g~ = J Ua<fJ, dr
ra
h~ = J ta<fJ, dr
ra (52)
g~k = J Uak<fJ, dr
ra
h~k = Atak<fJ,dr
where fundamental solutions uu' tu, UUk and tUk are defined by Eqs. (13) (15) (26) and
(28), and they have singularities, O(ln r), O(l/r), O(l/r) and O(1/r2), respectively. <PI
means the interpolatuon function and the linear function was employed in this work.
The numerical computation was carried out by selecting point A, B, C or D
described in Fig. 1 each as a singular point, respectively. These numerical results
obtained by use of the self-adaptive method were compared with the normal Gauss
integration method in Figs. 2 to 5.
In these figures, the horizontal axis represents the terms of Gaussian integration
formula, and the longitudinal axis indicates the relative error e from the values
• C A W.O ,O.05)
.A .8 • D 8 1025,0.05)
C 10.5, 0.05)
p [) D 10.5,0.1)
P 10.0,0.0)
[) 110.00)
Fig. 1. Locations of singular points
10
~
'!. I
Singular poinl A . I I
Singular point A
I
\i
,'v 1~2
l\
,~\, ,\ \\
J\ \\\ "
,
J-'\J' \'
'\ \
\\\\ IA\ ~
,
~
'\
\
I: \
\\
.~
"\\
\\
\\ \\ \\
\ \\
\\\
\
.\
a b \\
10 20 30 400 10 20 30 40
Terms of Gaussian integration
Fig 2. a Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) glj; 2) hij ; 3) gij; 4) hi,. 1 and 2 normal Gauss, 3 and
4 self-adaptive method. b Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) gijk; 2) hijk; 3) g~k; 4) h~k ' 1 and 2
normal Gauss, 3 and 4 self-adaptive method
10l.------r------~----_r----__, .------r------~----_r----__,
Sin!IJlari point 8 1 ,\ Sin!IJlarlpoint 8
10zl------+------t------+------l I------\f--"r----_f_------+----__l \1"

\ l'·~
101------+------t------+------l \ .I
I---~_t--~+__f_----~~--__l
."
"\ '\ V \
A· ~ I~[\ /~ .\
~ I/ ~: ~\ J\ \ V ~ \,
~ 1O-11--~-'o:-
. . -+-+-\-\--~
Lr"-~··
J \ V "\:,, ~
r---l----j \ \ \
f---v--
\\+-
\--+--l~\
--l
,
1O_21--_J__ \-1~·I·_t--t---++---- "\---l'l~ I-------I-~--\_t-----_\_----__l
"- -----l
~ \\ \ \
10-3 f-------t"~_t___t-+------+----'\~
\
\
t-------I-----'l--d------t-------\
\\.
'll '\
1O-4 1------+-I-- hf---+------+- - - - - j I--------I------+h----_\_------\
a
10-5 ' -____---'----I'I...-__..L..-____--L____----.J
b
o 10 20 30 40 O~---=-----:!:!---L-----==:-------:'
Terms ot Gaussian inle!1a1ion
Fig 3. a Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) gil; 2) h&; 3) gb; 4) hb, 1 and 2 normal Gauss, 3 and
4 self-adaptive method. b Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) gilt; 2) hilt; 3) gbt; 4) hilt. 1 and 2
obtained by 48 integration points by use of the self-adaptive coordinate transforma-

tion technique, described in the following equation:
e = 100 x (In or I~ - I!s)/I!s in % (53)
where In value obtained with n terms of the normal Gaussian integration and I~
value obtained by the n terms of integration points by use of the self-adaptive
coordinate transformation technique.
The self-adaptive coordinate transformation technique gave the faster conver-
gency than the normal Gaussian integration in these results. In particular, the
self-adaptive method greatly improved the convergency in the evaluation of deriva-
10
".'" r- -., ;~ ~ ~
2 ---..., Sin!PJla/ poinl C ·............ 2 SingJIa! poinl C
.'-... .....
J-\
~'\ . \\
J\V
~ ""- .'"
~ 1\
"
\\\...\
'"
'\ ~
\\
\'\ ~1'",,- r\\\
\
~''''.,
'"
\
~ \
\\' ~
1
\
\\
~. \
, \\ \.
\
\\
s a
10
\\ 20 30 400
b
10
\
20 30 ~o
Terms of Gaussian inleg-alion
Fig 4. a Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) gt; 2) ht; 3) g!j; 4) h!j, 1 and 2 normal Gauss, 3 and
4 self-adaptive method. b Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) g!jk; 2) h!jk; 3) gtk; 4) h!jk' 1 and 2
tive components hfik and gfik which have stronger singularities. In addition, it should
be noted that the convergency depends on the position of the singular point in the
normal Gauss integration, even if the distance is the same from the singular point.
On the other hand, the self-adaptive method gave almost the same convergency in
Figs. 2 to 4. This difference has quite an important advantage in the self-adaptive
method, making it easy to develop a program code which can produce the same
accurate results in various mesh discretizations.
Figure 6 shows the transformed integration points by using the self-adaptive
method with the distance D = 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2. It should be noticed that the
integration points are transformed to approach the singular point. The smaller the
distance becomes, the more concentrated toward the singular point the integration
points are transformed. The distributions of the weighted functions are also shown
in Fig. 7. The left hand sides of the figures indicate the distributions of the Jacobian
described by Eq. (50), and the right hand sides of them show the distributions of
the weighted functions. From these figures, the reason for the improvement obtained
by the self-adaptive method is the accurate evaluation of the singular function by
moving the integration points near the singular point.
1O r-,----.------_r------~----~ r-----~------_r------~----~
2 Singular point 0 1 SingJlar point 0

%
O-I r-~~~~~r_~------_+------~ ~----~~------4-~----+_----~
~
a;
] 1O-2 1-----\~I_----~~----_t------__i ~------__+lr------4-----_01__----~
'"
E
=>
:z:
1O-1 1-- - - --4I--------+---\c-\--+-------j ~-------I-~---+-------+---+~
10-4 I-----~+------+-------+\-\------j I-------_I_---+--~------+_-------I
~. \
a ~ b
10-5 '--____---'L....CIL-_ _- - '_ _ _ __ _--'-_ _ _ _..1..1.~ ' -_ _ _ _ _ _- ' -_ _ _ _....L..- ' -______- ' -____---'
o 10 m ~ ~O 10 ~o
Terms of Gaussian integration
Fig 5. a Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) gb; 2) hb; 3) gij; 4) hi), 1 and 2 normal Gauss, 3 and
4 self-adaptive method. b Convergency of quasi-singular integrals. 1) ghk; 2) h!jk; 3) g!lk; 4) hLk. 1 and 2
~ iginal Gauss point ~iginol Gauss poinl
~
I
\, TI
" \ I
\ \\ \ \ ~
\ \ \
a b
~ iginal Gauss point
Fig. 6. Transformed Gauss points. a Singular

point A; b singular point B; c singular point C.
c .,10 terms, 0, 24 terms
d1 I I I I 1 [I 1[ I I I I I I 1 1
,------- illl1l1 ---- ---&Jl1

Original Gauss Original Gauss
0=0.05 0=0.05
Original Gauss
ttJT0Tt ~
c 0=0.2
11111"11111
Fig 7a-c. Distributions of weighted functions. a
Singular point A; b singular point B; c singular
point C
q=O
VI = V/=O
on Ihe 011 wolls
8= 1 8 =0
o
q=O
o XI
Fig. 8. Square cavity problem
....... ...... ........ .-- .--

~~ I"
I"~
""
1"'-
-......"
.........
......... ~
~
/" /"
,./' / " V V /V
............ ,./' / " V V //V
V
!\I\ 1\1"- ""- I~ ~ /'" /" :/V V/V
'"
1\1\1\1'\ "'- ~ / /' / '/V IV
" 1\1\\ \ .",1""- / 1/ / I II /'I
1\ \i\ \\1\ / '/ / / IIV /
II1/V / / "" "'"
\ \ \1\ \
dl/ III '/1/V 1""-
II I 1// /
II11 VI/ :/V
I/V / ' /" /"
1\1\ \1\
/' /
/'"
/"
"" ""'""" ""
~
~ ~ i", \ \1\
-..... "- '- "- "-
1"'-1,\ \\1\
. 1/V / / ' ....---
,./' -........ ..........
/ ' .-- -.....
"'- '",- ['\ '\,1\
.. l / , V /" ....... -..... ,'- "-
Fig.9. Discretization for the square cavity flow problem. 164 boundary
nodes, 289 internal nodes
Table 1. Comparison of the square cavity flow problem (Pr = 0.71, A. = 104 )
Ra 103 104 105 106
Present Reference Present Reference Present Reference Present Reference

work [34] work [34] work [34] work [34]
Nu 1.114 1.118 2.228 2.238 4.418 4.505 8.255 8.903

Nu max 1.496 1.506 3.498 3.527 7.44 7.717 15.64 18.562
X2 = 0.090 0.086 0.158 0.143 0.090 0.082 0.055 0.045
NU min 0.694 0.691 0.594 0.586 0.783 0.729 1.240 1.002
X2 = 1 1 1 1 1 1
VI max 3.647 3.657 16.292 16.178 35.20 34.77 64.81 64.94
X2 = 0.820 0.814 0.820 0.823 0.865 0.854 0.865 0.850
V2max 3.700 3.702 19.557 19.643 66.40 68.25 205.05 221.29
Xl = 0.180 0.178 0.135 0.119 0.055 0.066 0.055 0.040
5.4.2 Square Cavity Flow Problem

The present formulation was applied to the square cavity flow problem, which was
a typical bench mark problem in the natural convection analysis. Geometry and
boundary conditions for temperature are shown in Fig. 8 and non-slip boundary
conditions ti.e. VI = V2 = 0 along all the walls) are applied for velocities. The
discretization used is shown in Fig. 9 where the linear boundary elements and the
triangular internal cells with linear interpolation functions were employed. And the
corner points were treated as double node to apply the boundary conditions for
temperature.
The following results are compared in Table 1 with an accurate bench mark
FDM solution using a 41 x 41 mesh [34], for Prandtl J1umber Pr = 0.71 and
Rayleigh numbers Ra = 103, 104 , 105 and 106 , penalty parameter A. = 104 .
- . ~ ... - - -- - - - - - --_ .. .
I / ,. ."
1,,1/// __
................ , \ \ I •
,,111// __ _
.... '\\11.·
, I 1 1 1 / \ \ \ \ \ I •
,I I II I 1 I I I I I'
,,1\\\1 " / I I / I I •
011 I I \, .... _
-- / I f 1 , , '
,.. / I I , ••
~ I , ,,, ..........
a b
=-
. , ". "?;:::--- - - - - - ---.."
;11~ 111///
~ ~.,-::--= =- ==~\
. .....--_ _ _ - ---......\\1
/II
I
7 /'" - - - - - --"""'\1\
1/ ,/ - . . . . . . - - - . . . \ \II
I /, .. _ --'\ I
I \\ , . -\ \ I
\,h __ ~ "Ill
\\. . - - - . . , - ,/ / l I
\' ,,-- - - - - - /'" I'I
1\\'--- - - --....._jllli 1//
I
1'---- _ __ --=---/1/ /1 ~ ,
- - ----
I
\\,-- - - - - ------"......-'/ 'if '

\"'-- - - - " ,.
c d
Fig lOa-d. Velocity vectors. a Ra = 10 3 ; b Ra = 104 ; c Ra = lOs; d Ra = 106
1. average Nusselt number Nu =

_ Jlael
-a dx 2 ;
o Xl xl=O
2. maximum and minimum local Nusselt numbers at the hot wall (Xl = 0), and their
locations;
3. maximum vertical velocity V2max on the horizontal mid-plane and its location;
4. maximum horizontal velocity Vlmax on the vertical mid-plane and its location.
It can be seen that these results are in good agreement.
The flow and temperature fields obtained with 2 = 104 for Ra = 103, 104 , 10 5
and 106 were plotted in Figs. 10 and 11, respectively. These results also present a
very good agreement with previously published numerical solutions.
a b
Fig 11a-d. Isothermal lines. a Ra = 103 ; b Ra = 104 ; c Ra = 105 ; d Ra = 106

Table 2. Results of the square cavity flow problem (Ra = 103 )
A 103 104 105 106 Reference

[34]
Nu 1.114 1.114 1.114 1.114 1.118

Nu max 1.498 1.496 1.500 1.500 1.506
X2 = 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.086
NUmin 0.697 0.694 0.696 0.696 0.691
X2 = 1 1 1
VIrna. 3.635 3.647 3.647 3:642 3.657
X2 = 0.820 0.820 0.820 0.820 0.814
V2max 3.696 3.700 3.691 3.688 3.702
Xl = 0.180 0.180 0.180 0.180 0.178
Table 3. Results of the square cavity flow problem (Ra = 104 )
A 10 3 104 10 5 106 Reference

[34]
Nu 2.238 2.228 2.242 2.242 2.238

Nu max 3.591 3.498 3.601 3.602 3.527
X2 = 0.135 0.158 0.135 0.135 0.143
NU min 0.601 0.594 0.596 0.596 0.586
X2 = 1 1 1
VI max 16.415 16.292 16.430 16.429 16.178
X2 = 0.820 0.820 0.820 0.820 0.823
V2max 19.775 19.557 19.730 19.727 19.643
Xl = 0.135 0.135 0.135 0.135 0.119
Since all the coefficient matrices needed at iterations are independent of the
Rayleigh number Ra, it is possible to use the converged solutions at a lower Ra
number for the initial values of iterative computation for a larger Ra number
without re-calculating any coefficient matrices.
Next, the results obtained with A. = 103 , 104 , 105 and 106 were compared in
Tables 2 and 3 for Ra = 103 and 104, respectively. It is noted that there is little
difference between the results obtained by these values of A.. However, it was
observed that the iteration cycle became a little unstable in the case of A. = 106 with
high Rayleigh numbers. On the other hand, the results obtained with A. = 103 are
a little less accurate than the results of A. = 104 and 10 5 . Therefore, values of order
104 and 105 are recommended as the penalty parameter A..
5.4.3 Evaluation of Pressure Field

In this section, the evaluation of pressure field is discussed. According to the
previous studies carried out by using the FEM, the "selective reduced integration
method" should be applied to the evaluation of the pressure terms described by the
penalty function from the mathematical reason [33].
When the penalty function formulation was used, the pressure can be computed
by Eq. (7)
p = -A.V;,j .
In this study, components of velocity derivatives at the internal nodal points have
been computed by Eq. (39) during the iterative calculation, so the pressure can be
computed easily at each internal nodal point.
Pressure distributions ofthe natural convection problem inside the square cavity
disscused in the previous section are shown in Fig. 12 (A. = 104 , Pr = 0.71, Ra = 103 ,
104, 105 and 106 ).
r-- ~----- - - l- - --
~
r--- ___
t---
c d
Fig, 12a-d. Isopressure lines. a Ra = 103 ; b Ra = 104 ; c Ra = lOs; d Ra = 106
The effect of the penalty parameter it on the pressure field was exmined next. In
the case ofsmall Rayleigh numbers (Ra = 103 , 104 ), there is less than 2% difference
between results obtained by using it = 103 , 104 , 10 5 and 106 . The larger Rayleigh
number became, the larger the difference between pressure values obtained by
different penalty parameters. However, relative values of pressure, which are actu-
ally the most important values in this case, are in agreement with 2% difference.
Because there is no boundary conditions applied to pressure in this problem.
In this study, the linear boundary elements are employed as well as standard
elasticity analyses, and the pressure terms described by using the penalty function
are evaluated by the same integration scheme as viscous terms. This result is
different from the results obtained by using the FEM, so a mathematical study
should be carried out concerning the numerical evaluation of the pressure terms
described by the penalty function in this formulation. In addition, this formulation
will be applied to different problems to examine its accuracy in the near future.
5.5 Conclusion
The boundary element formulation employing the penalty function was presented
for the steady natural convection problem. The self-adaptive coordinate transfor-
mation technique was applied to compute the quasi-singular integrals to evaluate
the heat flow near boundaries, and its usefulness was examined through the error
check of the numerical integration. The computational results including the pressure
distributions in the square cavity problem were in good agreement with the previ-
ously published results.
The numerical results shown in this paper were two-dimensional natural convec-
tion problems. However, this formulation can be easily applied to solve the viscous
flow and the forced convection problems. In addition, the three-dimensional analysis
will soon be carried out.
Acknowledgement
This work was mainly carried out while the first author was a visiting researcher
at the Computational Mechanics Institute, Southampton, The authors wish to
thank Dr. L.c. Wrobel and Prof. M. Tanaka for their kind suggestions and advice.
The finantial support of Toshiba Corporation is greatly acknowledged.
References
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BEM IX (Brebbia, C.A. et. al. Eds.), Vol. 3, pp. 401-417, C.M. Publications, 1987.
14 Onishi, K., Kuroki, T. and Tanaka, M., "Boundary Element Method for Laminar Viscous Flow and
Convective Diffusion Problems," Topics in Boundary Element Research, Vol. 2, pp. 209-229,
Springer-Verlag, 1985.
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Methods," Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, 71-92 (1983).
16 Kakuda, K. and Tosaka, N., "Boundary Element Analysis of the Unsteady Viscous Flows," Proc.
1st Japan National Symposium on BEM (Ed. M. Tanaka) 241-246, 1984 (in Japanese).
17 Kuroki, T., Onishi, K. and Tosaka, N., "Thermal Fluid Flow with Velocity Evaluation Using
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(1977).
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Problems," Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng. 15, 1705-1711 (1980).
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Flow by Penalty Function Formulation," Engineering Analysis, 3,194-200 (1986).
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Using the Boundary Element Method," Proc. Int. Conf. Development and Application of Computer
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Natural Convection Problems," Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, 8, 139-144 (1988).
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General Boundary Element Integrals," Int. J. Num. Meth. in Eng. 24,1959 (1987).
32 Kitagawa, K., Brebbia, C.A., Wrobel, L.c. and Tanaka, M., "A Boundary Element Analysis of
Natural Convection Problems," Proc. 4th Japan National Symp. on Boundary Element Methods,
pp. 161-166, 1987.
33 Oden, J.T. and Jacquotte, "A Stable Second-order Accurate Finite Element Scheme for the Analysis
of Two-dimensional Incompressible Viscous Flow," Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Finite Element Methods
in Flow problems, pp. 19-25, Tokyo Univ. Press, Tokyo, 1982.
34 Davis, G.V. and Jones, I.P., "Natural Convection in a Square Cavity - A Comparison Exercise,
Numerical Methods in Thermal Problems," Vol. 2, (Eds. Lewis, R.W. and Morgan K.), pp. 552-572,
Pineridge Press, 1981.
Chapter 6
Calculation of the Potential Flow with Consideration of

the Boundary Layer
by H. Schmitt and G.R. Schneider
6.1 Introduction
The three-dim~nsional steady laminar flow of a viscous incompressible fluid around

