A.

Geologic Hazards
What are three geological hazards?
Geological hazards (or geohazards) are the results of natural, active geologic processes. They can be hazardous
to people or infrastructure, or they may be occurring naturally in remote areas with no hazardous impact.
Geohazards include: volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, mudslides or landslides, avalanches, glacial surges and
outburst floods, tsunamis, and other land collapses due to thawing permafrost.

Often, geohazards occur rapidly and without much warning, which increases the need for and importance of
long-term monitoring of high-risk areas such as volcanoes, active landslides or debris flows, or areas where
permafrost is known to be thawing.
Geohazard Terminology
Landslide
a geologic feature where a mass of earth or rock moves down a slope or separates from a rock face. Landslides
can occur over time or all at once and if the earth slides into the ocean can result in a tsunami.

Debris Flow
a moving mass of earth (mud, soil, sand, rock, water) that travels down a slope. Debris flows often coincide with
heavy rain and flash flooding.

Outburst Flood
an event where a glacially dammed lake breaks through the blockage and results in a sudden and massive flood
as the lake drains.
What are the common geologic hazards?
Informed land-use decisions require information about California’s geologic and seismic hazards. Most local
governments and many state agencies lack expertise or information about such hazards and, therefore, must
rely on the California Geological Survey to provide such information. Emergency response officials require
geologic hazards information to effectively and efficiently plan for future geologic events and develop response
activities to such disasters.
The primary geologic hazards of concern in California are:

 Seismic hazards related to earthquakes, including ground rupture/faulting, liquefaction, strong motion,

and tsunami.
 Landslides of all kinds, including seismically-triggered landslides, debris flows, mud flows, and rock falls.

 Mineral hazards such as asbestos, radon, and mercury.

 Volcanic hazards, such as ash fall, lava flows, lahars, pyroclastic flows, toxic gases, and volcanic
landslides.
CGS identifies where significant geologic hazards exist or are likely to exist so that informed land use and
emergency response planning decisions can be made. These decisions will reduce or mitigate the dangers to
life, property and public safety resulting from such hazards.
CGS Geologic Hazards Programs and Projects

Seismic Hazards Program

The Seismic Hazards Program delineates areas prone to ground failure and other earthquake-related hazards
including soil liquefaction (the failure of water-saturated soil), earthquake-induced landslides, surface fault
rupture, and tsunami inundation.
The program maps known seismic hazards, and designates zones of required investigation that identify areas
where a site-specific hazard study and report with recommended countermeasures must be completed before a
work permit is approved to construct buildings.
For tsunami hazards, CGS works closely with CalOES and the Tsunami Research Center at the University of
Southern California to produce statewide tsunami inundation maps and preparedness information for California.
CGS is also the Scientific Representative for California on the National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program
Coordinating Committee, a state and federal cooperative responsible for developing policies and standards for
tsunami mitigation efforts in the United States and its territories.
California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program and Earthquake Engineering

The California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program (CSMIP) records the strong shaking of the ground and in
structures during earthquakes throughout California. The measured ground strong shaking is used immediately
after an event to assist in emergency response by agencies like CalOES. Structural measurements are studied
after events to analyze the performance of structures, with the goal of mitigating future earthquake impacts
through improved building codes for safer, earthquake-resistant structures.
Landslide Hazard Assessment, Mapping, and Disaster Response

CGS provides maps and information on landslides, erosion, and sedimentation to help guide land-use decisions,
to help preserve water quality and fish habitat, and to evaluate the severity of landslide hazards throughout
California. CGS also provides technical input and advice to the California Governor's Office of Emergency
Services (CalOES) during and immediately following major landsliding events, and immediately following major
wildfires in anticipation of post-fire debris flows.
Mineral Hazards Project

CGS provides maps, technical information and advice, and monitors activities about minerals-related
environmental and public health issues such as naturally-occurring asbestos, mercury, and radon.

What are the examples of geological hazards?

Geological Natural Hazards
Geological natural hazards are for example earthquakes, land slides, sinkholes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis.

