SELF-LEADERSHIP: NEW TOOL OF ORGANISATION

Introduction

Finding new carrots to motivate its employees has been a challenging task for organizations

today. In the present competitive and complex work environment, the key to this task lies in an

organization’s ability to teach its employees to motivate themselves.

In recent times, Corporate leaders world wide have recognized self-motivation to be one

of the important features to look for in new hires. With direct supervision becoming too

expensive and incompatible with the values and expectations of the workforce, there is an

increasing emphasis on the concept of self-motivation and self-monitoring behaviour. The

emerging view is that the employees should manage themselves through self-leadership. Self-

leadership is a term used to describe a comprehensive set of self-influence strategies that have

recently demonstrated potential for application in today’s organizations (Houghton et

al.,2004).Self-leadership(Manz,1983a,1986,1992a; Manz and Neck,1999) is defined as a process

through which people influence themselves to achieve the self-direction and self-motivation

necessary to behave and perform in desirable ways.

Self-Leadership : An Overview

The concept of self-leadership has been derived primarily from the social learning literature and

related work in self-control. There has been a number of references to self-management, a related

process in organizational literature. Self-leadership is most closely associated with the existing

constructs of self-regulation and self-management in organizational literature. It is important to

note, however, that although the concepts of self-management, self-regulation and self-

leadership refer to related processes, they are distinctly different.

Manz (1986, 1990); Neck and Manz (1996) have clarified the essential differences

underlying the concept of self-regulation, self-management and self-leadership. Self-regulation is

often described in terms of an ongoing cybernetic control model. This model views self-

regulation as a process of reducing variation from established standards (Godwin et al.,

1999).Self-management, on the other hand, consists of a set of strategies for managing one’s

own behaviour in order to reduce deviations from standards, but not the appropriateness or the

desirability of the governing standards (externally set standards)themselves. While self-

management does allow employees significant self-influence regarding how to complete a task in

order to meet a standard (as defined by the wider system or higher management), it does not

provide self-influence regarding what should be done and why. Thus, self-management

represents only a moderate level of self-influence (Godwin et al., 1999).

Self-leadership can be viewed as a broader concept since it includes strategies for self-

management as well as for management of natural motivational value of the tasks and the
patterns in one’s thinking (Manz, 1983a, 1986).Self-leadership addresses both the behavioural

and cognitive aspects of self-influence. Apart from dealing with strategies for reducing

discrepancies from standards it also addresses the appropriateness of the standards themselves. If

the amount of control and influence possessed by organization members is viewed as falling on a

continuum ranging from external control to complete self-control, then self-leadership falls

significantly closer to the complete self-influence end of the spectrum than does self-

management (Manz and Angle,1986).

Manz and Sims (1980) introduced the self-management construct as a specific substitute

for leadership from the personal self-control perspective. Manz (1986) later argued that self-

leadership was more comprehensive and higher level of self-influence than the already existing

concept of self-management.

Self-leadership and personality

Manz (1986) introduced and conceptualized self-leadership as a learned behaviour. Some

theorists like Guzzo (1998) have questioned the rationality of terming self–leadership as a unique

and distinguishable concept. He opined that self-leadership is a mere repackaging of individual

differences already explained by pre-existing and relatively stable personality constructs. Guzzo

(1998) expressed concern as to whether “self-leadership is distinguishable from other existing

psychological constructs such as the personality dimension of conscientiousness………”.

The study of Stewart et al., (1996) provided preliminary support for the hypothesis that

self-leadership is distinct from personality. The study revealed an interaction effect between
conscientiousness and self-leadership training. Those scoring lowest in conscientiousness

subsequently showed the greatest increase in self-leadership behaviours as a result of the

training. In contrast to personality characteristics which are generally viewed as relatively stable

across both time and situation (Block, 1981); self-leadership behaviour is amenable to change

(Manz, 1986; Stewart et al., 1996). If self-leadership is amenable to change while personality is

not, then these concepts are likely not synonymous with one another (Houghton et al., 2004).