an arbitrary body shall be treated. This can be done by solving the Navier-Stokes
equation using a finite difference method. If the Reynolds number is high, this very
cumbersome method can be replaced by another one taking account of the fact,
that in this case the viscous effects essentially are confined to the boundary layer at
the body surface and to free shear layers. Thus the solution of the problem can be
composed of that of the inviscid outer flow, i.e. the potential flow, and of the viscous
inner flow (see for example Kevorkian and Cole [1]). The first can be calculated by
boundary element methods, the second by finite difference methods.
The potential flow can be obtained by means of superposition of elementary
solutions. In the boundary element method of Hess and Smith [2, 3], the panel
method, the potentials of sources on the surface are used, which describe the
displacement effect of the body on the uniform flow. Recently, Hess has given a new
review of this method [4]. Further, he has elaborated a higher-order surface source
method, which has a higher accuracy at the same computational time [5].
The modification of the flow by the lift acting on the body can be described by
potentials of source doublets or of a vortex-lattice, which are equivalent due to
Ampere's law, situated on the vortex sheet. On the basis of Hess's method, Kraus
[6, 7] has worked out a boundary element method taking into account this effect.
This also has been done by Hess (e.g. [8]). Other papers treating the flow around
lifting bodies have been published by Rubbert and Saaris [9], Maskew [10], Petrie
[11], and Singh et al. [12]. Wendland [13] has used a doublet distribution also on
the surface of the body in order to calculate the displacement effect, while Kress
[14], Grodtkjaer [15], and Asfar et al. [16] have taken a vortex distribution on the
surface of the body.
Three-dimensional steady boundary layers have been treated by Prandtl [17].
Surveys have been given by Schlichting [18], Loitsianski {19], Rosenhead [20],
Cousteix [21], Eichelbrenner [22], and Cooke and Hall [23]. Finite difference
methods have been developed by Blottner [24], Blottner and Ellis [25], Cebeci and
Bradshaw [26], and Cousteix [27], above all. Further treatments have been given
by Schonauer et al. [28], Krause et al. [29, 30, 31], Hirschel and Kordulla [32, 33],
Nash and Patel [34, 35], Wesseling [36], Kline et al. (Eds.) [37], Llndhout [38],
Calculation of the Potential Flow with Consideration of the Boundary Layer 111
Bradshaw et al. [39J, and Anderson et al. [40J. The paper of Smith [41J contains
an integral calculation method.
Until now, the coupling of potential flow boundary element methods with
boundary layer calculations has been accomplished only for a few three-dimensional
flows. A special problem, which has been considered, is that of a circular jet exhaust-
ing from a plane wall into a flow along it (Schmitt [42J); here, the potential flow
has been calculated with use of a source distribution on the wall and on the
surface of the jet; the viscous jet flow has been descibed by a one-dimensional model
only. In a similar manner, Shollenberger [43J has treated the flow around a jet
exhausting from a wing. Hirschel [44J, Nash and Scruggs [45J, and Gleyzes,
Cousteix, and Aupoix [46J have studied the flow around fuselages. Hirschel has
used a source distribution for the potential flow and the integral method of Cousteix
for the boundary layer flow. Schwamborn [47J has considered the flow around a
winglike body given by a thin three-axial ellipsoid. In a first approximation, he has
neglected the lift of the wing and used an analytic solution for the potential flow.
He has treated the b6undary layer by a finite difference method.
Most of the studies of three-dimensional incompressible flows at high Reynolds
numbers deal with a polate spheroid, because this is the body with the simplest
geometry producing a full three-dimensional flow, if the free stream forms a fmite
angle with the axis of revolution.
The potential flow around a spheroid without lift is given by the analytic
solution of Heine (see Lamb [48J). It may be approximated using the boundary
element method of Hess, in which sources on the spheroid are employed; the quality
of this approximation rises with the number of boundary elements (see for example
Schmitt [49J). For the calculation ofthis flow, also singularities at the axis can be
taken; this has been done by Kuhlmann and Shu [50J and Christopher and Shaw
[51, 52J (see also Hess [53J).
Using the analytic solution of Heine, the three-dimensional boundary layer has
been evaluated in the papers [25, 54-83J with various finite difference methods and
in the papers [84-88J with integral methods.
A semi-empirical method has been proposed by Vollmers [89J, Gleyzes and
Cousteix [90J, Cebeci and Meier [91J, and Haase and Stock [92]. They have used
the measured pressure distribution on the surface of the body for the calculation of
the velocity distribution, which can be taken as input data for a boundary layer
calculation.
A boundary element method for the flow around a spheroid without lift has
been given by GeiBler; he has taken a source distribution on the surface and
calculated the three-dimensional boundary layer [93, 94, 95].
The lift has been regarded using source doublets on the vortex sheet in a recent
paper (Schmitt [49J).1t has been shown, that this improves the agreement with the
pressure distribution on the surface determined experimentally by Meier and Kreplin
[96]. Therefore, in the following papers (Schmitt and Schneider [97, 98J), these
results have been taken as input data for a boundary layer calculation. These studies
show, that in the plane of symmetry, the agreement with the experimental results
of Kreplin et al. [99J and of Coponet [100J can be improved.
112 Calculation of the Potential Flow with Consideration of the Boundary Layer
6.2 Potential Flow
The three-dimensional steady laminar flow of a viscous incompressible fluid around

a body is investigated for high Reynolds numbers. The balance equations for mass
and momentum, i.e. the Navier-Stokes equation, in dimensionless variables are:
divv = 0 , (1)
1
v·gradv = -gradp + -~v (2)
Re
Here, the quantity v is the relation of the velocity to its absolute value Voo in the
uniform flow at infinity. The term p is the deviation of the pressure from the value
Poo at infinity related to p V,;, where p is the density. The vector x is divided by a
characteristic length a. Re = aVoo/v is the Reynolds number of the uniform flow,
where v is the kinematic viscosity.
The boundary conditions are
v=O on the body surface (3)
and
lim v=i. (4)
1.1:1->00
Here, i is a unity vector in the direction of the flow at infinity.
In the following, only flows with large Reynolds numbers are considered; then
mathematically, the problem is a singular perturbation problem (see for instance
Kevorkian and Cole [1]). The zeroth order outer solution is that of the inviscid
flow; the first order inner solution is given by Prandtl's boundary layer equations.
For the inviscid flow, when the velocity is irrotational, the disturbance velocity
potential <p is introduced:
v=i+grad<p . (5)
With this, the mass-conservation Eq. (1) becomes:
~<p = 0 . (6)
Equation (2) only is needed for the calculation of the pressure after the velocity has
been determined.
In the limit case Re -+ 00, the wake region of the body degenerates into a vortex
sheet originating from the body; this sheet is a stream surface, across which the
pressure is continuous. Therefore, the boundary conditions become:
V· n =0 on the surface of the body
and on the vortex sheet , (7)
p+ = p_ across the vortex sheet, (8)
lim Igrad <pI = 0 . (9)
1.1:1->00
Here, n is the unity vector in the direction of the outward normal, and the sides of
the vortex sheet are denoted by + and -, respectively.
The potential flow can be calculated by means of superposition of elementary

solutions of Laplace's equation (6). In the following, the potentials of sources on the
surface S of the body are used, which describe the displacement effect of the body
on the uniform flow. Further, the potentials of source doublets on the vortex sheet
Sy are used, which is produced by the body; these solutions represent the modification
of the flow by the lift acting on the body:
cp(x) = - sf -(-)
u(q) a( 1 )
dS + f Jl(q)-a -(-) dS. (10)
r x, q Sy ny r x, q
In this equation, the strength u of the sources and the strength Jl of the source
doublets depend on the position q on the surface. r(x, q) is the distance between the
reference point x and the source point q. a/any is the derivative in the direction of
the source doublet, which is directed perpendicular to the vortex sheet.
The strengths of the sources and the source doublets are determined by putting
(10) into the boundary, condition (7). In the special case, in which no source doublets
are needed, the following Fredholm integral equation of the second kind results for
a point p on the surface of the body:
21tU(p) - f (-aa
S
-1(»)u(q)dS =
np r p,q
-n p ·; • (11)
Here, np is the outward normal of the surface in the point p.

In order to solve (11) numerically, the surface of the body is approximated by
a large number N of boundary elements Sk' the panels, which here are taken as plane
quadrilaterals. On each panel, the source density Uk is assumed to be constant, so
that the remaining integral may be evaluated analytically (see [49], Hess [4], and
Hess and Smith [2, 3]). It results:
N
I AjkUk =
k=l
-nj · ; , j= 1, ... ,N ,
(12)
Here, nj and Pj are the outward normal of the panel j and a point on this panel,
respectively.
In the case, in which source doublets are used in addition to the sources in Eq.
(10), also the vortex sheet Sy is approximated by panels, and the source doublet
density Jlj is assumed to be constant on each panel. Figures 1a and b show a possible
distribution of the panels. On each of the longitudinal stripes, it is assumed, that
the doublet density has the same dependance of x:
Jl(x, y) = f(x)Jlj , j=N+1, ... ,N+M. (13)
The function f(x) is selected in such a way, that it has the qualitative behaviour
shown in Fig. 1c. Here, Jlj is the value belonging to the first panel behind the body
on the stripe j. Therefore bisides the quantities uj (j = 1, ... , N), also the quantities
Jlj (j = N + 1, ... , N + M) must be determined.
x
H
b
I U,'H
I~I~ I
c
:. /1 x
Fig. la-Co Vortex sheet Sv. a Side view; b top view with panel distribution; c relative source doublet
density
By inserting the ansatz (10) for qJ into the boundary condition (7) for each panel
of the body surface S, N linear equations are obtained for the quantities (Jj and /lj.
Further, M linear equations result, if the boundary condition (7) is fulfilled on the
M panels of the first lateral stripe of the vortex sheet behind the body. This condition
for one panel of each longitudinal stripe, respectively, corresponds to the Kutta-
Joukowski-condition for an airfoil.
A numerical method using (10) at first was employed to calculate the flow around
an airfoil by Kraus and Sacher [7] (see also [49]).
The position of the vortex sheet is determined not only by (7), but also by the
boundary condition (8). For a special body, at first an approximate position must
be taken, which can be improved by an iterative procedure. For the case of a
spheroid, a first approximation is found with help of Fig. 2. It shows streamlines
on the surface of the spheroid taken from experiments by Kreplin, Vollmers, and
Meier [101] for the Reynolds number Re = 0.8.106 ; here, the large semiaxis of the
spheroid is taken as characteristic length. The free-stream velocity Voo is directed
parallel to the plane y = 0 and forms the angle (X with the axis of revolution; here,
the angle of attack is (X = 10°. The convergence of the streamlines at the side
indicates, that a separation line exists there, which is the beginning of a thin free
viscous layer. In the case Re ~ 00, i.e. for the inviscid flow, this layer becomes an
infinitesimally thin vortex sheet.
~
v
.;;
0-
...S
~.
v
.;;
u
"i:i5
"
.-.:,
8......
...
v
.;:;
~
":;
~
u
..§
-
'0
;>
,... .S
c..
u
::2
2
011
C
~
§
0$
~
.5
E
0$
~
;;;
V
<J
~
:>
Vl
..c
.ioj,
~
The figure suggests to use the plane z = 0 as approximation for the position of
this sheet. An additional argument for this assumption is, that for the thickness, i.e.
the ratio of the two axes of the spheroid, the small value 1/6 is taken; therefore a
theory, in which a linearization in this parameter is introduced, leads to the position
z =0.
Figure 3 shows the pressure coefficient cp(x) = 2p = 1 - v2 determined by calcu-
lation of the potential flow together with the results of measurements for a Reynolds
number Re = 3.6' 106 • Figure 3a refers to the plane of symmetry at the lee-side,
strictly speaking to the arc of meridian 9 = 174°, where 9 is the angle around the
axis of revolution beginning in the lower plane of symmetry. Figure 3b refers to the
arc of meridian 9 = 4.8°, which is situated approximatly in the plane of symmetry
(9 = 0°) at the luff.
On the forward half of the spheroid, the consideration of the vortex sheet causes
practically no difference of the results and they are in good agreement with the
experimental results. On the backward half, the differences are higher. The modifica-
tion, which is caused by the vortex sheet, corresponds to that, which occurs on an
airfoil. Around the latter, a circulation is induced by a vortex sheet, i.e. an additional
flow clockwise around the airfoil. In case of the three-dimensional flow around the
spheroid too, the velocity on the upper side becomes higher and that on the lower
side becomes smaller. From this by means of Bernoulli's equation, a decrease of the
1.00
I a=10°, # =1 74° r -
Z! z
0.75 116
0.50 f--' -
ex~-'--E- lI -71-
1 00
x
-116 ~ ,
I
I
f
0.25
~ a
--
0 0
~ ~, . 0 n 0
1,0 0
a
-0.25
I I .1 . I I #1I 4.8°
1.00 r--'
'"'to.
0.75 - - Theory w~th vortex sheet } Schmitt [49]
--+-- Theory WIthout vortex sheet
0.50 -
'\ 0 Exp. Meier and Kreplin [lOll -- '-
J,
0.25
~
~a .l>
a r.
'n 0"'" ~j
b
- 't'-
-..
-0.25
-1.25 -1.00 -0.75 -0.50 -0.25 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
x-
Fig.3a,b. Pressure coefficient cp on the surface. a Plane of symmetry at the leeside; b plane of symmetry
at the luff
pressure on the upper side (Fig. 3a) and an increase of the pressure on the lower
side (Fig. 3b) can be deduced. The figure shows, that the consideration ofthe vortex
sheet substantially improves the agreement of the calculated results with that of the
measurements.
For other special bodies, the position of the vortex sheet must be approximated
in a similar way. Further in every case, some iteration procedure should be used,
so that the boundary conditions (7) and (8) are fulfilled everywhere on the vortex
sheet.
Hence with regard to the lateral separation, the potential flow is evaluated,
which is the basis of the calculation of the boundary layer.
6.3 Boundary Layer
The boundary layer, equations are deduced from the Navier-Stokes equation (2)
and (1) by coordinate stretching and passage to the limit Re - 00. Their solution is
valid only in the thin layer adjacent to the body surface where the effect of viscosity
is important.
A curvilinear orthogonal coordinate system (Xl, X 2 , X3) is introduced, where Xl
and X 2 denote surface coordinates and the coordinate X3 is the outward normal to
the body surface. The velocities along the Xl' X2' and X3 directions are denoted by
u, w, v and the in viscid velocities at the edge of the boundary layer in the Xl and X 2
directions by Ue and We' Using these coordinates, the equations can be written as
follows:
1 au 1 ow ov
-h :;- + -h :;- +:;- - uK 2 - WKl = 0 , (14)
1 vX l 2 vX 2 vX3
u au w au au 2 1 op 1 02U
--+--+V--UWKl +w K2 = ---+-- (15)
hl OX l h2 OX2 OX3 hl OX l Re OX~ ,
u ow W ow ow 2 1 op 1 02W
- - + - - + v - + u K -uwK = - - - + - - - (16)
hl OX l h2 OX 2 OX 3 1 2 h2 OX 2 Re OX~ ,
~ =0 , (17)
oX 3
Herein, hl and h2 are metric coefficients, and the geodesic curvatures of the surface
lines X z = const and Xl = const are, respectively:
(18)
z10h
K2 = -----. (19)
hzh l oX l
Regarding Eq. (17), the pressure gradients required in the boundary layer
equations (15) and (16) can be taken at the edge of the boundary layer:
(20)
(21)
The boundary conditions follow from Eq. (3) and the matching condition:
U = 0, W = 0, v = 0 for X3 = 0 , (22)
U = Ue , W = We for X3 --+ 00 • (23)
If the flow has a plane of symmetry, in this plane, the relations W = 0 but
ow/ox 2 =1= 0 hold, and all other X2 derivatives are zero; therefore, here the momentum
equation for the X2 direction drops; but by differentiating it with respect to X 2, the
set of equations is completed and reads as follows:
OW
(J) = oX 2 ' (24)
Here according to the use of (J) instead of w, the boundary conditions (22) and
(23) are
U= 0, v = 0, (J) = 0 for X3 =0 , (27)
for X3 --+ 00 • (28)
In order to solve the boundary value problem (24) to (28), initial profiles are
needed. These profiles can be obtained from the boundary layer equations in the
neighbourhood of the stagnation point, if this point is situated in the plane of
symmetry; this condition is fulfilled for most of the practical problems, especially
for a body of revolution. A similarity solution for three-dimensional flow at a
stagnation point has been given by Howarth [102].
A similarity ttansformation of Eqs. (24) to (28) turns out to be useful. The reason
for this is, that the profiles expressed in the transformed coordinates do not change
as rapidly as they do, when they are expressed in physical coordinates. With
transformed coordinates, larger step sizes can be taken in Xl direction. For the finite
difference approximation of the equations the Keller box method can be taken,
which was developed by Keller [103] and used by Keller and Cebeci [104,105] and
others. One of the basic ideas of this method is to obtain a system of first order
equations by introducing new dependent variables.
The results for the plane of symmetry can be taken as starting conditions for
the three-dimensional problem in the downstream region, because the directions of
the streamlines define the zones of dependence. The calculations end at the positions,
where reversed flows occur.
6.4 Example
In this section, the application to the flow around the prolate spheroid with the
ratio 1/6 of the two axis is treated, which has been mentioned already in the second
section.
Experimental results for this flow have been given by Meier, Kreplin, and
Vollmers [96, 99, 101, 106-110J, B6ddener [111J, Coponet [lOOJ, and Han and
Patel [112]. The paper of van den Berg [113J contains a summary of results of
various three-dimensional shear layer measurements.
For the boundary layer, the coordinates Xl = X and X 2 = /) have been intro-
duced, as shown in Fig. 3. The major semi-axis a of the spheroid has been taken as
reference length. In this case, the metric coefficients and the curvatures of the surface
are:
dr)2
hx = 1 + ( dx ' ha = r , (29)
dr
dx
(30)
r
with r = b~. Here, b is the minor semi-axis of the spheroid.