Map showing earthquake prone areas. (Map: Konsortium u.a. GFZ, ETH, USGS)
App (Androite) free of charge. (Illustration: GFZ)
Tsunami warning sign, Indonesia (Photo: CEphoto, Uwe Aranas/CC-BY-SA-3.0/Wikimedia)
Tsunami early warning centre, Indonesia (Photo: A. Helm/GFZ)
Map showing earthquake prone areas. (Map: Konsortium u.a. GFZ, ETH, USGS)
App (Androite) free of charge. (Illustration: GFZ)
Tsunami warning sign, Indonesia (Photo: CEphoto, Uwe Aranas/CC-BY-SA-3.0/Wikimedia)
Tsunami early warning centre, Indonesia (Photo: A. Helm/GFZ)
Map showing earthquake prone areas. (Map: Konsortium u.a. GFZ, ETH, USGS)
Geological natural hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are triggered by activities taking place in
the earth's interior. Gravitational natural hazards are defined as landslides, rockfall, debris flows or avalanches,
since rock, mud or snow masses slide down the slope due to gravity. They can be caused by earthquakes or by
extreme weather conditions. Meteorological natural hazards are weather-related hazards such as heat, drought,
forest fires, storms, floods, high water or heavy rain.
For risk and disaster management, chain reactions, domino effects and cascade effects in particular are a major
challenge, since correlations or causes are not always (early) recognizable and when very complex
precautionary measures have to be taken. An example of such chains of events was the earthquake off the
Japanese coast on March 11, 2011. The tsunami triggered by this event caused severe damage to the nuclear
power plant in Fukushima. This led to a nuclear accident.
Not all natural hazards can be detected or even predicted early on. Nevertheless, there are, for example,
construction measures to protect against some of these natural hazards. However, concrete options for action
can also be derived from these measures in order to quickly get to safety, to initiate evacuation measures or to
act with foresight and planning. In this way, it is possible to avoid settling in flood areas, to build dikes, to install
safety nets on slopes or to regularly check water levels. In addition, sensor technologies are now available that
provide early information about an imminent danger or trigger an alarm if a measured value is exceeded, so that
suitable protective measures can be initiated immediately. Inclinometers for slopes at risk of slipping or more
complex early warning technologies such as those used for the early detection of tsunamis are worth mentioning
here. There is a classic three-step procedure for the systematic recording of risks and the establishment of an
associated risk management system, which is used to build up a corresponding precautionary system to cope
with the crisis situation and to provide aftercare. This three-step procedure consists of the:
1. risk analysis: In this phase, possible dangers are identified and associated with possible damages that may
result from the dangers. The question "What can or could happen?" is the main focus here. Often different
scenarios (worst-case/best-case) are used here, which are oriented along the severity of an event.
2. risk assessment: Here the question "What may happen?" is central. This is where the risk situation and the
assessment of possible dangers from the perspective of society are carried out. For example, what preventive
measures does society expect, and what should be taken first in the event of damage? The answers to these
questions form the basis for the third phase.
3. action planning: "Where can we start concretely, what needs to be done? These questions lead to the
concrete action level. Based on the available financial, technical and human resources (e.g. existing know-how),
it is now decided which measures are suitable and feasible to minimize existing risks for the population.
Economically strong industrial nations usually have better opportunities to develop costly adaptation strategies
and precautionary measures for impending natural disasters at an early stage. For example, they can raise and
reinforce dikes at an early stage if there is a medium or long-term threat of sea-level rise. These opportunities,
which require high investments, are often not available to poorer societies. The focus there is often on improving
living standards. But here, too, measures can be taken to significantly increase the chances of survival in the
event of a disaster. This is more a matter of developing coping strategies. Here, too, these may include technical
and structural protective measures, but also more extensive measures such as risk education, the creation of risk
awareness, the preparation of risk and hazard maps, but also the marking of escape routes. All these are
important precautionary measures to minimize the risk of natural hazards.
What do you do during geological hazards?

Earthquake
Despite its rarity, an earthquake is extremely destructive, especially in urban areas. Ground shaking is the major
cause of damage, but secondary effects like ground displacement, tsunamis, liquefaction, fire, and landslides
may occur. Here are the practical ways you can do before, during, and after an earthquake:

Before an Earthquake

 Develop a disaster plan. Determine the “safe places” in your house. A safe place could be under a
sturdy table or against an interior wall away from windows or tall furniture.

 Practice "drop, cover, and hold on" in the safe place. Drop under a sturdy desk or table, take cover, and
hold on.

 Discuss earthquake with your family and/or housemates. Everyone should know what to do in case the
disaster strikes.

 Discuss earthquake with your family and/or housemates. Everyone should know what to do in case the
disaster strikes.

 Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit, clothes, a
battery-operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries.

During an Earthquake

B. Wherever you are, take cover immediately.

C. If you are outdoors, go to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and power lines.l
the earthquake stops. Stay away from windows, tall furniture, and light fixtures. Shattered glass and
heavy objects may hurt you.

D. If you are outdoors, go to an open area away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and lines.

E. If you are in a vehicle, pull over to a safe place, avoiding anything that can collapse. Stay inside the
vehicle with your seat belt fastened until the shaking stops.

After an Earthquake

1. Check yourself for injuries.

2. Help injured or trapped persons if you can.

3. Be prepared for aftershocks. Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that follow the main earthquake and
can cause further damage to weakened buildings.

4. Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, and gasoline immediately.

5. Open cabinet doors cautiously. Contents may have been shifted during the shaking.

6. Listen to the radio or television for more information from authorities.

7. Stay out of damaged buildings.

8. If you are in a coastal area, move to a higher ground. The earthquake may trigger tsunamis.

9. If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes, be aware of landslide. Soil and rocks may be
loosened by the earthquake.

Learn about it!

Volcanic eruption

A volcanic eruption is impossible to stop, but it can be managed. Its hazards include lahar, pyroclastic flow,
volcanic gases, and tephra fall. Here are the practical ways that must be done before, during, and after a
volcanic eruption:

Before a Volcanic Eruption

1. Prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable food, water, first aid kit, clothes, a
battery-operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries. Also, include masks and a pair of goggles for
each member of the family.

2. Make an emergency plan. Each member of the family must know what to do and how to contact one
another when the disaster strikes.

3. Learn about your community's risk from hazards of volcanic eruptions.

4. For government institutions, set-up an exclusion zone around a volcano for safety and crowd control. An
exclusion zone is a location where specific activities are prohibited.

During a Volcanic Eruption

1. Follow the evacuation orders issued by government officials and evacuate immediately to avoid flying
debris, hot gases, volcano blast, and lava flow.
2. Be aware of mudflows and lahar. The danger of these hazards increases near tributaries. They can flow
faster than you can walk or run. Look upstream when crossing a bridge and do not cross it when a
mudflow is approaching.

3. Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your nose and mouth to prevent inhaling volcanic gases.
Also, cover your skin to protect yourself from ashfall.

4. If you are unable to evacuate, remain indoors with doors, windows, and ventilation closed until the ash
settles.

5. Listen to the radio for the latest emergency information.

After a Volcanic Eruption

1. Stay in the evacuation center until the authorities say that it is safe to go back home.

2. Help in cleaning and checking the damages brought by volcanic eruption hazards.

3. When cleaning ashes or mudflows at home, use a dust mask to cover your nose and mouth. Seek
advice from the authorities regarding the disposal of volcanic ash in your community.

Learn about it! Landslide

Landslide hazards include debris flow, rock fall, and mud flow. Here are the practical ways you can do before,
during, and after a landslide:

Before a Landslide

1. Have your parents ask for a ground assessment of your property.

2. Know the patterns of storm-water drainage near your home. Note where runoff water converges, and
avoid these places during a storm.

3. Learn about the emergency response and evacuation plans for your area during a landslide.

4. When you suspect imminent landslide danger, contact the emergency response team of your
community immediately. Evacuate immediately and inform neighbors who might be at risk.

5. Consider relocation if living in an area vulnerable to landslides.

During a Landslide
1. Stay alert and awake. Many landslide fatalities occur when people are sleeping.

2. Stay away from the path of any landslide hazards. If you suspect imminent danger, evacuate
immediately.

3. If caught in a rock fall and escape is not possible, roll into a ball to protect your head.

After a Landslide

1. Stay away from the landslide area.

2. Listen to local radio for the latest emergency information.

3. Check for injured or trapped persons near the landslide, without entering the area. Direct the rescuers to
their locations.

4. Replant the damaged ground as soon as possible to avoid landslides in the future.

Make an emergency plan with your family. Then prepare an emergency supply kit. It must include non-perishable
food, water, first aid kit, clothes, a battery-operated radio, flashlights, and extra batteries. Also, include masks
and a pair of goggles for each member of the family.