Self-regulation theory also lends support for the idea that self-leadership is indeed

distinguishable from personality dimensions. Unlike personality traits, a person’s self-regulating

tendencies may vary significantly across situations (Carver and Scheier, 1998). Since self-

leadership strategies operate within the frame work of self-regulation with the aim of improving

self-regulating effectiveness it seems reasonable to suppose that an individual could alter the use

of self-leading strategies separate from the influences of fixed personality traits (Houghton et al.,

2004). Despite the fact that self-leadership dimensions are distinct form specific personality

traits, they are related in meaningful ways. Williams (1997) proposed positive associations

between self-leadership skills and extraversion, emotional stability, conscientiousness. Houghton

et al., (2004) in their study confirmed the positive associations between self-leadership

dimensions and certain personality dimensions. According to Houghton et al., (2004) the positive

relationship between the self-leadership strategy dimensions and select personality traits suggests

that those high in certain personality traits are likely to have a natural inclination toward

engaging in self-leadership behaviours, while those low in certain traits are likely to be naturally

ineffective self-leaders. This implies a tremendous potential for the targeting of self-leadership

training toward individuals with certain personality characteristics.

Self-leadership strategies

Self-leadership strategies may be divided into three general categories: behaviours-

focused strategies, natural reward strategies and constructive thought pattern strategies

(Anderson and Prussia, 1997; Manz and Neck, 1999; Prussia et al., 1998, Manz, 1992a).

Behaviour focused strategies are aimed at increasing self-awareness, leading to the

management of behaviours involving necessary but perhaps unpleasant tasks (Manz, 1992a;

Manz and Neck, 1999). Under this category the following self imposed strategies are included -

1. Self -observation:

Self-observation of one’s own behaviour can lead to an awareness of when and why one

engages in certain behaviours (Houghton and Neck, 2002). According to Manz (1992b), self-

observation can be practiced by identifying behaviour of one self that one would like to either

increase or reduce, keeping a record of the frequency and duration of such important behaviours,

noting the conditions that exist when these behaviours are displayed and keeping a written record

of one’s self-observations.

2. Self-goal setting:

The self assessment formed by the self-observation can help individuals effectively set

personal goals that may lead to improved performance (Manz, 1986; Manz and Neck, 1999;

Manz and Sims, 1980). A multitude of research has shown that the act of setting and accepting
challenging and specific goals can have a dramatic effect in motivating individual performance

(Locke and Latham, 1990). To provide direction for one’s efforts one should- conduct a self-

analysis to help set long term goals, set long-run goals for life and career, establish short-run

goals for immediate efforts, keep one’s goals specific and concrete, make goals challenging but

reasonable and let others know about one’s goals so that it provides added incentive (Manz,

1992b).

3. Self-reward:

Self-rewards are one of the most powerful methods to lead individuals to new

achievements (Manz, 1992b). Self-rewards can be something tangible, like a nice restaurant meal

or a weekend vacation following the completion of a difficult project at work, or self-rewards

can be something abstract and simple such as congratulating oneself or mentally visualizing a

favourite place or experience (Houghton and Neck, 2002). Self-reward occurs whenever an

employee has control over a reward but doesn’t take the reward until completing a self-set goal.

Taking a break from work on reaching a predetermined stage of work is an example of self-

reward which acts as a positive reinforcement. Manz (1992b) suggests that to achieve self

motivation through self-reward one should try to identify the objects, thoughts and images that

motivates the individual. He adds that one should reward oneself after completing desirable

activities or behaviours and also be self-praising and self-rewarding one’s accomplishments.

Self-rewarding can be effectively used to reinforce desirable behaviours and goal attainments

(Manz and Sims, 1980; Manz and Neck, 1999).

4. Self- punishment:
 Like self-rewards, self-correcting feedback can also be used to shape desirable

behaviours effectively (Houghton and Neck, 2002). Many individuals rely too heavily on the

approach of self-punishment (Manz, 1992b). An introspective yet positively framed examination

of negative behaviours or performance failures can be more effective in correcting performance

than excessive self-punishment based on habitual guilt and self criticism (Manz and Sims.,

2005). Manz (1992) has pointed out that habitual guilt and self-criticism impairs motivation and

creativity. He pointed out that to control self-punishment patterns one should identify behaviours

that one feels guilty about, identify actions that results in one being self-critical, reduce or

eliminate habitual destructive self-punishment patterns and try to reserve self-punishment for

seriously negative behaviours.