The present choice of coordinates leads to a mathematical singularity for r = 0,
that is at the nose ofthe spheroid. This problem has been discussed by Wang [58J,
Cebeci et al. [64J, and Grundmann [66]. Here, this difficulty has been avoided by
starting the calculation of the boundary layer in the plane of symmetry close behind
the singular point at X = -0.99975 with the proftles valid in the neighborhood of
the stagnation point (see Schneider and Zhu [70J). A comparison with the solution
of Grundmann, who has used a coordinate system without the mentioned singu-
larity, shows no signi.ficant difference in the nose region up to an angle of attack
C( = 30°.
The similarity transformation, which has been used here, is similar to the Blasius
similarity transformation valid for two-dimensional boundary layers:
~=x,
(31)
with
(32)
The continuity equation has been satisfied by introduction of a two component

vector potential. The momentum equations are solved by a finite difference approxi-
mation using the Keller box method. This method has been developped by Keller
P4 PI
II
L
1
------~
~----+-----
I
I
I
• known values
unknown values
PJ
k. P2 0
I
I
:
Fig. 4. Net rectangle for the difference equations
[103J and used by Keller and Cebeci [104, 105J, Cebeci [114, 115J, and Hirsh and
Cebeci [62]. A. detailed description of this method has been given by Cebeci and
Bradshaw [26J and by Cebeci and Smith [116]. In this method, an implicit differ-
encing is taken, which is formally of second order in accuacy. One of the basic ideas
is to write the system of partial differental equations in the form of a system of first
order equations by introducing additional variables. The first order derivatives are
approximated by central differences. The computational net is rectangular as shown
in Fig. 4. The net points are defined by:
~o =0 , ~i = ~i-1 + ki i = 1,2,3, ... , I ,

(33)
(0 = 0 , (j = (j-1 + hj j = 1, 2, 3, ... ,J .
The net spacings, ki and hj, are completely arbitrary and may have large variations
in practical calculations. The mesh functions are averaged and the first derivatives
are approximated for the midpoints (C (i-1/2) of the segment P1 P2 or ((-1/2,
(i-1/2) of the rectangle P1P2P3P4. The resulting nonlinear algebraic system is
linearized by Newton's method. In the coefficient matrix of the resulting system, the
elements different from zero are grouped around the main diagonal and, on visual
observation of the matrix, form a band pattern. This matrix is inverted by a special
Gauss algorithm handling on the band elements.
The boundarY layer has been calculated only in the plane of symmetry.
At first, the flow around the spheroid has been studied for the case without
incidence, i.e. r:J. = 0°. In this case, the flow is axisymmetric and therefore, no vortex
sheet does exist. Figure 5a shows the velocity Ue of the potential flow on the surface
of the spheroid. Due to the symmetry, the stagnation point U e = 0 is situated at
x = -1. With increasing x, the cross-sectional area of the flow decreases. Hence,
as a consequence of the equation of continuity, the velocity increases. Behind the
largest cross-section of the spheroid at x = 0, the velocity decreases again in a
symmetric manner. At the stagnation point, the pressure coefficient given in Fig. 5b
is cp = 1. Due to Bernoulli's equation, the pressure decreases up to the largest
cross-section. A comparison with the experimental results of B6ddener [111J,
obtained at a Reynolds number Re = 3.6 '10 6 , shows very good agreement.
1.5
a = 0°
f
..,,"
0.5
o
-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0
x-
Fig. Sa. Velocity u. at the outer edge of the boundary layer
1.00
a= O·
0.75
0.50
- - Theory
0 Exp. BOddener (1111
0.25
\
<..."
o ~ 0 ~
o~
-0.25
-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0
x _
Fig. 5b. Pressure coefficient cp on the surface
1.5,-- - -, - -- - , - -- -,..-_ _ _-,

em
1.0 f -- - - i - - - - f - - - - + - . ;,L-- - - I
'-0 0.5 f----;---::~-""=-t------+----i
-0.5 x _o_ 0.5 1.0
Fig. 5c. Thickness fJ of the boundary layer for a = 1.2 m

'1. -
-fO
o o JO
"'- ~
~
~
( 0 pb- Kl&q!U 61
-- 1~6(X,A
OI"(J(~' lOll
3
:r (1: = 00
Fig. 5d. Shear stress r w on the surface
The thickness 0 of the boundary layer is plotted in Fig. 5c in cm for a value of

a taken from the model of Meier and Kreplin. It increases and has decreasing slope
as along a flat plate; but after the largest cross-section, since the pressure increases,
the increment of 0 becomes higher and higher. Figure 5d shows the wall shear stress
7: w .jRe, which is independent of the Reynolds number. It is high in the stagnation
point. Subsequently it decreases and proceeds up to x ~ 0 approximately in the
same form as in the boundary layer of a plane plate. For x > 0, the adverse pressure
gradient slows down the boundary layer flow additionally, so that the shear stress
decreases faster than along the flat plate. At x ~ 0.75 finally, 7: w vanishes, a reverse
flow begins, and the boundary layer separates from the wall. A comparison with
the experimental results of Kreplin et al. [106, 107] shows an excellent agreement
between the calculated and the measured curves.
In the following, the influence of a finite value of the angle of attack is studied.
Figure 6a shows, that the symmetry of the velocity U e to the plane x = 0 is lost as
a consequence of the incidence of the spheroid. The front stagnation point is no
longer situated on the axis of revolution, but is shift to the windward. On the leeside
therefore, the velocity begins with a finite value at x = -1. For reason of continuity,
the velocity increases until it reaches its maximum, which is higher than in the case
with IX = 0°, because the spheroid at incidence represents a body of larger cross-
section blocking the flow. After its maximum value, the velocity decreases until the
rear stagnation point is reached. This point is situated in front of the end of the
spheroid symmetrically to the front stagnation point, if no vortex sheet is used in
the calculation. Following the explanation given above, the consideration of a
vortex sheet induces a circulation around the cross-section of the spheroid in the
plane of symmetry and therefore leads to a higher velocity; further the rear stagna-
tion point is shifted again to the axis of revolution, since the plane z = 0 is chosen
as position of the vortex sheet.
The pressure coefficient cp given in Fig. 6b begins with a value less than 1 and
decreases until a minimum value is reached, which is smaller than that in the case
without incidence. Then, cp increases up to the stagnation point, where cp = 1.
Corresponding to the increase of the velocity a decrease of the pressure is caused
by the consideration of the vortex sheet. On the foreward half of the spheroid, both
Calculation ofthe Potential Flow with Consideration of the Boundary Layer 123
1.5
ex = 10·
;'
-~
2
::,"
0,5
o
-10 -os o 0.5 1.0
x --
Fig.6a. Velocity U e at the outer edge of the boundary layer in the leeward plane of symmetry. 1 theory
with vortex sheet, 2 theory without vortex sheet
tOO
ex = 10· I
0.75
o Exp. 86ddener 1m)
0.50
I
!I
0,25 2'11
o ~d:
l "<>"
-'l. I" " " n I
-0.25
-0.50
-10 -0.5 o 0,5 to
x--
Fig. 6b. Pressure coefficient cp on the surface in the leeward plane of symmetry. 1 theory with vortex
sheet, 2 theory without vortex sheet
1.5 . - - - -, - - - - , - - - - . - - - : : - - - , - ,
em ex = 10·
10 I----t----b~==---t--
O.5I---7"o<:....j----t-- - - - + - - --\
-0.5 o 0.5 10
x-
Fig.6c. Thickness (j of the leeward boundary layer in the plane of symmetry. 1 theory with vortex sheet,
2 theory without vortex sheet
a = 10°
\ o Exp. K
replin e! 01(99)
-;:1
o I
~
0
v
0 0 0
0 0
o
-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0
x-
Fig.6d. Shear stress ,won the surface in the leeward plane of symmetry. 1 theory with vortex sheet,
3
a 10° )
I
em =
0= 1.2m
..l
I
o Exp. Coponet [ 00) I
J
.),
o 0.5 1.0
u-
Fig.6e. Prome of the velocity u for x = 0.77. 1 theory with vortex sheet, 2 theory without vortex sheet
em
3
a
o =1.Zm
= 10° I
~ I
Z.1.
II
1
)
j;
o 0.5 1.0
u -
Fig. 6f. Prome of the velocity u for x = 0.94. 1 theory with vortex sheet, 2 theory without vortex sheet
curves nearly coincide and are in excellent agreement with the experimental results
of BOddener [111]. On the rear half, the calculation using a vortex sheet leads to
results, which agree essentially better with the experiments of Boddener.
Comparison of Fig. 6b and Fig. 5b shows, that over the main part of the spheroid
at incidence an adverse pressure gradient does exist, in contrast to the case without
incidence. Thus the flow in the boundary layer is slowed down, and its thickness
given in Fig. 6c increases compared with that in the case or: = 00. This effect is more
pronounced in the curve calculated disregarding the vortex sheet. In this case
therefore, the boundary layer separates earlier.
The fact, that the thickness of the boundary layer decreases once again for
x > 0.5, may not be explained by the growing adverse pressure gradient. Rather,
this is caused by a three-dimensional effect. For, material flowing around the side
of the spheroid takes the form of sources in the plane of symmetry, that is - co > 0
in Eq. (24). These lead to an acceleration of the flow and to a backward shift of the
separation. But finally, the adverse pressure gradient predominates, and separation
occurs at x = 0.96.
The wall shear stress shown in Fig. 6d agrees qualitatively with that along a
flat plate up to x ~ -0.5. Here, it is lower than in the case or: = 00, due to the
reduction of the velocity by the adverse pressure gradient. Along the main part of
the spheroid, a weak growth of the shear stress occurs, since the three-dimensional
effect of the sources emerging in the plane of symmetry is higher than that of the
adverse pressure gradient. This is valid up to x ~ 0.8. For greater x, the predomi-
nance of the adverse pressure gradient leads to a rapid decrease of'tw' A comparison
with 'experimental results of Kreplin et al. [99] shows very good agreement, which
again, is even better, if the vortex sheet is taken into account.
The profiles of the velocity u at the locations x = 0.77 and x = 0.94 measured
from the center of the body along the axis of revolution have been evaluated [98]
and are give in Figs. 6e and f. The comparison with the experimental results of
Coponet [100] at x = 0.77 shows, that the consideration ofthe vortex sheet leads
to an essentially better. agreement. The difference between both calculations is even
greater for the second profile, which has been evaluated at a short distance from
the separation point at x = 0.96; but for this region, experimental results are not
available.
Finally, the flow around a spheroid at an angle of attack of or: = 200 has been
studied. The qualitative behaviour of the velocity Ue given in Fig. 7a is the same as
that in the case with or: = 100. But the maximal value is higher, since the higher angle
of attack causes a more pronounced blocking of the flow. Also, the difference
between the two calculated curves is greater, because the induced circulation in-
creases with increasing angle of attack. As a consequence of the increase of Ue with
increasing or:, the minimum of the pressure coefficient cp in Fig. 7b decreases and
hence, the adverse pressure gradient increases also over the main part of the
spheroid. Along the tail of the spheroid, the calculated results differ considerably
from those measured by BOddener [111]; but also in this case, the consideration of
the vortex sheet gives an improvement, since the physical situation is modelled
better. The reason for the disagreement between the calculated and the measured
values is, that the vortex sheet is assumed to be situated in the plane z = O. In order
1.5
ex = 20·
r--
..... ,
-~
"," 0.5
1"\
o
-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0
x-
Fig.7a. Velocity U e at the outer edge of the boundary layer in the leeward plane of symmetry. 1 theory
with vortex sheet, 2 theory without vortex sheet
1.00
a = 20· ,
0.75 I
0.50
/ j
0,25
o Exp. Biiddener 11111 2;>/)
~o
o ~
~u u 0 000 00
-0,25 /
V
-0,50
-1.0 -0.5 a 0.5 1.0
x -
Fig. 7b. Pressure coefficient cp on the surface in the leeward plane of symmetry. 1 theory with vortex
sheet, 2 theory without vortex sheet
1.0 ,-------.---- - - r - - - - . . - - - - --,

a = 20·
t ::~-~~4_-~~2~----+_---~
-0,5 o 0.5 10
x _
Fig.7c. Thickness (5 of the leeward boundary layer in the plane of symmetry. 1 theory with vortex sheet,
J
a = 20°
o Exp. Kr~in-et ot.(99)
\ /'
"--
o
~1
-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0
x -
Fig. 7d. Shear stress ,won the surface in the leeward plane of symmetry. 1 theory with vortex sheet,
to obtain a further improvement of the potential theory, the position of the vortex
sheet should be calculated in such a manner, that it becomes a stream-surface.
The qualitative agreement of b shown in Fig. 7c with that along a flat plate
is given up to x ~ - 0.4; then, the higher pressure gradient leads to a steeper increase
of b than in the case IX = 10°. The decrease of b begins already on the central part
of the spheroid, since the influence of the three-dimensional effects is much more
pronounced than for IX = 10°. Thus, the separation is shifted further backwards; it
occures at x = 0.963 following the calculation regarding the vortex sheet and at
x = 0.967 following that disregarding the vortex sheet.
Figure 7d shows, that the shear stress looks like that along a flat plate only
from x = -1.0 to x = -0.9; the effects discussed above lead to a steeper decay in
this region and to a weak increase along the central part of the spheroid. Since this
increase begins earlier than in the case IX = 10°, the shear stress is higher than in the
latter case. The experimental results of Kreplin et al. [99] give only one value, which
may be compared with the calculated results.
Summarizing the comparisons made between the calculated and measured
results for the prolate spheroid, the following conclusions can be drawn: For
axisymmetric flow, the calculation using the method described here leads to results,
which are in very good agreement with the experimental results for high Reynolds
numbers. This is caused by the fact, that the influence of the viscosity essentially is
confined to the boundary layer. Also the flow around a spheroid at an incidence of
10° is reproduced well. The consideration of the vortex sheet improves the results.
The reason is, that in this case the viscosity is important in such a thin sheet too.
For the flow at a higher incidence such as 20°, greater differences between the
calculated and measured curves occur.
6.5 Conclusions
The three-dimensional steady laminar flow of a viscous incompressible fluid around

an arbitrary body is studied for high Reynolds numbers. For this classical singular
perturbation problem, the outer solution is that of the inviscid flow; the inner
solution is given by Prandtl's boundary layer equations, which hold near the wall
of the body and near free vortex sheets originating at the body surface.
The potential flow around the body is calculated by means of superposition of
elementary solutions. The potentials of sources on the surface are used to describe
the displacement effect of the body on the uniform flow. Further, the potentials of
source doublets on a vortex sheet are used, which is produced by the body; these
solutions represent the modification of the flow by the lift acting on the body. For
the unknown strengths of the sources and the source doublets, an integral equation
results, which is solved numerically by a boundary element method.
The velocities on the surface elements of the body are the input data for the
calculation of the boundary layer, which can be accomplished by difference methods.
For simple three-dimensional bodies, for which analytical expressions describing
the potential flow without lifting effect of the body are known, the boundary element
method allows the consideration of this effect. The improvement caused hereby is
shown for the special case of the flow around a prolate spheroid; the comparison
of the calculated results with experimental values gives an essentially better agree-
ment. For bodies with a more complicated shape, the boundary element method is
needed even to describe the displacement effect.
The condition of a high value of the Reynolds number is fulfilled for many
engineering applications of viscous flows, as for example in aerodynamics, in flows
in turbomachinery, or in hydrodynamics. A treatment of these flows using the
procedure described here confines the domain of the grid for the numerical calcula-
tion to the surfaces of the body, the vortex sheets, the viscous wall layers, and the
viscous free shear layers. Therefore, this method is much less cumbersome and much
less time is needed for the computation than for finite difference methods based on
the full Navier-Stokes equation in the whole three-dimensional flow field. This may
be understood by realizing the fact, that in the procedure explained here, physical
aspects of the flow are taken into account.
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1974.
Chapter 7
Applications in Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics

by M.B. Bush
7.1 Introduction
The majority of the fluids dealt with by Engineers and Scientists, such as air, water
and oils, can be regarded as Newtonian under most conditions of interest. However,
in many cases the assumption of Newtonian behaviour is not valid and the rather
more complex non-Newtonian response must be modelled. Such situations arise in
the chemical processing industry and plastics processing industry. Non-Newtonian
behaviour is also encountered in the mining industry, where slurries and muds are
often handled, and in applications such as lubrication and biomedical flows. The
simulation of non-Newtonian fluid flow phenomena is therefore of importance to
industry.
The behaviour of such liquids is often highly nonlinear and frequently difficult
to predict by simple means. The introduction of computer aided analysis and design
software can have a large impact on these industries. Such an impact is plainly seen
in the process of injection moulding of thermoplastics, where sophisticated
computer packages are available. This allows quite complex injection moulds
to be designed and analysed, which significantly reduces the prototype testing
phase.
On the other hand there are some embarrassing deficiencies in our ability to
simulate the flow of non-Newtonian liquids in particular industrial processing
operations. An outstanding example is the process of plastic extrusion. While we
are quite able to model the viscous flow of the molten plastic material in the channels
within the extrusion machine (as this is similar to the flow within an injection
mould), the behaviour of the stream of material after leaving the extrusion die
(extrudate) is dominated by the elastic properties of the liquid and severe distortion
of the extrudate can occur. This behaviour is rather more difficult to model, and
has defied systematic treatment to date. However, considerable progress has been
made in recent years, with the introduction of new models and solution techniques,
one of which is the boundary element method.
In recent years the boundary element method has been successfully applied to
a wide variety of inviscid and viscous Newtonian flow problems [1-10]. In this
chapter an effort is made to review the application of the boundary element method
to the simulation of non-Newtonian flow problems. A number of examples are
reproduced which illustrate its use in the solution of simple viscous flows and the
more complex viscoelastic flows representative of molten plastics and polymer
Applications in Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 135
solutions, with emphasis on the practical problem of plastic extrusion operations.

We begin with a brief summary of the common forms of non-Newtonian behaviour.
7.2 The Behaviour of Non-Newtonian Liquids

An incompressible Newtonian fluid has a constitutive equation of the form [11]
a = - pi + 2,,(T)D (1)
where a is the stress tensor, p is the pressure, I is the unit tensor, ,,(T) is the viscosity
(which may be a function of temperature, T, but is not dependent on the instan-
taneous shear rate in the fluid) and D is the rate-oj-strain tensor given by
1
D = "2 {Vu + (Vul} (2)
where V is the gradi~nt tensor and u is the velocity tensor. The viscosity is defmed
in a planar shearing flow, which is assumed to be in the x-y plane. If the direction
of shear corresponds to the x-axis, then the viscosity is given by ,,(T) = a",/j, where
j is the shear rate (fJu,,/fJy) and a", is the shear stress. Thus the stress in a Newtonian
fluid depends only on the instantaneous velocity field, and the viscosity is constant
under isothermal conditions. Water, air and most oils are examples of Newtonian
fluids.
The range of non-Newtonian behaviour and the associated flow phenomena is
very large, and a complete description is well beyond the scope of this report. A
broad description of the behaviour in both steady and unsteady flow situations,
together with mathematical models, can be found for example in Bird et al [12],
Walters [13] and Tanner [14]. In the present report we will restrict ourselves to
steady state flow, and treat only the forms of non-Newtonian behaviour that have
been modelled by the "boundary element method.
In general terms a non-Newtonian liquid may be said to be viscoelastic, which
reflects the fact that the liquid exhibits both viscous properties and elastic properties.
This is not meant to imply however that all non-Newtonian liquids need to possess
elastic properties, as there are many examples of inelastic liquids having a shear-rate
dependent viscosity [12]. In some flow geometries the elastic properties are oflittle
significance ' and only the viscous properties need to be modelled. Such situations
arise is the study of flow through pipelines or other internal passages, where the
pressure required to drive the flow is of paramount interest. Thus the flow of molten
plastic through processing equipment or within moulds can be adequately predicted
by modelling the viscous behaviour of the material. On the other hand there are a
variety of processing situations in which the elastic properties cannot be neglected.
Examples ofthis class of flow include the polymer extrudate swell phenomenon and
the process of melt fibre drawing.
Viscous Behaviour
When the elastic properties of the liquid are negligible or elastic effects in the flow
can be neglected, then a simple viscous model will be used. In this case the viscosity
136 Applications in Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics
will be ·ven as a function of both temperature and instantaneous shear rate,

y = {(2 tr(D2)}, where 'tr' represents the trace. The constitutive model can then
be written in the form
a = -pi + 21J(T, y)D . (3)
This model is often referred to as the Generalized Newtonian Fluid [12], and includes
the Newtonian fluid as a particular case. Once again the total stress depends only
on the instantaneous flow field. Polymer melts and polymer solutions usually
exhibit shear-thinning (or pseudoplastic) properties, where the viscosity reduces as
the shear rate increases. Other forms of non-Newtonian viscous behaviour include
shear-thickening (or dilatant) response, which sometimes occurs in suspensions of
very fine particles, and yield stress behaviour. In the latter no motion occurs until
the stress in the liquid exceeds a yield value. This behaviour can be observed in
slurries, muds, greases and pastes.
Vicoelastic Behaviour
Elastic behaviour in a liquid is indicated by a tendency for the liquid to recoil after
a deformation has been imposed. Such fluids therefore have a memory ofthe original
configuration and are often termed memory fluids. However, if the deformation is
imposed and maintained for some time the elastic stresses eventually relax, and the
tendency to recoil diminishes. The fluids are therefore said to have a fading memory;
recent configurations have a greater influence than more distant configurations. The
total stress in the liquid is then dependent not only on the instantaneous flow field
but also on the strain history, and the constitutive models must take this into
account. A relaxation time is often introduced to quantify the elasticity (or memory)
of such liquids. However, in most cases a single relaxation time is not sufficient, and
a relaxation spectrum is more appropriate [15].
Elasticity results from the presence of long chain polymer molecules and is
therefore observed in polymer melts, polymer solutions and biological liquids. The
elastic properties give rise to some remarkable flow phenomena such as the rod
climbing effect, extrudate swell and the presence of normal stress differences in
shearing flow. These effects cannot be explained in terms of simply viscous theory.
An entertaining account of such phenomena is given by Bird and Curtiss [16], with
a more detailed description in [12-14].
The constitutive equation in a viscoelastic liquid is usually written in the form
a = - pi + 21JsD +T (4)
where 'Is represents the viscosity of a Newtonian solvent (in the case of polymer
solutions) and T is referred to as the extra stress tensor. In a polymer melt or a
concentrated polymer solution the Newtonian component can be neglected. The
extra stress tensor is then given by additional integral or differential models, which
represent both the viscous and elastic behaviour of the polymer component. A great
variety of viscoelastic models have been proposed and the reader is referred to Refs.
[12-14] for a complete summary. Some examples will be given later in this report.
Elongational Behaviour
An interesting manifestation of elastic properties is observed in an elongational flow.
In this flow a sample of fluid is undergoing uniaxial extension. The resistance to
elongation can be represented in terms of elongational viscosity (or Trouton viscosity)
[12] analogous to the shear viscosity described above. If the elongation is occurring
in the Xl direction then the elongational viscosity is given by Jl(e) = (0"11 - 0"22)/e,
where e is the strain rate (and 0"22 = 0"33 in this flow).
It is a simple matter to show that for a Newtonian liquid the elongational
viscosity is just three times the shear viscosity. In the case of a polymer melt however,
the steady state elongational viscosity initially increases as the strain rate is in-
creased, but reduces at higher strain rates. Thus the behaviour in elongation is
strikingly different to the behaviour in shear. This difference is illustrated in Fig. 1,
which shows the steady state shear and elongational viscosity for a sample of low
density polyethylene at 150°C [17,18]. Since many polymer processing operations
involve elongational flow, or elongational-like flow, the elongational properties of
the polymer are of importance. For example, the elongational behaviour has been
found to have a strong influence on the swelling of an extruded jet of viscoelastic
liquid [19].
In conclusion, it is important to stress that the above account is a very brief
summary of the material properties and some forms of response in steady-state
flows. There are a great many other flow phenomena observed in both steady flow
and unsteady flow situations, which are beyond the scope ofthis chapter. The reader
is referred to the quoted references for further details.