Sources:
https://www.nps.gov/subjects/aknatureandscience/geohazards.htm
https://www.conservation.ca.gov/index/Pages/Disclaimer.aspx
https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/geohazards
https://www.eskp.de/en/basic-knowledge/natural-hazards/geological-natural-hazards-935132/
B. Resource Exploitation

 The Earth's natural resources are vital to the survival and development of the human population.
However, these resources are limited by the Earth's capability to renew them. Freshwater, forests and
harvesting products are renewable, provided that exploitation does not exceed regeneration. Fossil
fuels and metal ores are non-renewable. Although many effects of overexploitation are felt locally, the
growing interdependence of nations, and international trade in natural resources, make their demand
and sustainable management a global issue. This chapter focuses on major developments in the use of
renewable and non-renewable resources in Europe in the context of global trends. Available statistics to
monitor changes in the use of natural resources at the global and European levels are described in Box
13A. The use of natural resources by sectors of activity are detailed in Part IV of this report (Chapters
19 to 26).
1. RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Food, water, forests and wildlife are all renewable resources. For resource use to be sustainable, the
consumption rate should be maintained within the capacity of the natural systems to regenerate themselves.
Current rates of depletion of the Earth's stocks of renewable resources and levels of pressure imposed on their
regenerative capacity by means of production and consumption might already be, in some cases, beyond this
threshold.
2. NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Minerals, oil, gas and coal are non-renewable resources: their use as materials and energy sources leads to
depletion of the Earth's reserves. However, the time period during which reserves can be available can be
extended by recycling or improving the efficiency of use. Eventually, limitations to the extent to which more
efficient processes may expand the use of non-renewable resources stocks will be reached, requiring
substitution with renewable resources and restrictions on the volume of activities that can be sustained by
existing stocks.
Source:
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html
C. Land use and Misuse

 Irregular and unsound urban development is the common problem of all urban settlements today. The
increasing continuation of this problem is inevitable in this order, where the economy-ecology balance is
not taken into consideration and economic concerns always win.
 Urban growth, the density of which is continuing increasingly with the population increase that has taken
place in urban areas in the recent years, leads to the vanishing of an extremely limited number of
natural resources and to the occurrence of irregular and unsound urban areas, along with impairing the
agricultural lands (Brueckner et al., 2001).
 When considered from another perspective, it might be stated that urbanization gained momentum with
the industrial revolution. When urbanization and industrialization are evaluated together in this context, it
follows that the share of industrialization in the concentration of the population in urban areas and in the
environmental pressure it creates is a fact which cannot be ignored (Aksu, 2011). The technological
development, the population increase and the rapid change in cities that particularly occurred upon the
industrial revolution have upset the ecological balance; consequently, the process of rapid degradation
of natural resources commenced. Having continued with a gradual increase in the need for new living
spaces and areas of use, this process of degradation has substantially altered the working of the
ecosystem with either conscious or unconscious planning.
 It is impossible to make up for the natural resources which have been used up due to the degraded
ecosystem; furthermore, the vital impacts of this process are increasing day by day. The cities and
industrial areas (technoecosystems) which continue to develop on natural areas especially due to the
shortcomings/mistakes in city planning are striking as one of the most important results of this situation.
 Technoecosystems are ecosystems which occur with the rearrangement of natural ecosystems and on
which urban-industrial societies live. Being relatively new on the earth, these systems provide their
power from advanced technologies and non-self-renewing energy resources. In order for urban-
industrial formations to survive on the earth with limited resources, it is imperative that they be made
more compatible with the natural ecosystem than that of today and that an order which benefits both
parties be created without the impairment of the working of the ecosystem (Odum and Barrett, 2008).
 In conclusion, upon the impairment of the working of the ecosystem, the fertile agricultural lands which
are particularly impossible to reclaim have been confronted with the danger of degradation and
vanishing, along with the natural areas that must absolutely be conserved within the ecosystem.
Therefore, preservation of the ecological balance and the concept of ecological landscape planning that
developed accordingly are the primary issues on which one must strongly dwell today.
 Considering the principle of integration of the urban ecosystem with the natural ecosystem, this study
dwells on the impacts of improper use due to wrong urban development on the natural environment and
the concept of ecological landscape planning. Within this scope, the subjects “Improper Land Use,
Planning and the Planning Hierarchy in Turkey, Ecological/Environmentally-Sensitive Landscape
Planning and its Importance, and the Relationship between Sustainable Urbanization and Ecological
Planning” were included in the study.
  At the next stage of the study, the losses of fertile agricultural lands resulting from the lands which were
opened to development at the city center of Çanakkale, selected in order to explain the matter with a
concrete example, are contained in the study with numerical expressions and figures. At the final stage,
an overall evaluation of the planning hierarchy on the urban scale in our country was made, and the
legal and administrative gaps in the improper use of the land were investigated thoroughly. Accordingly,
the reasons for, the consequences of and the solutions to improper land uses frequently taking place in
urban area planning were discussed.
Improper land use