5. Self-cueing:

The use of cues can help employees stay focused on achieving self-set goals. Using

remainders, attention focusers, and other positive cues can remind one of important tasks to be

accomplished (Manz, 1992b). According to Manz (1992b), lists to guide daily activities should

be made and posted based on priority of tasks. He also recommends that cues be set by

employees so that it enables them to focus their attention on important behaviours and tasks. For

example signs can be placed in one’s work area to focus thinking in desired ways. In addition to

this he suggests that negative cues in work environment such as objects and noises which

employees find distracting can be identified and reduced or eliminated. Positive cues in work

environment have to be identified and increased.

Natural reward strategies involve seeking out work activities that are inherently

enjoyable (Manz, 1986; Manz and Neck 2004). This set of strategies also includes the focusing
of attention on the more pleasant or gratifying aspects of a given job or task rather than on the

unpleasant or difficult aspects (Houghton et al., 2004). Natural or intrinsic rewards result when

incentives are built into the task itself and a person is motivated or rewarded my the task itself

(Manz, 1992a, Manz and Neck, 1999). Focusing on the naturally rewarding aspects of tasks can

provide motivational and emotional benefits, especially when employees must deal with

problems and concerns that are part of the job (Manz, 1992a). Natural reward strategies include

efforts to incorporate more pleasant and enjoyable features into a given task or activity and

efforts to change perceptions of an activity by focusing on the task’s inherent rewarding aspects

(Manz and Neck, 1999). For instance, a person might attempt to create a more enjoyable work

environment by playing soft music, changing pictures or adding other personal touches.

Alternatively, a person could shift attention toward job features that he/she particularly enjoys,

such as working outdoor or engaging customers in conversation (Houghton and Neck, 2002).

Finally, Constructive thought pattern strategies involve the creation and maintenance

of functional patterns of habitual thinking (Manz and Neck, 2004; Neck and Manz, 1992; Neck

et al., 1995). Specific thought oriented strategies include the evaluation and challenging of

irrational beliefs and assumptions, mental imagery of successful future performance, and positive

self-task (Houghton et al., 2004.). This paradigm posits that constructive thought management

through effective application of these strategies can enhance individual cognitive processes,

behaviours, and affective states (Manz & Neck, 1991; Neck & Manz, 1992).

1. Evaluation of Belief and Assumptions:

It has been suggested that some of the problems that individuals encounter result from

dysfunctional thinking (Burns, 1980). These distorted thoughts are based on some common
dysfunctional beliefs and assumptions that are activated by potentially troubling situations (Neck

and Milliman, 1994). Through a process of self-analysis individuals may identify, confront and

replace dysfunctional beliefs and assumptions with more rational ones (Burns, 1980; Manz &

Neck, 1999; Manz & Neck, 1992). The theory of self-leadership is centered on establishing and

maintaining constructive desirable thought patterns (Neck & Manz, 1991). Thompson (1992)

reported conducting a training programme for executives to be self-observant of their own

thinking paradigms. The training enabled the managers to develop new insights into their inner

wisdom and to create a more authentic expression of their inner desires and intentions (Neck &

Milliman, 1991). Changing one’s core beliefs can create positive channels for creative and

spiritually-based energies and facilitate the development of a more purposeful vision of work

(Channon, 1992).

2. Mental Imagery

Mental imagery is generally defined as the symbolic, covert, mental invention or

rehearsal of an experience or task in the absence of actual, overt physical muscular movement

(Driskell et al., 1994; Finke, 1989). Through the use of mental imagery it may be possible to

create and symbolically experience behavioural outcomes prior to actual performance (Manz and

Neck, 1991; Neck and Manz, 1992). This technique has also been variously referred to as

imaginary practice (Perry, 1939), covert rehearsal (Corbin, 1967), symbolic rehearsal (Sackett,

1934) and mental practice (Corbin, 1972). In sports psychology, mental imagery is viewed as a

method involving rehearsal of a physical task in the absence of observable movement (Corbin,

1972). In clinical psychology, mental imagery is defined as “the mental invention or recreation

of an experience that in at least some respects resembles the experience of actually perceiving an
object or an event, either in conjunction with, or, in the absence of, direct sensory stimulation

(Finke, 1989).