The previous section 'outlined the forms of non-Newtonian constitutive behaviour
that have been included in boundary element models of polymer flow. In this section
the complete set of governing equations is presented.
v
--
~
~
~
~
~
Shear rate or elongation rate
Fig. 1. Steady-state shear viscosity and elongational viscosity for a low density polyethylene at 150°C:
e, shear from Meissner [17]; 0, elongation from Laun and Munstedt [18]
Momentum and Continuity Equations

The momentum and continuity equations governing the flow of an incompressible
fluid are [11]:
Du
V . 0' - P- + pI = 0 (5)
Dt
and
V·u=o (6)
where p is the fluid density,Jis a body force (per unit mass) and D/Dt is the material
derivative defined by
D
-=-+u·V.
a (7)
Dt at
The importance of inertia effects relative to viscous effects in a flowing fluid are
measured by the Reynolds number. This is defined as Re = pUL/l1, where U and L
represent velocity and length scales in the flow, and 11 is a viscosity. In most polymer
flow situations the Reynolds number is quite small (<< 1) and the flow is dominated
by viscous effects. In this limit we have creeping flow or Stokes flow. If the body
forces are also neglected, and the flow is steady, then the momentum equation
becomes
v·O'=o. (8)
This latter equation is the one most frequently utilized.
Energy Equation
When temperature variations in the flow are significant, then the effects of tem-
perature on the fluid properties must be included in the analysis. The temperature
field can be determined by solution of the energy equation [11]:
DT
kV 2 T - pcp - + cP = 0 . (9)
Dt
In this, T represents the temperature, k is the thermal conductivity, cp is the specific
heat capacity at constant pressure and cP is the viscous dissipation function ( = (1 : Vu).
The thermal properties, k and c p , are assumed to be independent of temperature.
The first term in Eq. (9) relates to the conduction of heat in the fluid while the second
term relates to the bulk convection of heat. The viscous dissipation function de-
scribes the generation of heat through viscous action.
Constitutive Equations
If the fluid is to be modelled as a Generalized Newtonian Fluid then the total stress
is simply given by Eq. (3). Several models have been proposed for the relationship
between viscosity and shear rate [12]. The simplest of these is the power-law fluid:
(10)
The nature of the viscous behaviour represented by the model depends on the ranges
of the power-law index. In general terms these are:
n < 1: Shear-thinning (pseudoplastic),
n = 1: Newtonian,
n > 1: Shear-thickening (dilatant) .
Figure 1 clearly shows that the shear viscosity of the polymer melt approaches an
upper limit as the shear rate approaches zero. This limit is the zero-shear rate
viscosity ofthe fluid. Note, however, that when n < 1 the power-law model produces
an unbounded viscosity as the shear rate approaches zero. In practice this does not
represent a severe problem, since the shear stress '1('9)'9 approaches zero at small
shear rates. The power-law model is therefore frequently used to model the flow of
polymer materials. The simplicity of the model is a distinct advantage, as the two
parameters are relatively easily determined by fitting the model to viscosity - shear
rate data. Both the parameters K and n are constant at a given temperature.
A more complicated (and more realistic) behaviour is represented by the CarreclU
model, which takes the form
(11)
In this case the model incorporates a high shear rate asymptote for the viscosity,
'100' and a low shear rate assymptote, '10' which overcomes the conceptual difficulties
in the power-law model. In addition, the parameter A has the units of time and can
be referred to as a time constant. This should not be confused with a relaxation time
used to quantify fluid memory, since the Generalized Newtonian Fluid cannot
model elastic properties. The larger number of parameters makes the task of fitting
the model to viscosity - shear rate data somewhat more difficult.
If the full viscoelastic nature of the fluid is to be modelled then more complicated
models are required. The total stress in the fluid is given by Eq. (4). The relationships
for the extra stress T dm be in integral form or differential form, and relate the stress
field to the strain history of the fluid. There are a great variety of both integral
and differential models [12-14], and only representative examples are given here.
A simple form of integral model is the Maxwell model [12]:
T = J (f
-00
'1~ e-<t-t')f).k) r' dt' .
k=l Ak
(12)
In this, '1k is the molecular viscosity (i.e. the contribution to the viscosity due to the
polymer component) corresponding to the relaxation time Ak, and the summation
reflects the presence of a relaxation spectrum. The relaxation spectrum for a par-
ticular liquid can be measured using a variety of unsteady test procedures [15]. For
practical purposes the spectrum must of course be discretized before implementa-
tion of the model. The term r' is a relative rate of strain tensor that links the
deformation of a fluid particle at the past time t' to the deformation of the particle
at the present time t. An integral of this sort can be viewed as an integral along a
particle path, or streamline, in the flow.
If differential models are to be used we must first represent the extra stress as
the sum of components contributed by all the relaxation modes in the relaxation
spectrum,
L
00
T= Tk, (13)
k=1
and then supply differential models for Tk.
A commonly employed form of differential model is the upper convected model:
A. Aor k + Rk = 0 (14)
kAt
in which Ak is the relaxation time corresponding to the k-th relaxation mode. The
differential term is the upper convected derivative defined as
AT aT T
-
At at + u' VT -
= - LT - TL (15)
where L = Vu is the velocity gradient tensor. Different forms of model behaviour

result from different choices for the function Rk.
The Phan-Thien-Tanner model [20-21] arises if we take
Rk = {I + e~:tr(T/c:)}T" + AkC(lh k + TkDT) - 211kD . (16)
In this, 11k is the zero-shear rate viscosity of the k-th relaxation mode and tr(T)
represents the trace of T. The parameters e and Care of order 0.01 and 0.1 respec-
tively. The elongational behaviour of the model is determined bye, while Caffects
the shear viscosity behaviour. If e = C= 0 then the model reverts to the differential
form of the Maxwell model of Eq. (12). In this case, the model is referred to as the
Maxwell fluid if 118 in Eq. (4) is zero (a polymer melt), or the Oldroyd-B fluid if 118 is
non-zero (a polymer solution). The Phan-Thien-Tanner model (with both e and C
non zero) exhibits more realistic viscous and elongational behaviour than that of
the Oldroyd-B or Maxwell forms [19].
A second model that has been proposed is the Leonov model [19, 22-24]:
1 ~ [1
R k = 2'1'k 2/lk TkTk - 2/lk l 1 Tk { 2/lktr(Tk-l ) - 2/lk
+3 1 tr(T k)}] . (17)
In this, Ilk is a fluid parameter (2Ak/lk is the zero-shear rate viscosity of the k-th
relaxation mode), the index -1 indicates the inverse ofthe tensor and the function
~ is given by
~ =
2P
{ 1 + x-arctan(cHf/cl/lk) }-1 (18)
in which p and b are parameters and w,. is an elastic potential function of the form:
w,. = 1 {I
2/lk 2/lk tr(T k) + 2/lk tr(T k-1}
)- 6 . (19)
A /8
/' [
I~V
.L/
/A
-.;;;::
£VI
0
U
.~
> -1 ~
~
~
'"
<V
.c:
u;
-2
-2 -1
Ay. U (powers of 10)
Fig. 2. Steady-state shear viscosity and elongational viscosity functions for a variety of single relaxation
mode models under isothermal conditions: A Maxwell model; B Phan-Thien-Tanner model with Il = 0.01
and, = 0,1 [Eq. (16)]; C Leonov model with fJ = 9 and ~ = 1 [Eqs. (17-19)]. The asymptotes for the
elongational viscosity in cases Band C are controlled by Il and fJ respectively. In all cases, the zero shear
rate viscosity is one
Once again, this model exhibits more realistic behaviour than that ofthe Oldroyd-B
or Maxwell models [19]. In Fig. 2 we illustrate the steady shear viscosity and steady
elongational viscosity functions of the Maxwell, Phan-Tien-Tanner and Leonov
models. Note that the elongational viscosity of the Maxwell model is unbounded.
This appears to have a significant effect on the stability of calculations involving
this model [19]. Note also that the steady shear viscosity of the Maxwell model is
constant. The other models exhibit a more realistic shear thinning behaviour and a
bounded elongational'viscosity, however they fail to represent the strain thinning
observed at high strain rates in Fig. 1. It is a simple matter to modify the Phan-
Thien-Tanner model to account for this behaviour if necessary [21].
All of the above equations apply to the isothermal case. If temperature variations
in the flow ate significant then the effects oftemperature on the fluid properties must
be included. This results in modification of the equations, and the introduction of
additional relations [25]. We make no attempt in this chapter to summarize these
modifications.
Vorticity and Stream Function

Many implementations of the boundary element method in fluid mechanics have
made use of derived variable formulations, instead of the primitive variable formu-
lations listed above. These have been applied to the solution of variety of low and
high Reynolds number Newtonian flows, in terms of velocity and vorticity [6, 8]
and vorticity and stream function [3,4]. When we come to solve the integral or
differential viscoelastic constitutive equations we will need to track particle paths
or streamlines in the flow. Thus, if a primitive variable formulation is used we may

also need to calculate the stream function. In addition, we may seek to solve the
non-Newtonian flow problem in terms of derived variables from the beginning. In
either case, the relationships between the primitive variables and derived variables
are of interest.
The vorticity is defined in general as
w=Vxu. (20)
In planar and axisymmetric flows it is also possible to introduce a scalar stream
function, IjI, which satisfies the continuity equationidentically. In planar problems
(x, y) this can be defined as
oljl
-u (21)
ox
-=
y
The relationship between IjI and w is often expressed in the form of a Poisson's
equation:
(22)
where w is the single non-zero component of the vorticity vector in planar problems,
which is given by
w=---
ou oux
y
(23)
ox oy
Equation (22) can be used to calculate the stream function once the velocity field is
known.
Boundary Conditions
The mathematical description of the problem is not complete until boundary
conditions have been properly specified. For the solution of Eq. (5), velocity or
traction comporients must be prescribed in each of the coordinate directions over
the whole of the boundary surface. Likewise, the solution of Eq. (22) will require
the stream function or its normal gradient to be specified at all points on the
boundary. Similar requirements exist for the energy equation. Without such con-
ditions, a unique'solution cannot be found.
On the other hand, Eq. (14) represents a set of hyperbolic differential equations,
which require the stresses to be prescribed on the sections of the boundary through
which fluid enters the computational domain. If the integral form, Eq. (12), is to be
used instead, then the stress tensor of a given fluid particle at a given time must be
known, which reduces the integral in Eq. (12) to an integral over the strain history
of the particle since that time.
If the problem involves a free surface, then two types of boundary conditions
must be satisfied simultaneously on the surface. Firstly, the traction forces acting
on the surface must be known; these will frequently be taken as zero if surface tension
effects and surface drag are negligible. Secondly, the free surface is a stream surface,
so that u· n = 0 on the surface. The geometry of the free surface must be found to
satisfy both sets of boundary conditions simultaneously. This necessitates the use
of an iterative procedure.
7.4 Boundary Integral Formulations and Solution Methods
Having defined the governing equations, we can now examine the boundary integral
formulations used to solve non-Newtonian flow problems. In this section the
formulations are summarized without reference to specific applications. Discussion
of applications will be reserved for the next section.
Overview of Solution Procedure

Before looking in some detail at the integral equation formulations it will be of
benefit to look at the whole solution process in overview. Since we are dealing with
a nonlinear problem1 an iterative procedure will be required. As we shall see it is
prudent to solve the momentum and constitutive equations by different means,
which forces us to compute the stress field and velocity field in different steps. This
contrasts with some finite element solutions of this class of problems [26, 27] in
which the stress components, velocity components and pressure are computed
simultaneously at each iteration. While this approach is amenable to fast solution
techniques, such as Newton-Raphson, it increases the number of unknown variables
to be handled at a given step.
The general solution procedure is shown in Fig. 3. This process also includes
the possibility that the geometry of the problem is not known in advance, as would
be the case in problems involving a free surface, which necessitates the updating of
the geometry during each cycle of iteration. Separate solution of the momentum,
Initial stress and temperature field

Initial geometry
Solve momentum and continuity equations for the velocity field
Update the shape of any free surface
Solve the energy equat ion for the temperature field
Solve the constitutive equations for the stress field
Fig.3. An overview of the solution process

constitutive and energy equations allows different techniques to be used in each

step, which permits some optimisation of the solution process. Conversely, it limits
the range of iterative schemes that can be used, which may result in longer solution
times.
Integral Representations of Governing Equations
The flow of a non-Newtonian fluid represents a nonlinear material problem, and

as such must be solved as a perturbation to a base Newtonian flow [19, 29, 30, 35].
To this end, we write the stress tensor in the form
u = - pJ + 2rfND + 8 . (24)
where rfN is a constant Newtonian viscosity and 8, which represents the non-New-
tonian component of the extra stress tensor, describes the nonlinear part of the
problem. In the case of the Generalized Newtonian Liquid, Eq. (3),
8 = 2[rf(Y) - rfNJD (25)
where rfN is arbitrary. In the case of the viscoelastic model, Eq. (4),
rfN = rfs + rfo , (26)
where rfo is the zero-shear rate viscosity of the viscoelastic model. This is given by
00
rfo = L rfk
k=l
(Phan-Thien-Tanner model)
(27)
(Leonov model) .
When Eq. (24) is substituted into the momentum Eq. (5) the result can be written
in the form
Du
V·u N + V·8 - p - + p/= 0 (28)
Dt
where UN represents the Newtonian component of the total stress tensor: UN =
- pJ + 2rfND. Thus the stress component 8 gives rise to a pseudo-body force term.
We will restrict discussion here to steady problems, and combine the body force,/,
and the inertial terms to form an effective body force per unit mass, b = / - u· Vu.
The development of an integral equation then follows well known methods pre-
viously described in elasticity or fluid mechanics [1, 31, 32]. However, in this case
we are manipulating only the Newtonian component of the total stress tensor and
the boundary traction terms that are generated in the process represent the New-
tonian component of the total traction force. That is, we generate t N = UN . n where
the total traction force is
t = u· n = t N + 8· n , (29)
and n is the outward directed unit normal vector at the surface. The resulting
equation can be written using cartesian tensor notation as:
This equation applies to a region Q with boundary r, and relates the velocity uiP)
at a point P (on the boundary or in the domain) to the boundary values of velocity
and traction and the extra stress field in the domain. The function cij(P) depends
on the location of the point P. If P lies in the domain then cij(P) = (jij' where (jij
is the Kronecker delta function ((jij = 1 if i = j, (jij = 0 if i =f. j). On the other hand,
if P lies on the boundary, cij(P) = (jij/2 if the boundary is smooth. The function
uU(P, Q) is the fundamental solution to the Stokes equation (8); the Stokeslet [33].
This is just the Kelvin fundamental solution specialized for the case of an incom-
pressible medium, and represents the velocity component in the Xj direction at a
point Q due to a unit point force applied in the Xi direction at the point P. The
Stokeslet is assumed to act in an infinite medium of Newtonian liquid with viscosity
l]N. The function tU(P, Q) is the corresponding traction field.
We can recover the total traction by integrating the domain integral containing
the pseudo-body force, V· e, by parts to give
cij(p)uiP) = J tj(Q)uU(P' Q) dr - rJUj(Q)tU(P, Q) dr
r
+~ {Pbj(Q)Uu(P, Q) - 8jk(Q) ::~} dQ . (31)
If the creeping flow approximation is valid and no external body forces act then b
is zero. Furthermore, if the fluid is Newtonian then e = 0 and Eq. (31) reverts to the
classical boundary integral equation used by Youngren and Acrivos [34], Ladyz-
henskaya [33] and Bush and Tanner [1] to treat creeping viscous flow. Alterna-
tively, the creeping viscous flow problem can be formulated in terms of derived
variables [3-5]. If the fluid inertia is not to be neglected, then the domain integral
remains and an iterative procedure is required. Again both primitive variable and
derived variable formulations have been used to effect [6-10]. If external body force
loading corresponds to centrifugal loading or conservative forces, such as gravita-
tion, then the part of the domain integral corresponding to these forces can be
converted into equivalent boundary integrals [49, 51]. In the present report we are
interested in non-Newtonian flow problems; in this case we will assume that the
flow is creeping and that external body forces are negligible. The domain integral
then only depends on the non-Newtonian stress components e. For a given stress
field, Eq. (31) can be discretized, modified according to the relevant boundary
conditions, and solved for the velocity field.
Equation (31) represents a primitive variable formulation of the momentum and
continuity equations. A novel derived variable formulation has also been developed
and utilized for non-Newtonian flow problems by Coleman [5, 35]. The formulation
described applies to planar (x, y) creeping flows, in which the stream function, t/I,
and the Airy stress junction, t/J, are utilized. In addition, the complex coordinate
Z = x + iy and the complex potential X = t/J + 2YJNt/I i are introduced. Thus, through
Eq. (21) the velocity components can be written in terms of Im(x) while the stress
components can be written in terms of Re(x). In the case of a non-Newtonian fluid
this leads to
(32)
where
(33)
The resulting integral equation is
OX ox ] 1 (OX OX* oX OX* )

c(P) [ OZ (P) ± Oz (P) = 2i ~ OZ (Q) oz (P, Q) + oz (Q)Tz (P, Q) dz
1 oX OX* OX*
+ -2. J ~_(Q)---;=-(P,Q)dz - J F(Q)--;-(P,Q)dxdy (34)
1 ruz uZ Q uZ
where the value of c(P) depends on whether the source point P lies on the boundary,
r, or within the domain, Q. The fundamental solution X*, is given by
*
X (P, Q) = zQ - zp ± 10g(zQ - zp) . (35)
zQ - Zp
The gradients of X in Eq. (34) can be written in terms of velocity and stress
components, allowing these quantities to be prescribed as boundary conditions.
Following discretization and incorporation of the necessary boundary conditions,
Eq. (34) and be solved to yield the velocity field.
If the primitive variable formulation of Eq. (31) is to be used, then the stream
function, if required, must be found by solution of Eq. (22) after the velocity field
has been calculated. For this we need a boundary integral formulation of Poisson's
equation, which is well established [31,32].
oljl oljl*
c(P)ljI(P) = J
r
ljI*(P, Q)--;-(Q)dr - J--;-(P, Q)ljI(Q)dr
un r un
+ J w(Q)ljI*(P,Q)dQ . (36)
Q
However, in this case we can integrate by parts the domain integral involving the
vorticity to transform the velocity gradients, which yields finally for the planar
problem:
c(P)ljI(P) = JljI*(P, Q) ~ljI (Q) dr - Jo~* (P, Q)ljI(Q) dr
r un r un
where n is the outward directed unit normal vector at the surface. Following
discretization, Eq. (37) can be used to solve for the stream function in the flow
domain.
Finally, it should be noted that the equations listed above can be adapted to
axisymmetric problems by transforming to cylindrical polar coordinates and mak-
ing use of singular ring load solutions rather than point load solutions [49, 50].
Solution of the Constitutive Equations