 The importance attached, and the priority given, to the environment and to urban ecological planning
varies by society. Furthermore, it is possible to see the variations in the perspectives of the environment
at various stages. Urban development is defined with the increase in production and consumption
following the industrial revolution with the assumption that the natural resources were endless and with
intensive construction activities. This stage involves some extravagant energy and land use at this
stage. The growth of the city against agricultural lands is regarded as an essential indication of
development (Eke, 2000).
 Especially the process of metropolitanization causes cities to grow rapidly in the space and sprawl over
extensive areas and to predominate, economically and socially, in all surrounding urban and rural
communities. As a result of this, the natural resources remaining within the metropolitan area enter the
process of being used up rapidly. This manifests itself with the unplanned and uncontrolled growth
particularly against the rapid population increase in the metropolises of developing countries (Sezgin
and Varol, 2012).
 By the phenomenon of urbanization which appeared in this process of growth, the sprawl of cities, the
absolute necessity for establishing new settlements and the fact that urban lands could easily be turned
into a matter of speculation resulted in the rapid inclusion of fertile agricultural lands in urban lands
(Keleş and Hamamcı, 1993).
 The rapid decrease in agricultural lands upon rapid urbanization and industrialization is a phenomenon
which is observed worldwide besides in our country. The construction activities of industrial
establishments, roads which are their infrastructure, sports facilities and entertainment centers take
place in fertile agricultural lands generally with the justification that they bring fewer economic losses
(Çepel, 2008).
 The reasons for improper use, meaning the use of agricultural land for nonagricultural purposes, include
the gradual increase in urbanization, the rapidly developing industry and investments accordingly, and,
finally, the gaps in laws and regulations. The economic earnings that develop depending on the
construction of houses in rapidly growing areas where urban development is intensively felt are always
higher and less risky than the yield of the activities to be carried out in agricultural lands, which
manifests itself as the most primary reason why such areas are preferred as urban settlements.
 Improper use generally takes place on the fertile agricultural lands which are generally Class I to Class
IV agricultural lands, where any plant can grow, which are plain, which are well-drained, where the soil
depth is high, and which definitely should not be used for nonagricultural purposes.
 In this way, urbanization, one of the most serious threats for the world’s biodiversity, most dramatically
and permanently alters land use in our country, as it does worldwide (Ricketts and Imhoff, 2003; Yli-
Pelkonen and Niemelä, 2006).
 Upon the industrial branch which developed afterwards, the identification of these lands, which
continued to exist as urban development areas, as areas convenient for any nonagricultural investment
and their use for these purposes were supported. Since no laws or regulations to prevent all these
things and to protect fertile agricultural lands have been made or since, even if they have been made,
they lack the necessary restrictions, the improper use of fertile agricultural lands continues as a great
national problem.
Improving land use

 THE CAUSES OF LAND MISUSE RANGE FROM INAPPROPRIATE LAND TENURE SYSTEMS TO
LACK OF FARM INPUTS. SOLUTIONS MAY MEAN CHANGING AGRICULTURAL POLICIES,
INTRODUCING NEW TECHNOLOGIES OR EVEN RELOCATING FARMERS ON NEW LAND
 Land degradation is caused primarily by the misuse of land. It follows that an examination of the causes
of misuse is essential if lasting solutions to continent-wide degradation are to be found.
Evaluating land resources

 Even where information is already available, particularly about soils and climate, other aspects may call
for surveys and inventories to be made (see box).
 It is at this stage that land-use planning comes into its own. Once sufficient data have been
accumulated, it becomes possible to identify areas vulnerable to degradation. These may be priority
areas for land rehabilitation. The way is then open to what may be the most important step in the whole
analysis - an investigation into the reasons why land is being misused in these areas.
Identifying the causes of land misuse