Similarly, another perspective views mental imagery as follows. “We can create and, in

essence, symbolically experience imagined results of one behaviour before we actually perform”

(Manz, 1992a). From these views, mental imagery refers to imagining successful performance of

the task before it is actually completed. For example, managers are frequently required to make

public presentations. A manager can potentially enhance the presentation performance by

visualizing the completion of a successful presentation in his/her mind before it is actually

performed (Neck and Manz, 1992).

The relationship between mental imagery and performance has been studied extensively

in sports psychology, counseling education, and clinical psychology. Feltz and Landers (1983)

performed a meta-analysis of 60 sports students addressing the effect of mental practice on

performance. The meta-analysis provided significant support for the positive relationship

between mental imagery and successful performance across a wide range of tasks and

performance conditions.

Two separate studies by Lee (1990) and, Andre and Means (1986) suggested that the

specific content of the mental imagery is crucial in determining its effect on performance, but,

that the rate of the imagery is not a critical factor. Further, studies in the counseling education

suggested that mental imagery can enhance the performance of counselors. Hazler and Hipple

(1981) found that neophyte counselors trained in imagery to practice interviews exhibited

superior performance in comparison to counselors not receiving this training. Similarly, a study
of Masters of counseling education candidate’s ability to acquire test interpretation skills

indicated that mental imagery can lead to successful performance on complex higher order skills

such as decision-making and strategy formulation (Baker et al., 1985). In clinical psychology

also many research studies suggest that positive mental imagery can enhance performance for a

wide range of individuals with differing personality types ( Crowder 1989).

Thus a lot of studies support the positive relationship between mental imagery and

performance. In short, those individual who envision the successful performance of a task or

activity beforehand are much more likely to perform successfully when faced with the actual

situation (Manz and Neck, 1999). A meta-analysis of 35 empirical studies by Driskell et al.,

(1994) suggests that mental practice generally has both a positive and significant effect an

individual performance outcomes.

3. Self-talk

Self-talk is defined as what we covertly tell ourselves (Neck and Manz, 1992, 1996).

Self-talk usually take place at unobservable levels as individuals evaluate, instruct and mentally

react to themselves (Manz and Neck, 1991; Neck and Manz, 1992). Research suggests that self-

statements correspond to emotional states, which in turn affect behaviours and cognitions (Neck
and Manz, 1992). Consequently, an employee may be able to enhance his goal performance by

controlling his emotional state. A controlled emotional state can be attained through the

alteration of an employee’s internal dialogue (Manz and Neck, 1991; Neck and Manz, 1992). As

a result self-talk has been recommended as a self-influencing tool useful for improving the

personal effectiveness of employees and managers (Manz and Neck, 1991). Various studies in a

number of different fields have provided support for the relationship between an individual’s

self-talk and performance (Neck and Manz, 1992).

In sports psychology research, Mahoney and Avener (1977) studied 12 elite gymnasts

competing for place in the 1976 men’s USA Olympic team. They found that the gymnasts who

found their place finally in the Olympic team practiced self talk while those not selected did not.

Meyers et al’s., (1979) study of nine male members of a university racquetball team found that

better performers exhibited more frequent self-statements in training as well as competition.

Kendall et al., (1990) in their study cited that the performance level observed after the self-talk

training intervention was higher than the performance level observed prior to intervention.

In clinical psychology, Steffy et al’s., (1970) study observed that self-talk was one of the

treatment components that helped smokers reduce their daily intake of cigarettes. In addition it is

found that rational self-statements increase and irrational self-statements decreases, behavioural

efficiency in performance (Schill et al.,1978). Similarly Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971)

studies of impulsive children indicate that when these children were trained to talk to themselves,

it was effective in modifying their behaviour on a variety of psychometric tests which assessed

cognitive impulsivity, performance I.Q, and motor ability.