For the solution of the constitutive equations we utilize different methods alto-
gether. In the past the differential constitutive equations have been solved by finite
element methods [26,27,29,36,37]. However, an alternative approach that has
been used successfully consists of integration of the differential equations along
particle paths. To see how this can be done we define a variable, s, which is the
distance measured along the particle path from some reference position. Then, the
derivative of the stress tensor with respect to s is
dTk = OT k ox) = OT k Uj = -.!..u. VTk (38)

ds OXj os OXj lui lui
where lui represents the magnitude of the velocity tensor. Under conditions of steady
flow, the particle paths therefore become the characteristic curves of the partial
differential equations in (14), and the equations can be integrated as a set of ordinary
differential equations along the particle paths. A variety of well known techniques,
such as Runge Kutta or Gear algorithms, already exist for this purpose. Proper
specification of the problem requires the stresses ·to be prescribed as boundary
conditions on the inflow boundary.
If the flow problem is planar or axisymmetric, the particle paths are the stream-
lines. The streamlines can be identified as contours of the stream function, which
can be calculated by solution of Eq. (37), as previously described. An alternative
approach is to track particle paths by making use of the instantaneous velocity
vector. If x represents .the position vector of a given fluid particle, then the velocity
is given by
dx
u(x) = dt . (39)
Using a finite difference approximation to the derivative, we can calculate the

change in position, AX"over a time interval, At, by Ax = uAt. In this way the particle
paths can be tracked.
If the integral constitutive models are to be used instead, then we must integrate
over the time history ofthe fluid particle of interest, as indicated by Eq. (12). This
time integral can be viewed again as an integral along the path of the particle.
Integral models have been incorporated in both boundary element [35] and finite
element [38-39] solutions of the momentum equations.
These methods of solution are in some ways superior to the more conventional
finite element approach to the solution of Eq. (14), in that accurate calculation of
the stresses near a stress singularity can be obtained without the need to include a
fine mesh discretization. On the other hand, the finite element approach can handle
problems involving recirculating regions (having closed streamlines) without
difficulty. Methods relying on tracking of particle paths are less easily adapted
to this class of problem, since there is no clear beginning and end to the closed
streamlines.
A means of circumventing this limitation, without going to finite element ap-
proaches, has been proposed and applied by Sugeng et al. [40]. This approach could
best be called a pseudo-time stepping method. The formulation is achieved by
retaining the time derivative in Eq. (14) and writing the equation in the form
ark 1
-=(Lrk+rkLT-u·Vrk)--Rk. (40)
at Ak
A first order Euler finite difference is then used to replace the time derivative, which
allows the stress at time t + At, rk(t + At), to be written as
rk(t + At) = rk(t) + At {Lrk(t) + rk(t)LT - u· Vrk(t) - ;k Rk(t)} . (41)
After computing the updated velocity field, the corresponding stress field can be
obtained simply by performing one of these pseudo-time steps, and the process
repeated unti(a steady state solution has been achieved. The partial derivatives of
the stress tensor on the right hand side of (41) are estimated by differentiation of
interpolating functions in the domain. The potential source of error represented by
this last step necessitates the use of fine meshes. Furthermore, the time stepping
approach is slow to converge as relatively small time steps are required. However,
since the emphasis on particle tracking has been removed, the approach can be
applied to problems involving recirculating flows without difficulty. An example is
included in the next section.
Discretization
Having defined the relevant equations in the foregoing discussion, it remains for us
to discretize the integral equations and generate solutions. Discretization will re-
quire breaking the boundary into a number of boundary elements and dividing the
domain into a number of domain cells. After selecting suitable approximating
functions on these elements and cells, and incorporating the necessary boundary
conditions, systems of simultaneous equations can be generated which will yield the
unknown boundary data. Once the boundary solution has been found, the internal
solutions can be obtained by re-application of the integral equations. In this manner
the velocity field can be found by application of Eqs. (31) or (34) and the stream
function can be found by application of Eq. (37). The stresses are then determined
by the means described above. The details of discretization and solution are well
documented elsewhere [31, 32J and they will not be dwelt upon here.
7.S Applications
The foregoing discussion gives a summary of the boundary element formulations

that have been used to solve non-Newtonian fluid mechanics problems. In this
section a variety of published solutions are presented which illustrate the applica~
tion of the method to this class of problems.
Sphere Drag in a Carreau Model Fluid

The first example illustrates the application of the method to the isothermal flow
of a Generalized Newtonian Fluid, using Eq. (31). This particular example involved
the determination of the drag force on a surface. The boundary element method is
ideal for this class of problem, since the total force per unit area (traction) on the
boundary forms one the the primary solution variables.
In the report by Chhabra and Uhlherr [41] a theoretical formulation for the
drag force on a sphere in a fluid governed by the Carreau viscosity equation (Eq.
(11)) was presented. The formulation produced a good representation of the drag
force when compared with the experimental measurements, although the experi-
ments were carried out on fluids exhibiting both shear-thinning and elastic be-
haviour. The purpose ofthe numerical boundary element simulation ofthis problem
[30] was to examine the behaviour in a model shear-thinning, but inelastic, fluid
and compare the predictions with the experiments using viscoelastic fluids. The
experimental and nlJmerical results agree very closely, confirming the suggestion
that elastic effects are relatively unimportant in this flow [41].
The boundary element discretization used constant boundary elements, on
which velocity and traction are taken to be constant, and linear domain cells. The
mesh pattern is shown in Fig. 4. The sections of the boundary on the centreline (AB
and EF) represent surfaces of zero area and do not require discretization into
boundary elements. The prescribed boundary conditions are as follows:
- Sphere: Uz = U r = 0,
- BC: t z = t, = 0,
- CDE: UZ = U, t, = O.
An initial check on the suitability of the mesh was made by comparing the computed
Newtonian drag force with the exact value. The error was found to be just 0.6%.
An interesting feature of this problem is the fact that details of the far-field bound-
aries and boundary conditions become less important as shear-thinning behaviour
becomes more promirient. Since the highest shear rates occur close to the sphere,
z
1-20.111 1-1. III Il III IlO.IlI
Fig. 4. Discretization scheme for sphere drag calculation; 32 constant boundary elements, 216 linear
domain cells. The coordinates of the points shown are given in the form (z, r)
the inner region effectively becomes surrounded by a region of higher viscosity fluid.
This diminishes the effect of spurious conditions in the far field. Indeed, it was found
that the solution obtained using meshes having ratios of 1 : 12 and 1 : 24 (sphere
radius to outer boundary radius) yielded similar results when flow rate past the
sphere was high. A systematic investigation of this behaviour for the case of a
power-law fluid has been performed by Gu and Tanner [42]. We can therefore be
confident that the far field boundaries influence the solution to the greatest degree
in the Newtonian case.
Although the choice of 11N in Eq. (24) is arbitrary, in this case it was found to be
prudent to adjust the value in each iteration to match the minimum viscosity in the
computational domain. This ensures that the nonlinear component of the extra
stress, e in E . (25), is minimised, since the difference 11(Y) - 11N will be small when
Y = {2 tr(D2)} is large. Convergence was achieved within 12 iterations at the
highest shear rate.
Numerical predictions of drag force were obtained for the two viscoelastic fluids
treated by Chhabra and Uhlherr [41]. The values of the Carreau model parameters
for these fluids are shown in Table 1. The computed drag force has been made
non-dimensional by dividing by the drag force in a Newtonian fluid with viscosity
110 [11]. Thus the drag correction factor is defined as X = DRAG/(61t110 U R), where
U is the sphere velocity and R is the sphere radius. The sphere velocity can also be
made non-dimensional, to produce the dimensionless velocity, A = AU/R.
The results of the simulations are shown in Fig. 5. The numerical results agree
almost exactly with the theoretical predictions of Chhabra and Uhlherr, which have
not been plotted for purposes of clarity. Also shown on the diagram are the
theoretical upper (U) and lower (L) bound predictions for the drag, based on the
simple power-law model [43]. At high shear rates the Carreau model behaves like
the power-law model, and the agreement in this range provides a further check on
the validity of the numerical predictions.
This example illustrates that the boundary element formulation of Eq. (31) can
successfully be applied to nonlinear material problems of the type encountered in
non-Newtonian 'fluid mechanics.
Table 1. Carreau model parameters from Ref. [41]
Fluid 1'/0 1'/", n A

Pa·s Pa·s
T7 10.5 0.001 0.53 15.73

T8 13.0 0.160 0.75 6.26
The Pressure-Hole Effects
The use of a pressure tapping hole, leading to a cavity containing a pressure

transducer, is a common means of pressure measurement in a flowing fluid. In
Newtonian fluids the pressure measured at the bottom of the hole is the same as
l.0 r - -- - - , - - -- - - - , - - - - . , - - - -- , - - - - - ,
0.8 t -- - - / -.::>..,;;:--'-'In- - - t - - - - / -- ---1
0.2 t----/----I----+-<>-<>-'~d--~~
O~--~---L---L-_~ _ _~
o 3
In( A I -
Fig. 5. The drag correction factor for two fluids, T7 and T8: 0, experimental data [41]; - - , boundary
element results [30]; U, upper bound from power-law theory [43]; L, lower bound from power-law
theory [43]
the pressure at the top the hole, provided that the hole is sufficiently small. If the
fluid is viscoelastic, however, the measured value can be significantly less than the
actual value, no matter how small the hole is made [12]. Because of the complexity
of the problem we must turn to numerical analysis to clarify the theoretical studies
of the phenomenon.
The boundary element method has been applied to this problem by Sugeng et
al. [40], using Eq. (31) and the pseudo-time stepping approach described by Eq.
(40) for solution of the differential constitutive models. The planar flow past a slot
has been treated, in which the function of interest is the difference in traction force
between the bottom of the slot and the wall adjacent to the slot. This difference is
referred to as the hole pressure, PH. Once again boundary element methods are ideal
for this purpose since boundary traction is a primary solution variable. The dis-
cretization used constant boundary elements and linear domain cells. The mesh
pattern and boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 6, in which the hole depth to
width ratio is three and the channel height to hole width is two.
In this analysis a single relaxation time Phan-Thien-Tanner model (16) was used,
and the time step in Eq. (41) was taken to be O.OOtA, where A is the relaxation time.
The flow was taken to be isothermal. Computation time is reported to be less than
120 hours per solution on a Micro-VAX II. A slightly modified Phan-Thien-Tanner
model was employed, in which 1'/ of Eq. (16) is replaced by
_ * 1 + ((2 - OA2y2
+ K2yz)(1 n)/2
1'/ - 1'/ (1 ' (42)
where 1'/* is the zero-shear rate viscosity of the model, and n, K are parameters. This
modification allows more flexibility in fitting the model to experimental fluid
u=o
Fully developed Uy= 0

velocity-profile 1-:::--~:::::----""Io:::-""'::::'lor-'k--''I\tlrt-k+tffillHHi-<::::"-""",",::::::---'''1<=:::::---''1 I , • 0
U·o
Fig. 6. Grid pattern and boundary conditions for the simulation of the hole pressure problem: 76
constant boundary elements, 462 linear domain cells. From Prof. R.I. Tanner, private communication
characterizations. In this example the model was fitted to characterization data for
a polystyrene, which gave Y/s = 0, K = 6.3 s, A. = 2.6 sand n = 0.36. The parameters
sand (, which affect the elongational and viscous behaviour, were given values in
the ranges [0, 0.01J and [0, 0.2J respectively. The importance of elasticity in the
problem is measured by the dimensionless Weissenberg number:
Wi = kyw (43)
where Yw is the shear rate at the wall in fully developed flow.

The streamline pattern for the case Wi = 1.0 is shown in Fig. 7. Note that this
problem involves recirculating flow, having closed streamlines, which is easily
treated using the pseudo-time stepping approach, but less easily handled if particle
path tracking was to be used. One can also clearly see the asymmetry of the
streamlines about the centreline of the slot, which is a feature of the viscoelastic
fluid; it is not observed if the fluid is Newtonian. This feature is a significant
discovery since the theoretical analyses ofthis problem are based on the assumption
that the pattern is symmetrical [40]. Figure 8 shows the calculated hole pressure,
PH' relative to the dimensionless wall shear stress, compared with other results
obtained using the finite element method. Good agreement can be seen. Sugeng et
al. [40J also compare their results with some experimental measurements made
using polystyrene, and once again excellent agreement is observed.
We can conclude that the time stepping approach of Sugeng et al. [40J is
competitive with the finite element approach, and is particularly suitable when
recirculating regions are present.
"a
l
----~
9
8
J
@j _ 12 -. 1
-13
~
14
- 15
Fig. 7. Computed streamlines at Wi = 1.0. Values of the contours are: 1) 0.0005; 2) 0.05; 3) 0.08; 4) 0.10;
5) 0.15; 6) 0.20; 7) 0.25; 8) 0.30; 9) 0.35; 10) 0.40; 11) 0.45; 12) -0.001; 13) -0.0008; 14) -0.0005;
15) -0.0003. From Prof. R.I. Tanner, private communication
0.5
',/
)
~ 0.'
......
~'"
--<
~
...
::>
II>
OJ
G.>
a. ~/ 2-
G.>
"IS
...
.c
II>
G.>
;) '
0.2
.~
~ I~
.5
&::I 0~3
//
V'
0.1
~
o 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Oimensiooless wall shear stress ). r~ ITJo
Fig. 8. Dimensionless hole pressure as a function of the dimensionless

wall shear stress. 1 boundary element results [40]; 2 finite element results
[40]; 3 finite element results [40]. From Prof. R.I. Tanner, private
communication
Extrudate Swell
The study of extrudate swell is of interest to the plastics extrusion industry, as it
will contribute to the development of computer aided analysis techniques for
extrusion die design. The problem has been the subject of several numerical studies,
using both finite element methods [26,27,37,38,44] and the boundary element
methods [19, 29, 45]. The extrusion of a liquid from a long circular die is shown in
Fig. 9, together with the necessary boundary conditions. One of the difficult features
of this problem is the presence of a stress singularity at the exit lip of the die. This
necessitates the use of a fine finite element mesh in this region to achieve accurate
results. However, if the boundary element method coupled with particle path
tracking for evaluation of the extra stresses in employed, then comparable results
can be achieved with relative coarse meshes. Furthermore, the finite element method
is subject to pressure field fluctuations in the region of the singularity which leads
to instability. Since the pressure field is not computed in the boundary element
approach, this problem does not arise.
To illustrate the method a solution from reference [45] is reproduced here. In
this case the integral equation employed for solution ofthe velocity field is Eq. (31),
while Eq. (37) is used to compute the stream function for the purpose of identifying
the streamlines. The constitutive equation used is the Phan-Thien-Tanner model
(with 11. = 0, e = 0.01 and, = 0), with a single relaxation mode. This was solved by
integration of the corresponding set of ordinary differential equations along the
streamlines using a fourth order Runge Kutta algorithm, as outlined by Eq. (38).
Once again we use the Weissenberg number, Eq. (43), as a measure of the importance
of elasticity in the flow. The flow is taken to be isothermal.
The discretization used 44 constant boundary elements and 259 linear domain
cells. The upstream and downstream boundaries for the computational domain
were taken to be at Zmin = - 3.2Rd and Zmax = 4R d. The mesh pattern, streamlines,
and stress field are shown in Fig. 10 for Wi = 0 and Wi = 4.34. The amount of
swelling predicted at the higher value of Wi is significant: 60%. The strong stress
concentration at the exit lip is also obvious.
The swell ratio,jet radius/R d , is plotted as a function of Weissen berg number in
using the Oldroyd-B model (Phan-Thien-Tanner model with e 0, = ,=

Fig. 11. Also shown are some finite element results by Crochet and Keunings [44]
11. # 0), and the theoretical prediction by Tanner [46]. Good agreement between
0 but
the results can be observed for Wi < 3.5, but there is divergence beyond this. This
divergence is likely to be due to mesh effects, and indicates that further work is
required to clarify the discrepancy. At the present time there are no reliable iso-
thermal extrudate swell measurements using simple fluids for comparison with the
predictions.
Thermally Induced Extrudate Swell