 The most difficult but most important step in the whole process is to identify factors that can be
manipulated by government to reverse the process of land degradation and improve land use. A variety
of causes may be identified: growing the wrong crop on the wrong land; the land tenure system; the
pricing structure for agricultural products; subsidies; incentives; taxes; or even outmoded laws or social
customs. Governments may find it difficult to remove some constraints and changes may have to be
phased in over a period of time. However, even in the worst situation, where none of the basic changes
necessary to overcome the basic problem can be made, it is important that the reasons for the problems
be understood. Failure to do so can waste a great deal of time, effort and money.
Improving land use: the options
On the other hand, if governments understand why land degradation is occurring, it may be possible to introduce
changes gradually and inexpensively into the agricultural system that will encourage farmers to take up more
productive and sustainable forms of land use.
At best, this information will illuminate the strategies required to initiate a new conservation programme. At worst
it will prevent countries embarking on new schemes which, because they treat the symptoms and not the causes,
are likely to fail. Either way, the results will be beneficial and the options open to countries threatened with large-
scale degradation will be clarified.
Implementing the improvements
Reforming agricultural strategies
Agricultural policies have a profound effect on land-use patterns. Decisions to subsidize the production of certain
crops or inputs are, of course, intended to alter land-use patterns and to encourage producers to make their
contributions in areas where there is an obvious national need. Thus countries with foreign exchange shortages
seek to encourage the production of cash crops; those where food imports are high tend to encourage the
production of food crops; but where powdered milk or other dairy products, for example, are available cheaply as
a result of surpluses in developed countries, dairy production is discouraged.
The introduction of modern inputs, such as fertilizers and seeds, can radically improve land use - the increased
yields obtained allow farmers to adopt more appropriate farming techniques that protect tire soil better and put
new heart into the land. Land degredation rates then reduce.
These and other measures such as agricultural import restrictions and export subsidies must be carefully
analysed to clarify their effects on land-use patterns and rates of degradation. Where the effects are detrimental
to conservation, alternative agricultural strategies must be sought.

Land resource data bases and land-use planning

Reliable data on land resources - including soils, climate, vegetation and topography - are needed if sound land-
use and conservation policies are to he developed. Some of these data are more widely available than is
generally realized. However, the data are usually fragmented, of different scales and reliability and are stored in
different ministries, libraries and universities.
The first major task is to find out what data are available and where they are located. The second is to gather
existing data together, arrange them in a usable form, assess their utility and decide what additional data still
need to be gathered. Even countries which have already carried out a land resources data survey are likely to
find that more data of one kind or another are needed.
With computers becoming more readily available and easier to use, it is now possible for any country to
establish its own Geographic Information System (GIS) for the assembly, storage and processing of natural
resources data. With such a system all relevant data can be stored in one place, added to as more and better
data become available and quickly processed into usable forms. All countries should consider establishing their
own GIS.
Other more traditional systems of gathering, compiling, storing and processing natural resources data should not
be overlooked. As a minimum, each country should establish a small office or operations centre which is given
responsibility for recording what relevant data are available and where they may be located.
When sufficient data have been accumulated, they can be used in land-use planning exercises to identify priority
areas for land rehabilitation. These areas can then be examined more intensively and strategies developed to
improve land-use patterns.

Introducing new technologies

The introduction of new technologies can radically change land use. Better equipment, improved fertilizers and
new strains of crops and grasses can all make major contributions. It is now thought, for example, that Vetiver
grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) could be invaluable in soil and moisture conservation. The grass, a fire-resistant
perennial that grows well in both humid and arid climates, can be planted as a contour hedge to stop erosion and
improve water conservation. World Bank studies indicate that it could be used for planting along contours, field
boundaries, river banks, gully sides and other waste areas.
New approaches to conservation include techniques that may have been long neglected. Farmers in Burkina
Faso, for example, have been taught to construct micro-catchments round trees planted for the protection of
sloping land and fuelwood. Upland rice yields of 1 200 kg/ha were obtained in these micro-catchments, with
yields doubling during a period when average annual rainfall halved. Elsewhere farmers have made good returns
from agroforestry techniques such as alley cropping. Farmers need little persuading to adopt technologies that
promise immediate benefits such as these.