 In the field of counseling psychology too a lot of studies have found that self-talk

increases the performance of the therapist during counseling session (Kurpius et al., 1985).

Overall, the research from several fields shows that self-talk enhances individual

performance across a variety of tasks and activities (Neck and Manz,1992).

Thought Self-leadership

The constructive thought pattern strategies- that is evaluation of beliefs and assumptions,

mental imagery and self-talk together is labeled as Thought Self-Leadership (TSL). TSL is an

integral component of self-leadership. TSL focuses on a particular aspect of the broader process

of self-leadership (Manz, 1983a, 1991). Neck and Milliman (1994) proposed a spiritual thought

self-leadership framework, according to which thought self-leadership leads to greater feeling of

spirituality at work and ultimately enhances individual and organizational performance. Godwin

et al., (1999) in their thought self-leadership-goal setting model asserted the proposition that

individuals who use TSL techniques will demonstrate superior goal performance over

individuals who do not.

Similarly Neck et al., (1995) in their comprehensive thought self-leadership framework

within the performance appraisal domain proposed that raters who undergo TSL based training-

that is, training that focuses on creating constructive self-talk, mental imagery, beliefs and

thought patterns-will evidence enhanced performance relative to those not receiving the training.

In a comprehensive thought self-leadership model developed by Neck and Manz, (1992)

they suggested that through the process of thought self-leadership, employees can lead
 themselves to attain higher performance by adoption and /or alteration of specific cognitive

processes like their beliefs, internal dialogues, mental imagery and thought patterns.

The benefits of TSL cognitive strategies, especially the effects of self-talk and mental

imagery on performance have been empirically supported in sports psychology(Andre and

Means,1986; Feltz and Landers, 1983; Kendall et al., 1990; Lee, 1990; Mahoney and Avener,

1977; Meyers et al., 1979), clinical psychology (Crowder,1989; Meichenbaum and Goodman,

1971; Schill et al.,1978; Steffy et al., 1970), counseling psychology (Baker et al., 1985) and

communication (Boice, 1985). In comparison one finds that the studies in the management

literature focusing on the TSL concept are relatively sparse. In management literature a study

conducted on managers showed that thought patterns of higher performing managers

significantly differed from those of lower performing managers (Manz et al., 1988). A laboratory

study revealed that dysfunctional thoughts could adversely affect subjective well being and job

satisfaction(Judge and Locke,1993). A study by Neck and Manz (1996) demonstrated that

employees who participated in TSL training experienced enhanced mental performance,

affective states, job satisfaction and self-efficacy expectations compared to those not receiving
OBSERVE AND ANALYZE DEVELOP NEW SUBSTITUTE MONITOR
the training.
RECORD NEW & MAINTAIN
MORE FUNCTIONAL
& CONSTRUCTIVE
Overall, a wide range of literature supports the relationship between the constructive
* BELIEFS AND THE FUNCTIONALITY
ASSUMPTIONS AND CONSTRUCTIVE
utilization of TSL - * BELIEFS
methods and enhanced AND
cognitions, * BELIEFSand
behaviour ANDaffect (Godwin et al., 1999).
NESS OF THE ASSUMPTIONS ASSUMPTIONS
THOUGHT PATTERNS
Thought Self-leadership
* SELF-VERBALIZATIONS procedure
* SELF- * SELF-
VERBALIZATIONS VERBALIZATIONS
The integrative thought self-leadership procedure is depicted in figure 1.
(SELF-TALK)
AND

* IMAGERY PATTERNS * IMAGERY PATTERNS * IMAGERY

PATTERNS
(E.G., IMAGES OF
SUCCESS Vs. FAILURE)

LEADING TO MORE
CONSTRUCTIVE
THOUGHT PATTERNS
Manz and Neck, (1991) have proposed the following steps in thought self-leadership procedure:

1) Observing and recording existing beliefs and assumptions, self-verbalization, and mental

imagery patterns.