Phuoc and Tanner [47] discovered that if there is a significant difference in tem-
perature between an extruded jet of Newtonian liquid and the surroundings, then
the viscosity variations in the fluid due to temperature variations can lead to
significant swelling ( '" 70%). The numerical method used in this work was the finite
'l=O 1,=0
u, =1-r 2
L
R(l)
L-
~=O R-l ~
..
I
Fully developed d
stress field
1.... - --- - 0 - - 1.... 1
Fig. 9. The axisymmetric extrudate swell problem
~ M""W;-O
I J7c£, [=:~l m-o 11.
~~~~~~~~~~§itreamlines.
§ Vi=4.34
___- - - ' - 0
90'Lr----_-==:::.
301
~~:::::===B~ Tzz •Wi=4.34
-1 5 r--------..:;::-----..,.,~-/
t----=::::::::::.:
-1-51
0 - - - - - -_ __
Tzr •Wi=4.34
Fig. 10. Circularfreejet of Phan-Thien-Tanner fluid at Wi = 0 and Wi = 4.34[45]

2.0 r - - - , - - - , - - - - - - , - - , - - - ,
1.8 I---t---t---+----;.r------j
1.2 1----:z:I""""''--+-----i----t-----j
1.0 L...-_-'-_ _'---_-'-_ _ ~_--J
o 4
Wi-
Fig. 11. Swell ratio as a function of Weissenberg number, Wi: 1 Finite
element results [44], 2 theoretical result of Tanner [46], 3 boundary
element results [40]
element method. Sugeng et al [25] have extended this study to investigate the effects
of temperature variations in viscoelastic liquids. In this latter study, the boundary
element formulation ofEq. (31) was used to solve the momentum equations, while
the finite element formulation of Phuoc and Tanner [47] was used to solve the
energy equation. The reason for choosing the finite element method for the latter
purpose is its ability to handle the strong convective terms present in the energy
equation. The constitutive equation was solved by integration along streamlines as
above. The simulation therefore represents an interesting mixture of individual
techniques, chosen for their particular advantages in particular applications.
The constitutive model employed was the Phan-Thien-Tanner fluid with e =
0.01, , = 0 and '7. = o. When the temperature variations are considered, the iso-
thermal Phan-Thien-Tanner model of Eq. (16) must be modified to include the
effects of temperature on the material properties. However, once this has been done
the solution procedure is similar to that for the isothermal case, except that the
energy equation must also be solved during each cycle of iteration.
The computed swell ratio results for both the isothermal case and the non-
isothermal case are shown in Fig. 12. The material properties have been chosen to
match those of low density polyethylene. Increasing values of the Peclet number,
Pe, (which gives a measure of the convective to conductive heat transfer) represent
increasing flow rate, and hence increasing difficulty of solution. The value of Re =
123 represents a high value. The results show that the thermal effects are very
important, and can be as significant as the elastic effects.
Extrudate Swell of a Polymer Melt

As a final example of this class of application we present some new results for the
simulation of the isothermal extrusion of molten polyethylene from a circular die.
2.5 r - - - - . . , - - - - - , . - - - - , - - - - - ,
Non-isothermal (PH)
~---,
Pe=123
_.
2.0 I-----t----~"""'-----+------I
Isothermal (PH)
1.5 k..-L-~--_I___=-=t=====1
o
----
1.0 ' - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - ' - - - - - - '
3 4
Wi=ly -
Fig. 12. Swelling ratio as·a function of the Weissenberg number, Wi, for the Phan-Thien-Tanner fluid
at a Pec1et number of 123. From Sugeng et al. [25]; redrawn with permission
This problem has been studied by Luo and Tanner [39, 48] using a finite element
method coupled with an integral constitutive model. Some experimental measure-
ments for this problem are available [17] and the simulations agree very well with
the measurements. The success of this work has prompted an investigation into the
use of differential constitutive models for the solution of the problem. To this end
the Leonov model of Eq. (17) has been employed, coupled with the boundary
element formulation of Eq. (31). To accurately represent the behaviour of the molten
polymer a multiple relaxation mode model is required. In this case seven relaxation
times ranging between 10- 3 sand 103 s have been adopted to represent the
relaxation spectrum. The relaxation times correspond to the values used by Luo
and Tanner [39]. After fitting to the spectrum, the model was found to represent
the elongational and shear viscosity characteristics of the melt very well. The
differential constitutive equations corresponding to the smaller relaxation times
were found to be stiff, necessitating the use of a Gear algorithm to perform the
integration. Similar mesh dimensions to those used by Luo and Tanner were
also adopted, with 43 constant boundary elements and 255 linear domain cells
employed.
The computed swell ratio results are shown in Fig. 13, compared with the results
of Luo and Tanner [48J and the experimental measurements of Meissner [17]. The
simulations all agree very well and closely represent the experimental data, except
at an apparent shear rate of 10. The reason for this discrepancy between the
predicted and experimental results is not totally clear, however a likely cause is the
onset of wall slip in the experiments. This is known to reduce the swelling relative
to the case of no slip [48]. Wall slip was not modelled in the numerical work.
The fact that totally different constitutive model types and different solution
techniques yield similar results, when applied to the same problem, is a very
encouraging outcome indeed.
2.00
1.75
e ~~~
.2
.~ ~
'" 1.50 B- -
-
~r-
co
f::::
.....~
1.25 ..... -~
.- ~
~~
10- e 10-1
1.00 1
, 6 1 '6 e 1 , 6 8 10
Apparent shear rate 4u/ Rd
Fig. 13. The swelling of a circular jet of molten low density polyethylene: 0, Experimental results [17];
- - , fmite element results ofLuo and Tanner [48] (models A and B); ----, boundary element results
7.6 Conclusion
The applications summarized in this chapter very clearly indicate that the boundary
element method is a powerful tool for the solution of the strongly nonlinear material
problems encountered in the field of non-Newtonian fluid mechanics. A wide variety
offormulations and implementations is possible. It would not be appropriate to try
to identify one of the two methods, boundary elements or finite elements, as more
powerful. It seems more prudent to state that the two methods are complementary,
and neither should be discarded. In some circumstances the boundary element
method will be preferable while in others the finite element method will be appro-
priate. Perhaps the best formulation will be achieved by a mixing of the methods.
At the very leastthe two methods provide alternative solutions to the same problem,
which can never be regarded as a disadvantage.
We should note that the applications described above all utilize the primitive
variable formulation. Derived variable formulations are of course also possible, and
are likely to be just as powerful, as illustrated by Coleman [35].
To conclude we note that all of the work discussed above corresponds to planar
or axisymmetric systems. Very little effort has yet been put into the stimulation of
three dimensional non-Newtonian problems, although some groundwork in the
Newtonian field has been performed towards this end [52, 53]. With the recent
successful two-dimensional applications described in this chapter we can now
proceed to three-dimensions with some confidence.
References
1 Bush, M.B. and Tanner, R.I., "Numerical Solution of Viscous Flows Using Integral Equations
Methods," Int. J. Num. Meth. Fluids, 3, 71-92 (1983).
2 Phan-Thien. N., Goh, C.J. and Bush, M.B., "Viscous Flow Through a Corrugated Tube by the
Boundary Element Method," J. Applied Math. Phys. 36, 475-480 (1985).
3 Kelmanson, M.A., "An Integral Equation Method for the Solution of Singular Slow Flow" Problems,
J. Computational Physics, 51, 307-324 (1983).
4 Bezine G., and Bonneau, D., "Integral Equation Method for the Study of Two-dimensional Stokes
Flows," Acta Mechanica, 41, 197-209 (1981).
5 Coleman, CJ., "A Contour Integral Formulation of Plane Greeping Newtonian Flow," Q.J. Mech.
and Applied Math., 34, 453-464 (1981).
6 Skerget P., and Alujevic, A., "The Solution of the Navier-Stokes Equations in Terms of Vorticity-
velocity Variables by the Boundary Element Method," Z. Angew. Math. Mech. 65, T245-T248 (1985).
7 Onishi, K., Kuroki T., and Tanaka, M., "An Application of Boundary Element Method to Incom-
pressible Laminar Viscous Flows," Engineering Analysis, 1, 122-127 (1984).
8 Wu J.C, and Rizk, Y.M., "Integral Representation Approach for Time Dependent Viscous Flows,"
Lecture Notes in Physics, 90, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1979.
9 Tasaka N., and Onishi, K., "Boundary Integral Equation Formulations for Steady Navier-Stokes
Equations Using the Stokes Fundamental Solutions," Engineering Analysis, 2,128-132 (1985).
10 Onishi, K., Kuroki T., and Tanaka, M., "Boundary Element Method for Laminar Viscous Flow and
Convective Diffusion Problems," Topics in Boundary Element Research Vol. 2, Brebbia, CA., (ed),
11 Batchelor, G.K., "An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics," Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1967.
12 Bird, R.B., Armstrong R.C, and Hassager, 0., "Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids." Vol. 1. Fluid
Mechanics, 1. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1977.
13 Walters, K., "Rheometry," Chapman and Hall, London, 1975.
14 Tanner, R.I., "Engineering Rheology," Oxford University Press, 1985.
15 Ferry, J.D., "Viscoelstic Properties of Polymers," 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1980.
16 Bird R.B., and Curtiss, CF., "Fascinating Polymeric Liquids," Physics Today, January, 36-43 (1984).
17 Meissner, J., Basic Parameters, Melt Rheology, Processing and End Use Properties of Three Similar
Low Density Polyethylene Samples," Pure Applied Chemistry, 42,553-612 (1975).
18 Laun, J.M., and Munstedt, H., "Elongational Behaviour of a Low Density Polyethylene Melt,"
Rheologica Acta, 17,415-425 (1978).
19 Bush, M.B., Tanner R.I., and Phan-Thien, N., "A Boundary Element Investigation of Extrudate
Swell," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 18,143-162 (1985).
20 Phan-Thien, N., and Tanner, R.I., "A New Constitutive Equation Derived from Network Theory,"
1. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 2, 353-365 (1977).
21 Phan-Thien, N., "A Nonlinear Network Viscoelastic Model," J. Rheology, 22, 259-283 (1978).
22 Leonov, A.!., "Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics and Rheology of Viscoelastic Polymer Media,"
Rheologica Acta, 15, 85.,-98 (1976).
23 Leonov, A.I., Lipkina, E.H., Paskhin E.D., and Prokunin, A.N., "Theoretical and Experimental
Investigation of Shearing in Elastic Polymer Liquids," Rheologica Acta, 15, 411-426 (1976).
24 Larson, R.G., "Elongational Flow Predictions of the Leonov Constitutive Equation," Rheologica
Acta, 22, 435-448 (1983).
25 Sugeng, F.,Phan-Thien;N., and Tanner, R.I., A Study of Non-isothermal Non-Newtonian Extrudate
Swell by a Mixed Boundary Element and Finite Element Method, J. Rheology, 31, 37-58 (1987).
26 Crochet, M.J., and Keunings, R., "Die Swell of a Maxwell Fluid: numerical prediction," J. Non-
Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 7,199-212 (1980).
27 Crochet, MJ., and Keunings, R., "On Numerical Die Swell Calculation," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics, 10, 85-94 (1982).
29 Bush, M.B., Milthorpe, J.F., and Tanner R.I., "Finite Element and Boundary Element Methods for
Extrusion Computations," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 16, 37-51 (1984).
30 Bush, M.B., and Phan-Thien, N., "Drag Force on a Sphere in Creeping Motion Through a Carreau
Model Fluid," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 16, 303-313 (1984).
31 Brebbia, CA., "The Boundary Element Method for Engineers," Pentech Press, London, 1980.
32 Banerjee, P.K., and Butterfield, R., "Boundary Element Methods in Engineering Science," McGraw-
Hill, London, 1981.
33 Ladyzhenskaya, O.A., "The Mathematical Theory of Viscous Incompressible Flow," Gordon and
Breach, U.S.A., 1963.
34 Youngren, G.K., and Acrivos, A., "Stokes Flow Past a Particle of Arbitrary Shape: a Numerical
Method of Solution," J. Fluid Mechanics, 69, 377-403 (1975).
35 Coleman, c.J., "On the Use of Boundary Integral Methods in the Analysis of Non-Newtonian Fluid
Flow," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 16, 347-355(1984).
36 Coleman, C.J., "A Finite Element Routine for Analysing Non-Newtonian Flows." Part II: The
Extrusion of a Maxwell Fluid, J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 8, 261-270 (1981).
37 Tuna, N.Y., and Finlayson, B.A., "Exit Pressure Calculations from Numerical Extrudate Swell
Results," J. Rheology, 28, 79-93 (1984).
38 Caswell, B., and Viriyayuthakorn, M., "Finite Element Simulation of Die Swell for a Maxwell Fluid,"
J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 12, 13-29 (1983).
39 Luo, X-L., and Tanner, R.I., "A Streamline Element Scheme for Solving Viscoelastic Flow Problems."
Part II: Integral constitutive models, J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 22, 61-89 (1986).
40 Sugeng, F., Phan-Thien, N., and Tanner, RI., "A Boundary Element Investigation of the Pressure-
hole Effect," J. Rheology, 32, 215-234 (1988).
41 Chhabra, RP., and Uhlherr, P.H.T., "Creeping Motion of Spheres Through Shear-thinning Elastic
Fluids Described by the Carreau Viscosity Equation," Rheologica Acta, 19, 187-195 (1980).
42 Gu Dazhi and Tanner, R.I., "The Drag on a Sphere in a Power-law Fluid," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics, 17, 1-12 (1985).
43 Cho, Y.I., and. Harnett, J.P., "Drag Coefficients of a Slowly Moving Sphere in Non-Newtonian
Fluids," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 12, 243-247 (1983).
44 Crochet, M.J., and Keunings, R, "Finite Element Analysis Die Swell of a Highly Elastic Fluid," J.
Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 10, 339:"'356 (1982).
45 Bush, M.B., Boundary Element Simulation of Polymer Extrusion Processes," Engineering Analysis,
4,7-14(1987).
46 Tanner, R.I., "A Theory of Die Swell," J. Polymer Science, A8, 2067-2078 (1970).
47 Phuoc, H.B., and Tanner, R.I., "Thermally Induced Extrudate Swell," J. Fluid Mechanics, 98,
253-271 (1980).
48 Luo, x.-L., and Tanner, RI., "Finite Element Simulation of Long and Short Circular Die Extrusion
Experiments Using Integral Models," Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 25, 9-22 (1988).
49 Cruse, T.A., Snow, D.W., and Wilson, R.B., "Numerical Solutions in Axisymmetric Elasticity," Compo
Struct., 7, 445-451 (1977).
50 Kermanidis, T., "A Numerical Solution for Axially Symmetrical Elasticity Problems," Int. J. Solids
Struct., 11,493-500 (1975).
51 Danson, D.J., "A Boundary Element Formulation of Problems in Linear Isotropic Elasticity with
Body Forces," Boundary Element Methods, Brebbia, C.A., (ed), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1981.
52 Bush, M.B., and Phan-Thien, N., "Three Dimensional Viscous Flows with a Free Surface: Flow out
of a Long Square Die," J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 18, 211-218 (1985).
53 Tran-Cong, T., and Phan-Thien, N., "Three Dimensional Study of Extrusion Processes by Boundary
Element Method." Part I. An Implementation of High Order Elements and Some Newtonian Results,
Rheologica Acta, 27, 21-30 (1988).
Chapter 8
Viscous Fluid Mechanics

by D. Bonneau and G. Bezine
Abstract
First we give the governing equations for an incompressible viscous newtonian fluid
completed with boundary conditions.
An integral equation method for two-dimensional Stokes flows is presented
which consists in solving the biharmonic equation.
A direct boundary integral formulation is developed for the biharmonic equa-
tion. The representation of the stream function and its derivative obtained involves
all the quantities defined on the boundary.
In the case of Stokes flow the discretization of these representations leads to a
linear system of equations.
When the inertia effects are taken into account, the evaluation of these terms is
necessary. In this latter case four internal parameters are defined: the two com-
ponents of the velocity and the two gradients of the vorticity. By discretizing the
domain we obtain nonlinear algebraic equations which can be solved by classical
method for small Reynold's numbers, but much elaborated methods are necessary
when the inertia effects are important.
Finally we present some examples which prove the numerical efficiency of this
formulation compared with results given by other methods.
8.1 Introduction
The study of planar flows for a newtonian fluid with a constant viscosity is concerned
with the solutions of a non-linear partial differential equation.
When inertia effects are neglected and by introducing the stream function, the
equation to be solved is biharmonic.
Earlier methods used for such problems make use of truncated series expansion
[1J, then the growth of the computer power has allowed the use of numerical
methods such as finite differences [2J or finite elements [3].
Although boundary integral equations methods have been known for a long
time, their application as a numerical procedure is recent and seldomly used in
hydrodynamics. These methods lead to a discretization of only the boundary, into
curvilinear finite elements, and need a small number of parameters. Until the
162 Viscous Fluid Mechanics
beginning of the eighties, in fluid dynamics, only the Laplace and Poisson equations
have been solved by this method.
For biharmonic problems indirect integral equations have been developed for
which the field of interest is visualized as a region, delineated within an infinite or
semi-infinite part of the domain around which fictitious singular sources are dis-
tributed with unknown density along or over some body or shape being investigated.
But to our knowledge no direct boundary element method provides values of
solution variabl~s at any internal field point in terms of all the boundary data.
However the same equation appears in plate problems for which we developed
a successful boundary integral equation method (BIEM) [4-5]. This analogy
prompted us to derive a suitable formulation for the study of slow viscous flows.
The integral formulation is based on an identity (reciprocal theorem) coupling
two functions and their derivatives [6]. The study of the reciprocal theorem in the
vicinity of the origin, with one of the functions taken as a fundamental singular
solution of a biharmonic equation, the other taken as the stream function, leads to
an integral representation at any point of the domain. A second integral equation
is provided by the representation for the gradient of the stream function.
These two integral representations involved four quantities defined on the
boundary: the stream function, the tangential velocity, the shear stress and the
tangential derivative of normal stress.
For Stokes's problems, a solution is directly obtained by solving the linear
system resulting from the discretization of the boundary. For problems with inertia
effects, internal parameters are necessary: the two components of the velocity and
the two gradients of the vorticity. The domain is divided into surface elements and