Conservation and development: how Lesotho is tackling the problem

how Lesotho is tackling the problem
The government of Lesotho has decided to tackle the country's twin problems of severe erosion and lack of
agricultural development through a programme of watershed development. In 1987 FAO was requested to help
develop a strategy for this programme.
A small team of consultants and national specialists reviewed the problems and the country's past experiences
in the area, and then developed a strategy based on the following elements:
• At national level, government policy (what government wants to happen) is combined with an assessment of
the physical resources (what is possible with the given climate and land) to provide a National Plan for
Agricultural Development which will be approved at cabinet level. This plan will provide a broad picture of what
is wanted and is possible over a time span of 10 to 15 years.
• At district level, the national plan will form the basis for District Agricultural Development Plans where inputs
will include a reconstructed agricultural department of field services; the Ministry of Interior District Secretary,
District Council and Chiefs; donor inputs to strengthen management; and other appropriate ministries. The
District Agricultural Development Plan will be a rolling five-year plan which will be reviewed, revised and updated
every twelve months.
• At local level, the District Agricultural Development Plan provides a framework for operational plans prepared
on the basis of watersheds or sub-watersheds. These plans will be sufficiently flexible to cover sub-districts,
groups of villages or individual villages so that their action areas can be fitted to watershed or sub-watershed
boundaries. The involvement of the local community will be an essential feature of planning at this level and
village development committees will work with as many individual and informal groups and associations as
possible, with the assistance of government officials.
Conservation and development: how Lesotho is tackling the problem
Coordination of funding and donor agencies
This framework of national, regional and community planning should provide the basis for donor activities.
Future donor projects and inputs would be the components of an agreed and established long-term programme
of soil conservation, whether they were intended to support activities at national, district or community levels.
This would give donors a better sense of direction and purpose, and would lead to the more effective use of both
government and donor resources.

Encouraging the use of farm inputs

In more than 85 percent of African countries, mineral-fertilizer use is still below 10 kg/ha/annum, in spite of
thousands of trials showing that yields can be doubled or trebled by increasing fertilizer usage.
Schemes that encourage the use of farm inputs such as fertilizer, new crop and livestock varieties, integrated
pest control measures and mechanization tend to increase production sharply. Increased production takes the
pressure off small-scale farmers to use their land ever more intensively. This reduces the chance of the land
being misused or the need to cultivate marginal land. Particular attention is being paid to the use of nitrogen-
fixing species to increase fertility, and organic matter as an alternative or supplement to the use of mineral
fertilizer.
Land tenure
Systems of land tenure often cause the misuse of land, but they are more difficult to alter. An example from East
Africa, however, shows how effective a relatively simple legal change can be in improving land use.
Where traditional and secure land tenure systems held sway among the Chaga farmers on Mount Kiliminjaro,
trees were planted and soil protected. On Mount Kenya, however, insecurity of tenure led farmers to dig ditches
to delineate their plots and to attempt to establish ownership. These ditches, which served as run-off drains, led
to severe erosion and gully formation. Huge conservation projects failed to halt the degradation that ensued. Yet
today the region is terraced, hedges mark land boundaries, and grassed bunds have been built to reduce
erosion.
One reason was that Kenya invested in a land tenure reform programme that vested secure rights in the small
farmer. Another was that the courts decided not to accept ditch boundaries as proof of property delineation.
Diversifying rural incomes
One effective way of taking pressure off over-cultivated land is to provide rural populations with jobs and incomes
that depend less directly on soil cultivation. In recent years many small-scale projects have shown that rural
populations can be successfully provided with alternative incomes through the introduction of activities such as
poultry breeding, honey production and fabrication of simple furniture and household utensils from locally
available materials.
Relocating land users
Where all else fails, consideration must sometimes be given to relocating land users to areas where degradation
is less severe and yields potentially higher. Relocation can bring eventual benefits to those who are moved, as
well as new life to the land they have left. Relocation schemes need to be voluntary but should be backed by
attractive economic incentives.
There are several areas in Africa where relocation may become necessary. An FAO assessment mission to
Ethiopia's central highland area in 1983 reported: "Clearly the land has a finite human carrying capacity... it is
doubtful that technology can both catch up and stay ahead of current population growth in the highlands and
adequately provide for basic human needs and environmental stabilization. This is an inescapable reality."