2) Analyzing the functionality and constructiveness of the beliefs, self-talk, and imagery

patterns uncovered in step 1.

3) Identifying and / or developing more functional and constructive beliefs and assumptions,

self-verbalizations, and mental images to substitute for dysfunctional ones.

4) Substituting the more functional thinking for the dysfunctional thoughts experienced in

actual situations. For example, new more constructive assumptions, ways of talking to

oneself, and mental images of the likely outcome of an encounter, can be worked out and

written on paper. Then this new mental plan can be worked through when faced with
 particularly troubling repetitive situations, such as difficulties with an assertive and creative

subordinate that arouses personal feelings of threat.

5) Continued monitoring and maintenance of beliefs, self-verbalization, and mental images over

time. This final component of the process feeds back into the functionality and

constructiveness analysis in phase two and the process is continuously repeated.

Self-Leadership in Practice

Evidence suggests that self-leadership practices generally improve self-efficacy,

motivation and performance. Self-leadership can be viewed as the missing link in managerial

effectiveness. Too often we focus on ways to influence others and neglect how we can better

lead ourselves toward our personal goals and dreams (Manz,1990).

Participative management, employee involvement, and self-managing work teams are

frequently the banners of contemporary leadership practices. This vision of leadership suggests

that at the heart of any empowerment effort should be an emphasis on employee self-

leadership(Manz, 1992b). Self-leadership strategies can be learned and improved upon. These

skills are what employees need to master and that leaders need to exemplify to establish a strong

heart of empowerment (Manz, 1992b). Organizations emphasizing empowerment should utilize

training programs aimed at demonstrated skill development and practice self-leadership

strategies (Prussia et al.,1998). The study conducted by Prussia et al.,(1998) indicated that self-

efficacy perceptions are enhanced as a result of self-leadership training and consequently

contribute to performance improvements. Overall, self-leadership promises to be an important

concept and practice for improving employee motivation and performance.

Conclusion

In recent years, self-leadership concepts have gained considerable popularity as

evidenced by the large number of practitioner-oriented books and articles on the subject and by

coverage in an increasing number of management and leadership textbooks.

Self-leadership has often been presented as a primary mechanism in both empowerment

and the successful implementation of self-managing work teams (Houghton and Neck, 2002).

While a plethora of non-empirical self leadership research exists, a sparse amount of empirical

research has examined self-leadership theory and its application in organizational settings

(Anderson and Prussia, 1997).

The study on the application of self-leadership strategies in the Human Resources

literature is practically void. Neck and Manz (1992) state, “The human resources function is a

notable example of an area of organizations in which the use of thought self leadership cognitive

strategies may be applicable”. Given the potential of these strategies for providing positive

outcomes for human resources management more amount of empirical research should be

undertaken. Manz (1983b) calls for practice of “Unleadership”- the process of helping others to

develop and practice systematic, effective self-leadership. A better understanding of self-

leadership could help Human Resource managers to effectively use it within organizations for

the development of its employees as well as the organization.

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 ABSTRACT

SELF-LEADERSHIP: NEW TOOL OF ORGANISATION

Self-leadership can be described as the “process of influencing oneself” as opposed to the

influence exerted by leaders over followers. The challenge of better understanding the primary
ingredients of effective self-leadership is a promising frontier for organizational research and
practice. The focus of the article is on the concept of self-leadership, its elements, its relevance in
the organizational environment and strategies for mastering self-leadership. The theory of self-
leadership has gained very limited empirical attention so far. This article aims at drawing
attention of future researchers and encourage further empirical research in this area.
Conclusion
In recent years, self-leadership concepts have gained considerable popularity as
evidenced by the large number of practitioner-oriented books and articles on the subject and by
coverage in an increasing number of management and leadership textbooks.
Self-leadership has often been presented as a primary mechanism in both empowerment
and the successful implementation of self-managing work teams (Houghton and Neck, 2002).
While a plethora of non-empirical self leadership research exists, a sparse amount of empirical
research has examined self-leadership theory and its application in organizational settings .