it leads to a non-linear algebraic equation. The resolution of these equations is
performed by classical methods for small Reynold's numbers and needs more
sophisticated methods when the inertia effects are important.
After a review of the equations of fluid dynamic we develop the theory and the
numerical implementation of the boundary element method.
Finally, we present some examples which demonstrate the versatibility of the
method for various applications and the good accuracy of the results compared
with those given by other methods.

a) Constitutive Equations
Steady state equations for the flow of an incompressible viscous Newtonian fluid
is the so-called Navier-Stokes equations [7]:
p(~~ + U· VU) = -gradp + f + /lAU (1)
where p and J1. are respectively the density and the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, U
is the velocity vector,f is the body forces vector and p is the pressure.
In the case of a planar flow, the continuity equation:
Viscous Fluid Mechanics 163
divU= 0 (2)
is satisfied if the velocity field obeys the relations:
u = ""y; v = -"',x (3)
where u and v are components of the velocity in the flow plane, '" is the stream
function and the subscript denotes the partial derivative with respect to the plane
coordinates x and y.
In terms ofthe stream function, the governing equations (1), (2) and (3) reduce to:
(4)
In this expression the left handside corresponds to viscosity terms and the right
one to inertia effects.
This equation would be accompanied by suitable boundary conditions.
b) Boundary Conditions for a Planar Flow

The domain D is assumed to be bounded by a continuous curve aD. Let Q a point
on aD, in the vicinity of which the curvature k is continuous. Then nand t denote
the unit outward normal and the unit tangent to the boundary such that (n, t) = ~
(Fig. 1).
The main boundary conditions normally encountered are the following:
- Velocity components u and v are known along a boundary aD; hence "',s can be
integrated on aD and one obtains
f(s) ;
'" = "',n = g(s) (5)
where f and g are known functions of s.
- When the geometryis symmetrical the region of interest can be reduced to a half
domain. The axis of symmetry is a streamline along which the tangential shear
stress is zero and th~ boundary conditions are
'" = const ; ""nn - "',tt =

0 (6)
- When the stresses are known in the external medium, the boundary conditions
are related to surfac~ tension.
Fig. 1. Geometrical defmitions

In the case of a gas for which the viscosity can be neglected, we have a free surface
and these conditions take the form:
kT = n'un + pe (7)
and
t'un = 0
where pe is the outside pressure.
In terms of stream function, the set of Eq. (7) becomes:
Jl.(ArjJ,n + 2rjJ,nts) - p(rjJ,tl/l,nn - l/I,nl/l,nt) = k,s T (8)
rjJ,nn - rjJ,tt = 0 . (9)
Although the stresses are known in the external medium, the shape of the
boundary is not defined. Nevertheless due to the non-miscibility the latter has to
be a streamline, that gives a third boundary condition
rjJ = cte on ao (10)
c) Reynolds Number
By using nondimensional parameters in Eg. (4), one can introduce the Reynolds
number
pUI
Re=- (11)
Jl.
where U and I are respectively a typical velocity and length of the flow. This number
represents the ratio between inertia and viscosity forces.
When the values of parameters leads to a small Reynolds number with respect
to unity, inertia effects can be neglected and then the governing equation takes the
form:
AArjJ=O. (12)
In this case we have the well known Stokes flow.
In the same way the boundary conditions (8) on a free surface becomes:
Jl.(ArjJ,n + 2rjJ,nts) = k,s T • (13)
8.3 Integral Formulations

8.3.1 Reciprocal Theorem
Consider Green's second identity:
J (r/JAArjJ -
Q
Ar/JArjJ)dS =
oQ
J (r/JArjJ,n - r/J,nArjJ)ds (14)
where r/J is a distribution in Sobolev's space W 4 ,2(O), rjJ is a function differentiable

up to the fourth order on 0 and the third order on ao.
Using g(rjJ, t/I) the symmetric bilinear form such as

g(rjJ, t/I) = 2(rjJ,yyt/l,xx - 2rjJ,yxt/l,yX + rjJ,xxt/l,yy) (15)
then one can prove that [6]:
J [rjJ~~t/I -
D
~rjJ~t/I + g(rjJ, t/I)J dS = J [- rjJ,n(t/I,nn -
aD
t/I,tt) - 2t/1,ntrjJ,t + rjJ~t/I,n] ds .
(16)
The term JoDrjJ,tt/l,ntds can be integrated by parts along aQ:
N
J rjJ,tt/l,nt ds = - L [rjJt/I,ntJA, - aDJ rjJt/I,nt. ds
aD ;=1
(17)
where [FJA, is the jump which may occur at a corner A; of the boundary:
[F]A, = F(sn - F(si) . (18)
Thus one obtains,for (16):
J [rjJ~~t/I -
D
~rjJ~t/I + g(rjJ, t/I)J dS
N
= - J [-rjJ,n(t/I,nn -
aD
t/I,tt) + rjJ(~t/I,n + 2t/1,nt.)] ds + 2 L
;=1
[rjJt/I,ntJA,· (19)
Exchanging the roles of t/I and rjJ in (19) then substracting the latter relation from
(19), the reciprocal theorem takes the form:
J (rjJ~~t/I -
D
t/I~~rjJ)dS =
aD
J [rjJ(~t/I,n + 2t/1,nt.) - rjJ,n(t/I,nn - t/I,tt)
N
- 2 L [t/lrjJ,nt -
;=1
t/I,ntrjJJA, . (20)
In the following in 'order to simplify the writing of expressions we introduce the

two linear operators !l' and vii such that:
!l'(rjJ) = ~rjJ,n + 2rjJ,nt. (21)
and
vII(rjJ) = rjJ,nn - rjJ,tt
8.3.2 Integral Representation of IJI

Consider a fixed point P(~,1J), a variable point Q(x,y) whose distance r is given by
(22)
Let rjJ be the function:
1
rjJ(P, Q) = 81t r2 Ln r (23)
Fig.2. Notation used for defining a small disk around the singularity at P
which is a fundamental soluion of

(24)
Since, up to a certain order, derivatives of l/J are singular at r = 0, this point has
to be isolated: this can be made by removing a small disk D of center P, radius B
and circular boundary aD, as shown in Fig. 2.
Now the identity can be written as:
f
Q-D
l/J1111r/J dS = f
oQ+oD
[l/J2'(r/J) -l/J.nA(r/J) + A(l/J)r/J.n - 2'(l/J)r/J Jds
N
- 2 L [l/J.ntr/J -l/Jr/J.ntJAi
i=1
. (25)
When the radius B of D tends to zero, one can prove [8J, that the limits of each
boundary integrals are:
.-0
lim j [l/J2'(r/J) - l/J.nA(r/J) + A(l/J)r/J.nJ ds + 2[l/Jr/J.ntJoD = 0
oQ
(26)
and
lim
.-0 aD
f - 2'(l/J)r/J ds - 2 [l/J.ntr/J JOD = Kr/J(P) (27)
where K is a numerical coefficient that depends on the position of point P:

K = 1 if P E Q - aQ
(28)
Hence the following expression for the stream representation is obtained:

Kr/J(P) = f l/J1111r/J dS + oQf [-l/J2'(r/J) + l/J.nA(r/J) -
Q
A(l/J)r/J.n + 2'(l/J)r/J Jds
N
- 2 L [l/Jr/J.nt -
i=1
l/J.ntr/J JAi . (29)
For a Stokes flow t/J is biharmonic and then we have:

Kt/J(P) = f [-ifJ!l'(t/J) + ifJ,n.A(t/J) - .A(ifJ)t/J,n + !l'(ifJ)t/JJ ds
aD
N
- 2 L [ifJt/J,nt -
i=l
ifJ,ntt/JJA, . (30)
When inertia effects cannot be neglected, in accordance with Eq. (4), the stream
representation takes the form:
Kt/J(P) = A;ifJ(t/J,yf1t/J,x - t/J,x i1 t/J,y)dS + 1D [ -ifJ!l'(t/J) + ifJ,n.A(t/J) - .A(ifJ)t/J,n

N
+ !l'(ifJ)t/JJdS - 2 L [ifJt/J,nt -
i=l
ifJ,ntt/JJA, . (31)
These two integral representations involve the four quantities defined on the
boundary:
• the stream function t/J,
• the tangential velocity t/J,n,
• the tangential shear stress .A(t/J),
• the tangential gradient of normal stress !l'(t/J).
Moreover,
t/J,nt = t/J,ns - kt/J,s (32)
the jumps in angular points can be expressed in terms of the above parameters.
Consequently, only the parameters involved in the boundary conditions (5), (6),
(8), (9) and (10) appear on the boundary terms of the representation of t/J.
However, Eq. (31) contains additional parameters inside the domain, which are
the velocity and vorticity components.
Thus, the solution of a problem, where inertia effects are taken into account,
needs the simultaneous determination of boundary and internal parameters. This
kind of problem will be considered in a subsequent paragraph.
8.3.3 Boundary Equations for Stokes Flow

At any point on of], two of the four parameters are given through boundary
conditions. To compute the other two, two more equations are required. The first
equation is the integral representation (30) of t/J(P) for P belonging to of], and the
second equation is the representation of the normal derivative t/J,m(P), In the case
of angular points, the non-uniqueness of the normal introduce two possibilities. In
order to avoid this ambiguity, only non-angular points will be considered.
8.4 Numerical Procedure
8.4.1 Boundary Integrals
The integral representations oft/J and t/J,n are expressed in terms oft/J, t/J,n, t/J,nn - t/J,tt
and i1t/J,n + 2t/J,nts at each point of the boundary of]. By discretizing these equations,
we define the parameters in a finite number of nodes Qi on the boundary aD. The
distribution of these nodes should make allowance for the particularities of the
problem to be solved. Especially when the parameters are presumed to be varying
rapidly, the nodes are numerous and closely spaced.
In order to have a better approximation of parameters, the latter are interpolated
linearly between two consecutive nodes, which gives for instance for t/I(P)
t/I(P) = t/I(Qi) + t/I(Qi+l) - t/I(Qi) [s(Q) - S(Qi)] . (33)

s(Qi+d - s(Q;)
The first numerical investigation shows that the results are highly dependent on
the values of jump at angular points of the boundary. Consequently we choose a
parabolic interpolation in the vicinity of corners.
The integrals involving r/J and its derivatives are then computed by using a
Gauss-Legendre integration method or a midpoint rule. The number of points is
related to the distance PQ.
8.4.2 Surface Integrals

When the inertia effects are taken into account the formulation involves surface
integrals such as
I = Jr/J(P, Q) [t/I.y(Q)At/I,AQ) - t/I,AQ)At/ljQ)] dS . (34)
D
In this integral there appear the following parameters: t/I.x, t/I.y, At/I.x and At/I. y.
The first two parameters can be evaluated with the integral representation of t/I.m
and the two others with the integral representation of At/I.m [9]. This one is obtained
by applying the operator A to the representation t/I.m for points P strictly inside the
domain D.
Then the domain is divided into Ni surface elements with curvilinear sides. The
value of t/I.x, t/I.y, At/I.x and At/I. y at the center of each element are taken as internal
parameters. In order to simplify the integrals, the functions t/I.x, t/I.y, At/I.x and At/I.y are
supposed constant on each element, so that one obtains for the representation of t/I:
N
II = i~ Ai r/J(P,Q)dS[t/I,y(Q;)At/I.AQ;) - t/I,AQ;)At/ljQi)] (35)
and for At/I.x for 'instance:

N
12 = L J Ar/J,AP,Q)dS[t/I,y(Q;)At/I,AQ;) -
i=1 Di
t/I,AQ;)At/ljQi)] (36)
As r/J is the function (r 2 /8n) In r, Ar/J.m' although being integrable on a domain

including P, tends towards infinity at this point. Consequently the classical surface
integration method are not necessarily valid.
To eliminate the singularity we have used the Kantorovitch method [10]. When
the parameters are constant on an element it leads to a transformation of the surface
integral into a boundary integral such as:
J Ar/J,AP, Q) dx dy = aDiJ Ar/J(P, Q) dy
Di
. (37)
6,8~
,10'2
6.82 U"
8~6
0 ,.
1>1)""
• -0
6.80
•
••
6 •
6.78 • 6
• •
6.76 0
50 100 150 200 250
NP -
Fig, 3. Values 11 and 12 for a square plate (1.0 x 1.0) with the point P outside the domain (Xp = 0.8,
Yp = 0.25). 6, 11 by midpoint rule; 0, 11 by Gauss-Legendre rule; e, 12 by midpoint rule; 6, 12 by
Gauss-Legendre rule; NP, number of integration points
In this way as P is inside Q j and Q on oQj the distance PQ is never equal to zero.
Nevertheless sometimes P is on the boundary oQ and in this case, if a side of the
element Q j is on oQ, some functions to be integrated on oQj (for instance l1ift) present
a singularity when Q tends to P. However the function remains integrable; thus an
efficient integration method has to be used.
This procedure can be generalized to any derivative of the function ift as follows:
Let
1
4>=81t
[r416(lnr- t)]
thus ift = 114> and then:
(38)
In order to choose the most accurate method we are going to present the results
of some tests that we have performed.
We consider for instance the two integrals:
11 = ~ rlnrdS and 12 = 10 ana [r416(lnr - t)] ds (39)
Figure 3 presents the calculated values of these integrals in terms of the number
of integration points for midpoint and Gauss quadrature methods.
The Gauss method is in the two cases more efficient and the boundary integra-
tion needs less integration points than surface integration for a given accuracy.
Others results can be found in [8] and [9].
8.5 Numerical Examples for Stokes Flows
Some different problems are presented in the following. For the first two we compare
our results with those of other authors in order to test the efficiency of the method.
8.5.1 Flow Around a Steady Infinitely Long Cylinder
The geometry of the body permits reduction to a quarter plane (Fig. 4) with the
following boundary conditions:
- the velocity is zero along the cylinder BC, i.e. '" = 0 and = 0; "'.n
- the shear stress is zero on streamline AB, i.e. '" = 0 and .A(",) = 0;
- the upstream-downstream symmetry on CD gives: "'.n
= 0 and 2(",) = 0;
- the wall DE is moving with an uniform velocity U: ",/2RU = 1 and = U; "'.n
- the upstream flow tends to uniform flow: ",/U = y and = 0 on EA. "'.n
Streamline and velocity distribution computed from", and integral represen- "'.n
tation are given in Figs. 5 and 6.
Velocity on the symmetry axis is shown in Fig. 7.
Values obtained experimentally by Bouard [11] for velocity on the symmetry
axis are also presented in Fig. 7. The difference is about 3%.
The axial fQrce per unit length acting on the cylinder has been determined by
integrating pressure and shear stress around the cylinder to give T/jlU: 98.8. This
value agrees favourably with Bouarc:l's numerical result: 99.4 [11] and is slightly
different from Curtis and Marr's result [12]: T/jlU = 73. One may observe that, for
smaller cylinders, Curtis and Marr's results are less than those of Takaisi [13] by
about 20%.
rft
////////
ft//ft//////////////h,///~ 1.0
If 01
I I
I [ I
I ~
lo ._._.-wl.,. ._._ w. ~Jo 8

~
""
~
x12R _
Fig. 4. Geometrical domain
IJl lIirI2R
- - - - 10- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 1.0
----o.~===:===~=~~~~~~~
- - - -10.
- - - - IO}'- - - - - - - - = =::<;
_ _ _ 0.6,- - - - < > - - --v--
- - - -10.5,- - - - - - - : : :
- - - - 0 .4- - --0---- -
- - - - 1031- - - - - - -
- - - -10.2- - --0---- - -
- - - - 0'0.1----;:--::-;:-----.
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
fl7l1 -
Fig. S. Streamline distribution. 000, Curtis and Marr; - - . integral equation method
-.- ---- --
10
-
I
- 'I
- 'I
--'
I
./" --------
/' --'
0.5
/'
I
<>:
-
""
.....
I
--' "'-
I
- 'I
Iin - -
I
o 0.5 10 1.5 2.0

XI2R -
Fig. 6. Velocity distribution
t 0.5 1-----+-----+----+----'lr-------1
~::;
o 0.5 10 1.5 2.0

XI2R -
Fig. 7. Velocity distribution on the symmetry axis. - - , Integral equation method; 0, Bouard
8.5.2 "Stick-slip" Problem Related to the Motion of a Free Jet

To illustrate the efficiency of the method to treat the presence of a free surface, we
consider the following specific problem due originally to Richardson [14]. Let us
consider the plane jet of a newtonian viscous fluid flowing out two parallel semi-
infinite pla.Qes. When ~urface tension forces tend to infinity the free surface becomes
a shear-free straight line extension of a no-slip plane problem. Then the jet shape
can be obtained by linearization with respect to the parameter ~ = IlUIT where Il
is the dynamic viscosity, U the mean velocity and T the surface tension.
If we represent the surface profile by the equation y = g(x) we have:
g(x) = go(x) + ~gl(X) + O(~) (40)
where go(x) is the shape of the jet when ~ tends towards 0, i.e. a straight line.
First we consider the mathematical problem of a straight stick-slip boundary
shown in Fig. 8.
In the non-dimensional formulation the flow is confined between the planes
y = =+= 1 and by symmetry we reduce the domain to 0 ::::; y::::; + 1. Thus; the-boundary
conditions are:
[I
1
1
--.1._-1_
BJ X
I
1/1 = 0 and At(I/I) = 0 onAB

1/1,n = 0 and 2(1/1) = 0 onBC
1/1=1 and At(I/I) = 0 on CD
(41)
1/1=1 and 1/1,n = 0 on DE
3 (
1/1="2/ 1- 3
y2) ; 1/1,n = 0 on EA (Poiseuille flow) .
The solution of this problem gives the normal force P(x) which is necessary to
maintain a straight jet profile. Consequently a free jet will not be rectilinear and it
can be proven that:
g~(x) = - P(x) (42)
when rc is small.
The numerical integration of P(x) leads to the jet shape.
At the jonction point D, the non-compatibility of the boundary conditions
introduce a singularity of the solution. Thus a local study of the solution is needed.
At the vicinity of D, one can neglect the wall curvature, and the free surface
curvature. Using the polar coordinates (p, 0) centered at D, Michael [15J showed
that the normal force along the zero shear stress surface necessarily becomes infinite
as the point D is approached, when a solid plane and a zero shear stress plane meet
at an angle which is larger than 1t. Only when the angle between these planes is 1t
can this normal force vanish and then the zero shear stress surface may be regarded
as a free surface. Then Richardson [14] proved that the local solutions are repre-
sented by the two sets of solutions:
1/1 ~ pH 1 sin ;'0 sin 0 for;' = t, t,~, ...
(43)
1/1 ~ pHl(A.cos;'OsinO - sin;'OcosO) for;' = 2, 3, 4, ...
where 1/1 = 0 at the boundary for convenience, and with 0 = 0 on the wall and 0 = 1t
on the free surface.
If the origin ofthe curvilinear abscissa s is at Qo, one can define on rtwo straight
segments [ - e, 0] and [0, e], on both sides of Qo. There are no singularities on
r - {[ - e, + e]} for 1/1 and for its derivatives as they appear in integral representa-
tions of 1/1 and I/I,n' In an interval {[ - e, + e]}, the 1/1 derivatives involve singularities,
as shown by local solutions (43).
A study of the asymptotic behaviour of each term involved in the integral

representation, with '" taken as (43), shows that these representations are valid at
the neighbouring of D and that the jump terms at this point are to be discarded.
Details are given in [8].
The jet shape is given by three successive integrations of the normal stress
gradient along the sliping boundary.
The pressure distribution along the axis of symmetry (Fig. 9) show that our
results compare well with Richardson's [14].
In Fig. 10, which shows the fluid normal force acting on the boundary DC. One
can see a difference due to the large variation of the stresses in the vicinity of the
singular point D, which is not adequately represented by discrete numerical methods.
6
"
4 ~
z ~
'\
o ~ """
-2 -1 o 2
x-
Fig. 9. Pressure variation along the axis of symmetry.
- - , Richardson's results; 0, boundary integral results
·2.0
0
1.5
1.,.0 \'\ 0
~n
0.5
~
o 0.5
~1.5r.-..o. 2.0
1.0
x-
Fig. 10. Normal force acting on the boundary DC. - - , Richardson's
results; 0, Ruschak's results; ., boundary integral results
0.4
L v-: ~
V
OJ ..2.. 0
P
/
/
V
0.1
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

x-
Fig: 11. The jet shape 1/(x). - - , Richardson's results; 0, boundary
integral results
The numerical integration of P(x) leads to the jet shape represented on Fig. 11. Once
again we note a substantial difference in that the jet is wider as compared with
Richardson, but the shapes are similar. A similar relative difference is obtained with
finite element method by Ruschak [16] with ten more nodal parameters.
This case gives an example of the consideration of a local singular solution in
boundary integral formulations. .
8.6 Numerical Examples for Convective Flows
8.6.1 Numerical Methods for the Solution of Non-linear Equations

