Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr.

Ahmed Amin Al Hity

Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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1. Origin of Clay Minerals
The contact of rocks and water produces clays, either at or near the surface of the
earth” (from Velde, 1995).
Rock + Water  Clay
For example,
The CO2 gas can dissolve in water and form carbonic acid, which will become
hydrogen ions H+ and bicarbonate ions, and make water slightly acidic.
CO2+ H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-
The acidic water will react with the rock surfaces and tend to dissolve the K ion and
silica from the feldspar. Finally, the feldspar is transformed into kaolinite.
Feldspar + hydrogen ions+water  clay (kaolinite) + cations, dissolved silica
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + H2O  Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ +4SiO2
 Note that the hydrogen ion displaces the cations.
 The alternation of feldspar into kaolinite is very common in the decomposed
granite.

 The clay minerals are common in the filling materials of joints and faults (fault
gouge, seam) in the rock mass.

 silicon Oxygen tetrahedron (SiO4)

 Aluminum Magnesium octahedron Al2(OH)3,Mg2(OH)3

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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Kaolinite
 Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape
 The bonding between layers are van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds
(strong bonding).
 There is no interlayer swelling
 Width: 0.1~ 4m, Thickness: 0.05~2 m
17 m

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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Halloysite
 Si4Al4O10(OH)8·4H2O
 A single layer of water between unit layers.
 The basal spacing is 10.1 Å for hydrated halloysite and 7.2 Å for dehydrated
halloysite

 If the temperature is over 50 °C or the relative humidity is lower than 50%, the
hydrated halloysite will lose its interlayer water (Irfan, 1966). Note that this
process is irreversible and will affect the results of soil classifications (GSD and
Atterberg limits) and compaction tests.
 There is no interlayer swelling.
 Tubular shape while it is hydrated.

2 m

Montmorillonite
 Si8Al4O20(OH)4·nH2O (Theoretical unsubstituted). Film-like shape.
 There is extensive isomorphous substitution for silicon and aluminum by other
cations, which results in charge deficiencies of clay particles.
 n·H2O and cations exist between unit layers, and the basal spacing is from 9.6
Å to  (after swelling).
 The interlayer bonding is by van der Waals forces and by cations which
balance charge deficiencies (weak bonding).

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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 There exists interlayer swelling, which is very important to engineering
practice (expansive clay).
 Width: 1 or 2 m, Thickness: 10 Å~1/100 width

5 m

Illite (mica-like minerals)

 Si8(Al,Mg, Fe)4~6O20(OH)4·(K,H2O)2. Flaky shape.
 The basic structure is very similar to the mica, so it is sometimes referred to
as hydrous mica. Illite is the chief constituent in many shales.
 Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet are replaced by the Al3+, and some of
the Al3+ in the octahedral sheet are substituted by the Mg2+ or Fe3+. Those are
the origins of charge deficiencies.
 The charge deficiency is balanced by the potassium ion between layers. Note
that the potassium atom can exactly fit into the hexagonal hole in the
tetrahedral sheet and form a strong interlayer bonding.
 The basal spacing is fixed at 10 Å in the presence of polar liquids (no
interlayer swelling).
 Width: 0.1~ several m, Thickness: ~ 30 Å

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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7.5 m

FRAMEWORK SILICATE MINERALS

Quartz and feldspar are very common rock-forming minerals, and their
frameworks are abundant in soils. Particles of framework minerals are approximately
equidimensional because of the nature of their structure.
Quartz is one of the minerals which can resist weathering the most.
Feldspars can be weathered to form clay minerals. Thus, these minerals sometimes
find place in clay and silt-size particles.

2. SOIL–WATER SYSTEM
Mass-derived forces on coarse-grained soils may not have a significant effect
when they come in contact with water except for a reduction in voids due to
submergence. But surface derived forces of fine-grained soils play a vital role when
they come in contact with water.

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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The surfaces of clay particles carry a net negative charge. This results from any
one of the combinations of the following factors (Lambe and Whitman, 1979):
(i) isomorphous substitution,

(ii) surface dissociation of hydroxyl ions,

(iii) absence of cations in the crystal lattice,

(iv) adsorption of anions, and

(v) presence of organic matter.

Isomorphous substitution is the most significant of all the five factors.

The edges of a clay particle may have a positive or a negative charge. Because
of net negative surface charges, the clay mineral particles repel each other, but edge-
to-surface attraction is possible. However, the particles will attract cations (positive
ions).
When water comes in contact with clay particles, the net negative charge of the
mineral attracts the cation in the water to the surface of the mineral. Additional water
molecules are also attracted towards the edges.
The nature of water immediately surrounding a clay particle is more intense and is
believed to possess properties different from liquid water. Further, to balance the
negative charges beyond the surface layer of molecules surrounding the particles,
more cations are attracted. As the effect of attraction decreases with distance from the
surface, there is no attraction and the pore water is normal.
The distance from the surface of the particle to the limit of attraction is termed the
diffuse double layer (Fig. 1.3).

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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The water contained in the diffuse double layer and adjacent to the soil particle is
termed the rigid layer.
The cations in the diffuse double layer are not permanently attached to the
surface of clay particles and can be replaced by other cations.
For example, if a soil with sodium ions is leached with potassium chloride solution,
most of the sodium ions will be replaced by potassium ions.
This transformation is known as cation or base exchange, and the ions involved in
the replacement are called exchangeable ions. Such a transformation has a significant
effect on the behavior of clayey soils.

 shape of a clay particle is plately.