The representations ofl/t(P), l/t.m(P) at the n nodes of aD and of l/t. x(P), l/tjP), al/t,AP)
and al/tjP) at the nj nodes inside D leads to (2n + 4nj) non-linear equations of the
type
M(x)x + Lx + F = 0 (44)
where x represents the vector ofthe nodal parameters and M(x) and L are matrices
corresponding respectively to the non-linear and the linear terms of the equations.
F is the vector of the known terms resulting from the boundary conditions.
The solution of Eq. (44) can not be obtained directly because of non-linearity.
The main numerical methods for solving such an equation depend on an iterative
process until convergence is obtained. According to the degree of non-linearities,
different methods are available, among those we have chosen:
- linearization method [3],
- substitution method [17, 18],
- Newton-Raphson and modified Newton-Raphson method [17],
- quasi Newton-Raphson method [19],

- gradient method [10],
- conjugate gradient method [20,21],
- incremental method [17],
- hybrid method [22].
8.6.2 Flow Around a Steady Cylinder Between Two Moving Inl"mite Planes
for Reynolds Numbers up to 40
We consider an infinite steady cylinder of radius R lying at midway of two infinite
planes 20 R apart. These planes are translating with a velocity U. According to the
symmetry the domain is reduced to half body ABCDEF (Fig. 12).
The boundary conditions are:
- Along AB and CD, the transverse velocity v and the tangential shear stress are
equal to zero:
1/1 = 0 and .A(I/I) = 0 .
- The two components u and v of the velocity along BC are equal to zero:
1/1 =0 and I/I.n = 0 .
- Downstream the stresses are negiectible, so along DE we have
1
.A(I/I) = 0 and 2(1/1) - -;(I/I.,I/I.nn - I/I.nl/l.n,) = 0 .
- On the upper boundary EF the velocity is equal to those of the plane, that leads
to:
I/IIU = 2R and I/I.n = U
- On the upstream boundary AF the flow is uniform:
y
I/IIU = '5 and I/I.n = 0 .
The boundary of the domain has been discretized into 48 elements, twelve of
which being curvilinear for the discretization of BC. The inside of the domain has
been divided into 48 elements.
5" , >" " " " " " " q , > " " " " , >,
IF £1
I I
I I
I I
I I
c>: I I
'"
;::
I
o- . ~ . _ . --..!Cll..~_ . _ ....1..- . _ . _.oL._
I
-5 0 5 10
XIZR -
Several methods of solution have been used in order to show the possibilities of
each one.
The substitution method is convergent for the Reynolds number Re = 2U R/v
less than 5. With the gradient method a good solution is obtained for Re < 10. The
incremental Newton-Raphson method can be used to reach an available solution
for Reynolds number up to 20. Only a hybrid incremental method leads to accurate
- u
-
-----
- --~- -
--/ --=--
O L-~--
-2
-- ""
-----~-
-I
(;
____-- L__..-<'tl
__
~ __\~
0
-~~
~~
I
______- L______~____~
3
XI2R-
Fig. 13. Velocity distribution for Re = 20
• Re=IOJ
06 o 20.6-+---W---+--f7"'~-+-7"~
• 29.2
A 40.5
0.51---t--_I_-+-+------!i-L----¥---+-~_l
0.41_-+---.t--¥;--7"l---~-_I_-_7""1
O.3I---I--I--h~A_----7"'I'----h,/:__I_-__1
0.1
o
-0.11_-~--_'i':;:>'"""'---1r---+_-_t_--1_--_I
XI2R -
Fig. 14. The axial velocity distribution past the cylinders when the width of the channel is 14R.
- - , boundary integral equation method; e, 0, &, 1>., Bouard's results
solutions for Re = 40. Above this value the numerical processus diverges due to
an insufficient discretization on one hand, and ill-conditioned matrices on other
hand.
Figure 13 shows the velocity field obtained for Re = 20. We denote the non-
symmetric character of the flow and a vortex in the wake of the cylinder. The
distributions of the axial velocity past the cylinder agree well with the experimental
results of Bouard [23] (Fig. 14). The Figs. 15 and 16 show respectively the normal
stress and tangential distributions along the cylinder. These values are compared
with those obtained by finite difference method [24] and finite element method [25]
in an infinite medium. One can remark that the plane wall increases the shear stress
values along the cylinder.
10 .----- . - - --r---,----,----r---,
- - - Re=2
4--+_--1
5
2.0 b-1f:--\---I---+---+--+- ---1
1.5 p......-\4--;,---I---+---+---+----1
0.5
~
Q,
"-
-I
'i'- 0
s..... 40
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5 1--+---I--\+-4:--+--,~----1
-2.0 f--- I - - I - -t--->_-t--+---=l
-2.5 L - -L - - L - - . l . -- . . I . - -...L..-----'o
n Sn /6 2n13 n l2 n /3 n /6
Fig. 15. Pressure distribution along a cylinder for varying Re.

- ---, -.- .-.-, Keller and Takani's results for an infinite media;
.. . , Gartling and Becker's results for an infinite media;
- -, boundary integral results
8 , - - , , - - - , - - - , - - - , - - - , -- - ,
61--I-tJ-
-,~--~--~--~--~~~~~
n 5n /6 Znl3 n l2 n /3 n /6 0
Fig. 16. Shear stress distribution along a cylinder for varying Reo
----, -0-0-0-, Keller and Takani's results for an infinite media;
----, boundary integral results
From tangential and normal stresses (I/Int and I/Inn) along the cylinder we deduce
by integration the drag coefficient:
c = Ix/R
x pU 2
where Ix represertts the force per unit length applied by the fluid on the cylinder:
c
Ix = 2 J(unnnox - untn·y)ds .
B
Figure 17 shows the variation of Cx with Re obtained from our calculation and
from experimental investigation [23J and various other numerical methods [24,
26-29].
When the Reynold's number exceeds 40, the equations become highly non-linear
and it is difficult to obtain good convergence. We can propose two hypothesis.
First the number of surface elements (48) inside the domain is insufficient and
the interpolation of inertia effects is too crude. One can choose a larger number of
elements which of course leads to an increase of calculation time. A linear or a
quadratic interpolation of the internal parameters can be introduced in order to
obtain a more accurate integration, for instance by taking nodes at the Gauss's
points. When this is done evaluation of integrals is more complicated and the results
are only slightly modified.
15
v
11
9 \
\
3
0"- ~
•
...,. ;:-..,.,
----"':i
f:--=-
'.Ir. ---
o 10 10 30 ~o so
Re -
Fig. 17. Variation of ex with Re. - - , Boundary integral results; ----, Bouard's results for a channel
of width 16R;., Keller and Takani's results;., A, Dennis and Chang's results; 0, Ta Phuoc Loc's results;
v, Tuann and Olson's results
Secondly the matrices are ill-conditioned and large (288 x 288), full and non-
symmetric. The matrix resulting from the discretization of the surface parameters
has a dominant diagonal only for small Reynolds' number. This is the reason why
we obtain good accuracy in the latter case.
8.7 Conclusion
The integral formulaton of boundary value problems provides the same advantages
in fluid dynamics as it does for solid mechanics.
For Stokes' flow all the physical parameters encountered (stream function,
velocity, shear stress and pressure) are directly obtained on the boundary, and the
method is valid for any boundary shape. Moreover, integral representation within
the domain also permits the determination of the stream function and velocity at
any point if desired. Contrary to finite element and finite difference methods, the
discretization is made only on the boundary; as a result the matrices are much
smaller.
For convective flows, internal parameters are needed to take into account inertia
terms. These are defined at the centers of elements (velocity components and
vorticity or vorticity gradients). The non-linearity ofthese terms leads to non-linear
algebraic equations. For small values of Reynolds' numbers, accurate solutions are
obtained whatever the algorithm used. When the Reynolds' number increase more
sophisticated methods are needed (Newton-Raphson, conjugate gradient, incre-
mental method, ... ).
When the inertia effects are dominant, the method becomes inefficient due to
the ill-conditioned matrices and the very finest discretization that is needed.
The numerica examples presented show the accuracy of the method with only
48 segments used for the discretization of the boundary and 48 elements for the
surface (for convective flows only).
In conclusion the integral method apears to be an efficient tool to solve fluid
dynamic problems and it compares favorably with the well-known finite difference
and finite element methods.
References
Bourot, J.M., "Sur un proci:de de resolution approchee du probleme aux limites, pour certains
ecoulements de fluide parfait ou visqueux, en presence d'obstac1es et de parois", c.R. Acad. Sci., 266,
470-473 (1968).
2 Smith, G.D., "Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations", Oxford University Press,
London 1969.
3 Chung, T.J., "Finite Element Analysis in Fluid Dynamics", McGraw-Hill 1978.
4 Bezine, G. and Gamby, D., "A New Integral Equation Formulation for Plate Bending Problems",
Recent Advances in Boundary Element Methods, Pen tech Press, London 1978.
5 Bezine, G., "Boundary Integral Formulation for Plate Flexure with Arbitrary Boundary Conditions",
Mech. Res. Comm., 5,197-206 (1978).
6 Bergman, S. and Schiffer, M., "Kernel Functions and Elliptic Differential Equations in Mathematical
Physics", Academic Press, New York, 1953.
7 Batchelor, G.K., "An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics", Cambridge University Press, 1967.
8 Bonneau, D., "Formation du film lubrifiant dans les contacts it alimentation non surabondante. Aspects
experimentaux et theoriques", These de Doctorat des Sciences Physiques. Poitiers, 1986.
9 Bezine, G. and Bonneau, D., "On a Procedure for Numerical Evaluation of Surface Integrals in
Two-Dimensional Boundary Integral Equation Method", Engineering Analysis, 2, 2-8 (1985).
10 Demidovitch, B. and Maron, I., "Elements de calcul numerique", Editions de Moscou, 1973.
11 Coutanceau, M. and Bouard, R., "On the Computation of the Plane and Axisymmetric Creeping
Flows Around Body in Duct", European Mechanics Colloquium 129. Computation of Flow Around
Systems of Airfoils, Bulgarie, 1980.
12 Curtis, A.R. and Marr, c.R., "The Viscous Drag on Cylinders Falling Symmetrically Between Parallel
Walls". J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 11, 1173-1178 (1978).
13 Takaisi, Y., "The Drag on a Circular Cylinder Moving with Low Speeds in a Viscous Liquid Between
two Parallel Walls", J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 10, 685-693 (1955).
14 Richardson, S., "A Stick-Slip Problem Related to the Motion of a Free Jet Low Reynolds Numbers",
Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 67, 477-489 (1970).
15 Michael, D.H., "The Separation of a Viscous Liquid at a Straight Edge", Mathematika, 5, 82-84
(1958).
16 Ruschak, K.J., "A method for Incorporating Free Boundaries with surface Tension in Finite Element
Fluid-Flow Simulators", Int. J. Numerical Methods Eng., 15,639-648 (1980).
17 Zienkiewicz, O.c., "The Finite Element Method", McGraw-Hill, London, 1977.
18 Haisler, W.E. and Stricklin, J.A., "Computational Methods for Solving Non-Linear Structural
Mechanics Problems", Proc. Int. Conf. on Computational Meth. in Non-Linear Mech., Universite
du Texas, USA, pp. 393-403, 1974.
19 Stoer, J. and Bulirsch, R., "Introduction to numerical Analysis". Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1976.
20 Golub, G.H. and Van Loan, C.F., "Matrix Computations", North Oxford Academic, Oxford, 1983.
21 Polak, E., "Computational Methods in Optimization". Academic Press, New York 1971.
22 Kamat, M.P., Watson, L.T. and Junkins, J.L., "A Robust and Efficient Hybrid Method for Finding
Multiple Equilibrium Solutions", C.R. 3e Congres Int. Methods Num. Ing., Paris, pp. 799-809,1983.
23 Bouard, R., "Etude de l'ecoulement autour d'un cylindre soumis a une translation uniforme apres
un depart impulsif pour des nombres de Reynolds allant de 0 a 104 ", These de Doctorat es Sciences,
Poitiers, Juin 1986.
24 Keller, H.B. and Takami, H., "Numerical Studies of Steady Viscous Flow about Cylinders", Proc.
Symp. Math. Universite du Wisconsin, USA, pp. 115-135, 1966.
25 Gartling, D. and Becker, E.B., "Computationally Efficient Finite Element Analysis of Viscous Flow
Problems", Proc. Int. Conf. on Computational Meth. in Non-Linear Mech., Universite du Texas,
USA, pp. 603-614, 1974.
26 Dennis, S.C.R. and Chang, G.Z., "Numerical Solutions for Steady Flow Past a Circular Cylinder at
Reynolds Numbers up to 100", J. of Fluid Mechanics, 42, 471 (1970).
27 Ta Phuoc Loc, "Etude numerique de l'ecoulement d'un fluide visqueux incompressible autour d'un
cylindre fixe ou en rotation". J. de Mecanique, 14, 109 (1975).
28 Dennis, S.C.R., "A Numerical Method for Calculating Steady Flow Past a Cylinder", Lecture Notes
Phys., Vol. 165, 1976.
29 Tuann, S.Y. and Olson, M.D., "Numerical Studies of the Flow Around a Circular Cylinder by a
Finite Element Method". Computers and Fluids, 6, 219 (1978).
Subject Index
Boundary conditions 74, 163 Kinetics of flow 61

Boundary element formulation 39 two-dimensional case 62
Boundary elements 11, 20 three-dimensional case 63
Boundary integral formulation
Non-Newtonian flows 143 Natural convection 49
Boundary layer 37, 110, 112, 117 in closed cavity 81
in open space 81
Channel flow 77 Navier Stokes equations 15, 162
Closed cavity 81 Non-Newtonian flow 134, 135
Compressible flow
summary of fundamental relations 28 Open space 81
Compressible viscous flow 10
Conservation of Plane flow 57
energy 16,18,27 Potential flow 110, 112
mass 15, 18 Pressure field 105
momentum 16, 18 Pressure - volumetric strain-rate and
Constitutive equations 162 density formulation 27
Convection 87, 92
Convective flows 174 Quasi-singular integrals 96
Coordinate transformation 37, 95 Reciprocal theorem 164
Reynolds number 164
Discretization 57, 59, 65, 70, 94
boundary and domain 94 Solution techniques 143
two-dimensional case 57, 65 for non-linear equations 174
three-dimensional case 59, 70 Squar~ cavity flow 103
Drag coefficient 178 State of the art 2, 20
Stokes flow 167, 169
Energy transport equation 71 Stream function formulation 53
Equations of state 17, 18,27 Stream function representation 165
External flows 56 Stream function - vorticity approach 35
Finite differences 10 Temporal and mass-weighting
Finite elements 10 averages 19
Finite volume 11 Turbulent compressible flow
Forced convection 49 equations 20
Free jet 171 Turbulent flow 18
Integral formulation 21, 25 Unsteady viscous flow problems 32
two-dimensional case 21
three-dimensional case 25 Vector elliptic equation 53
Iterative procedures 29, 96
Vector potential 52
Kinematics of flow 53 integral formulation 55
two-dimensional case 57
three-dimensional case 59 Zonal approach 34
F. Hartmann, University of Dortmund,
FRG
Introduction to
Boundary Elements
Theory and Applications
1989. XII, 416 pp. 194 figs.

ISBN 3-540-50430-3
Contents: Introduction. - Fundamentals. -

One-dimensional problems. - Membranes.
- Elastic plates and bodies. - Nonlinear
problems. - Plates. - Boundary elements
and fmite elements. - Harmonic oscilla-
tions. - Transient problems. - Computer
programs. - Appendix A. - Appendix B. -
Literature. - Bibliography.
This book is an introduction to the Bound-

ary Element Method. It offers both an
elementary and advanced exposition of the
Boundary Element Method. It deals with
the application of the BEM to elastostatics,
elastodynamics, plasticity, acoustics and
heat conduction. The book contains the
complete influence matrices for plate-
bending problems, for membrane and
Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg New York London
plate problems and for problems in three-
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong dimensional elasticity.
Topics in Boundary Element Research
Editor: C.A. Brebbia
Volume I
Basic Principles and Applications
1984. XIII, 256 pp. 144 figs. 11 tabs.
ISBN 3-540-13097-7
Volume 2
Tin1e-dependentand
Vibration Problen1s
1985. XIV, 260 pp. 140 figs. 5 tabs.
ISBN 3-540-13993-1
Volume 3
COn1putational Aspects
1987. XIV, 296 pp. 126 figs. 28 tabs.
ISBN 3-540-16113-9
Volume 4
Applications in Geon1echanics
1987. XII, 173 pp. 87 figs. ISBN 3-540-17497-4
Volume 6
Electron1agnetic Applications
1989. Approx. 210 pp. 161 figs. ISBN 3-540-50607-1
in prep.
Volume 7
Electrical Engineering
Springer-Verlag Berlin
Applications
Heidelberg New York London 1989. Approx. 224 pp. 185 figs. ISBN 3-540-50605-5
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong in prep.

1989 Book ViscousFlowApplications

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With 64 Figures and 9 Tables

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg NewYork

Computational Mechanics Institute

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-83685-5 e-ISBN-13 :978-3-642-83683-1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

2161/3020-5432 1 0 - Printed on acid-free paper

A. Alujevic University of Maribor, Yugoslavia (Chap. 4)

G. Bezine Laboratoire de Mecanique des Solides, (Chap. 8)

D. Bonneau Laboratoire de Mecanique des Solides, (Chap. 8)

C. A. Brebbia Computational Mechanics, (Chap. 2)

M. B. Bush University of Western Australia, (Chap. 7)

J. J. Connor Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (Chap. 2)

U. Gulcat Istanbul Institute of Technology, Turkey (Chap. 3)

K. Kitagawa Toshiba Corp., Consumer Products (Chap. 1)

G. Kuhn University of Nuremberg-Erlangen, FRG (Chap. 4)

N. L. Sankar Georgia Institute of Technology, (Chap. 3)

H. Schmitt Deutsche Forschungs- und Versuchsanstalt (Chap. 6)

G. R. Schneider Deutsche Forschungs- und Versuchsanstalt (Chap. 6)

P. Skerget University of Maribor, Yugoslavia (Chap. 4)

M. Tanaka Shinshu University, Nagano, Japan (Chap. 5)

C. M. Wang Georgia Institute of Technology, (Chap. 3)

J.C.Wu Georgia Institute of Technology, (Chap. 3)

The Boundary Element Method has now become a powerful tool of

Southampton, July 1989 Carlos A. Brebbia

1 A BRIEF REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK ON VISCOUS

2 BOUNDARY ELEMENT FORMULATION FOR VISCOUS

3 A GENERALIZED FORMULATION FOR UNSTEADY

4 NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTION SIMULATION

5 A BOUNDARY ELEMENT ANALYSIS FOR THERMAL

5.5 Conclusion. . . . 107

6 CALCULATION OF THE POTENTIAL FLOW WITH

7 APPLICATIONS IN NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID

8 VISCOUS FLUID MECHANICS. 161

SUBJECT INDEX 183

A Brief Review of Previous Work

(uniformly third-order polynomial interpolation algorithm) [40] and Kawamura

1.2 Review of Work on Boundary Elements

Boundary Element Formulation

2.1.1 Finite Differences

2.1.2 Finite Elements

2.1.3 Finite Volume

2.1.4 Boundary Elements

2.2 Proposed Approach

at Southampton, where the Institute of Computational Mechanics which deals with

(i) The emphasis on energy or weighted residual principles to produce 'direct'

The main advantages of boundary elements over domain techniques in com-

(a) Simple Data Preparation

(b) Accurate Results

(c) Internal Results

Boundary elements were initially applied to solve elastostatics problems and in

2.3 Statement of the Problems -

2.3.1 The Navier Stokes Equations

(i) Conservation of Mass

For a compressible fluid, conservation of mass leads to an expression of the

(ii) Conservation of Momentum

(iii) Conservation of Energy

(iv) Equations of State

One can then write, E = Cv T. Thus,

which becomes <

2.3.2 Turbulent Flow Equations [31-35]

(i) Combined Temporal and Mass-Weighting Averaging

and the variable f is decomposed as

(ii) Turbulent Compressible Flow Equations

+ J {-w(tf)f(tf ) + w(O)f(O)} dQ (2.68)

ou* (ou* oU) (ou oU*)