 The net charge at the face of clay particle is (-ve).
 There are (+ve) charge at edges of a clay particle.
 There are (+ve) ions (cautions) from salts in water, also the water molecules are
dipolar or dipoles.

Exchangeable Ions : a soil particle in nature attracts ions to neutralize its net charge,
these ions are weakly held on the particle surface and can be replaced by other ions.
Al+3 >ca+2 >Mg +2 >NH4+ >K +>H+ >Na+ >Li+

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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Double Layer: describes all the water hold to clay particle by attractive force.
Adsorbed water: the innermost layer of double layer water which is held very strongly
by clay.

Thickness of the double layer: the distance from the surface required to neutralize
the net charge on the particle or the distance over which there is electrical potential.

3. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CLAYS

Physico-chemical contributions of soils and the intrinsic forces acting in the soil–
water system are of utmost importance for a better understanding of the deformation
and strength characteristics of the soil.
This subject of physico-chemical properties is a common topic of discussion in
colloidal chemistry, mineralogy, soil physics, and soil mechanics.

3.1 Characteristics of Electrolytes

Substances that form ions in water solutions are called electrolytes. Substances
which ionize completely are called strong electrolytes, and others which ionize slightly
are called weak electrolytes.
Substances which do not conduct electricity are called non-electrolytes. Most of
the salts and all soluble metal hydroxides are strong electrolytes. Bases are weak
electrolytes.
Dielectric constant is a measure of a material’s ability to perform as an insulator.
The higher the dielectric constant of a material, the larger its insulating capacity.
Compared to other liquids, water has a high dielectric constant. This is the reason for
water having great solvent power for strong electrolytes.
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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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Zeta potential is the electric potential developed at the solid–liquid interface in
response to movement of colloidal particles. The magnitude of the zeta potential
depends on the thickness of the double layer. Zeta potential depends on ion types,
temperature, adsorption, particle size, shape of particles, and pH value.

3.2 Electrochemical Characteristics

Interaction with the pore fluid occurs on the solid’s surface. The surfaces of the soil
solids may affect the water structure due to the presence or absence of interaction.
The essential components of a soil–water system are as follows:

1. Surfaces of the soil mineral present with their characteristic geometry and electric
patterns.
2. Location of cations so as to maintain equilibrium between the kinetic dispersive
forces and the Coulombic attractive forces.
3. Presence of water molecules with different densities from the solid surfaces.
4. Soil–water interaction as a complex phenomenon comprising ion-exchange,
leaching, osmotic hydration, adsorption, heat-of-wetting, and oxidation–reduction
reactions.

Soil equilibrium conditions differ depending on liquid water and water vapour. Even
at the same water contact, the structure and physico-chemical properties of a soil–
water system may differ considerably. This may depend on the flow path from which
this moisture content has been attained.

Soil–water interaction is a complex phenomenon, which may be still more

complicated if polluted water is involved. Polluted water may be gravity water or
environmental water.
Gravity water depends on the dissolved ions and molecules. Environmental water
depends on pore fluid character, temperature, and pressure.

3.3 Characteristics of Bacteria

Bacteria are single-cell forms. Most bacteria exist at a shallow depth from the
ground surface. The activity of bacteria depends on the availability of nutrients,
microorganic types, substrate composition, and temperature. Bacteria may cause a soil
to change behavior in three possible ways, viz., change the soil–water structure,
change the characteristic of the pore fluid, or change through decomposition of soil
constituents.

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Water Resources& Dams Eng. Dept. Soil Phsics Mr. Ahmed Amin Al Hity
Collage of Engineering 2nd Stage Lecture no. 5
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3.4 Electrokinetic Phenomena
In order to know the water and soil properties, electric current is passed into the
soil mass.
The interaction of soil and electricity depends on size of particle, soil structure, soil
surface condition, pore fluid, and ion-exchange capacity. Soil–electricity interaction
depends on whether the soil is dry or moist.
In a soil–water system, fluid flow caused by electrical potential is called electric
conductivity. Such a movement of fluid under electric potential is called electrokinetic
phenomena. These phenomena may be categorized under two groups:

1. Phenomena between soil particles: In this case, the fluid flows from one electrode to
another electrode through the voids of the soil and the soil particles remain stagnant.
This phenomenon is referred to as electro-osmosis (dealt in detail elsewhere.

2. Phenomena in clay suspensions: In this case, soil particles in a clay suspension are
attracted or repelled from one another; e.g., negatively charged particles move toward
an anode in a soil suspension. This phenomenon is referred to a electrophoresis. Both
these methods are effectively used in de-watering, soil densification, etc., in the field of
ground improvement.

3.5 Characteristics of Heat

Heat is a form of energy which may be induced into the soil mass through man-
made activities or due to natural causes.
The man-made sources are heat released from steam pipes, electrical cable lines,
and heat pump systems and heat caused due to environmental wastes .
Natural sources include solar and geothermal heat.
Thermal conductivity is synonymous to hydraulic conductivity. Thermal
conductivity of soil is defined as the quantity of heat flowing due to unit thermal
gradient in unit time.
The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity, which is a
measure of a material’s ability to resist heat flow.
In a saturated soil–water system, increase in temperature decreases the bound water
and increases the free water and decreases the viscosity of the free water.
This may be true for a limited range of temperature in a clay–water system. Under
high temperature conditions in a clay–water system, dispersion or flocculation may
occur depending on exchangeable ions and type of clay mineral.

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