Source:
http://www.fao.org/3/z5700e/z5700e07.htm#:~:text=Identifying%20the%20causes%20of%20land
%20misuse&text=A%20variety%20of%20causes%20may,outmoded%20laws%20or%20social%20customs.
https://www.intechopen.com/books/advances-in-landscape-architecture/impacts-of-improper-land-uses-in-cities-
on-the-natural-environment-and-ecological-landscape-planning

D. Effects of human activity on the ocean and coastal areas

An investigation of the impacts that the human population has had on the coastal zone and also the ways in
which the coastal processes and hazard impact human settlement.

The coastal zone is where about 50% of the planet’s people have chosen to live and this percentage continues to
increase. These billions of people can have profound impacts on this diverse and often fragile environment and
the processes and hazards that characterize the coastal zone can significantly affect humans and their
development and way of life. Topics to be included: The evolution and diversity of global coastlines; coastal
hazards including: 1] hurricanes and storms, El Niños, subduction zone earthquakes and tsunamis,
coastal erosion and inundation; 2] climate change and impacts: sea level rise, changing storm climate and ocean
acidification; 3] runoff and waste discharge: sources and impacts of water pollution including thermal discharges;
nutrients, fertilizers and harmful algal booms; pesticides and other chemical wastes including plastic in the sea;
4] extraction of petroleum and ground water and their impacts: oil in the sea, subsidence and seawater intrusion;
5] invasive species, overfishing and coral reefs.

Negative Human Effects

Habitat Destruction

Virtually all Ocean habitats have been affected in some way via drilling or mining, dredging for aggregates for
concrete and other building materials, destructive anchoring, removal of corals and land “reclamation”.

Carbon Emissions

Since the industrial revolution, humans have increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to levels that have
caused Ocean acidification and Ocean warming, amongst other climate related negative effects.
Chemical Pollution

There have been many disastrous chemical spills at sea and from industry on land, affecting animals
immediately via ingestion, or long term, in changes to reproduction cycles and other biological processes.

Oil Spills

Sadly, oil spills still occur, coating beaches, sinking to smother Ocean plant life and killing a wide variety of birds,
fish and sea mammals.
Noise Pollution

Research shows that underwater noise from construction, shipping and naval vessels significantly impacts the
natural behaviour of cetaceans and many other marine species.  This can be seen when mass beaching events
occur or breeding success is diminished.

Plastic pollution

The world has woken up to the millions of tonnes of plastic that have entered the Ocean over the past 100 years.
The impacts of this scourge will last a lot longer.
Overfishing

In many areas, factory fishing has destroyed local fish stocks, leaving too few adults to breed for the future.

Destructive Fishing

Certain fishing practices not only contribute to overfishing of their target species, but also damage the
environment by dredging the seabed or catching other species that are thrown back dead.
Surface runoff

With increased urbanisation, tarmac and other manmade land surfaces contribute to petrol, diesel and other
harmful chemicals easily flowing into rivers or directly into the Ocean.

Deoxygenation

The increase in the use of fertilisers for agriculture and warming ocean waters has contributed to eutrophication
of the Ocean in certain areas of the world.  This means there is less available dissolved oxygen for native sea
life, which can negatively impact biological processes.

Deep Sea Mining

A new issue facing the Ocean is that of deep sea mining.  The metals required in our laptops, phones and
batteries can be found on the seafloor – but what damage will we do?

But all is not lost…

Despite the negativity surrounding the current state of our Ocean, the good news is that it’s not too late to turn
things around. We just have to take positive steps now.

There are many ways that people around the world are having a positive effect on the Ocean
every day…

Microbead ban

Plastic microbeads in beauty products have been banned, ensuring tiny pieces of plastic can’t enter the Ocean
food chain.

Circular economy

More businesses are becoming involved in circular economy models – this means that more materials are
reused, shared, repaired, refurbished, remanufactured and recycled; thereby creating a closed system and
minimising the use of new resources.
UN Ocean Decade

The United Nations have declared that the next decade will focus on Ocean Science and ecosystem restoration.
Great news for a joined up global effort to protect the Ocean.

Sustainable Development Goals

The global Sustainable Development Goals will protect nature, especially goal 14 “Life Below Water”.
Marine Protected Areas

Increasing the protection of the Ocean via the designation of specially protected areas has had positive impacts
on habitats and fish stocks in many locations.

Banning single use plastics

Many countries have taken steps to ban single use plastic items like straws, drink stirrers and cotton buds.

Meat free Monday

The growth of the Meat Free Monday movement is great for our Ocean.
Voting

There is a shift in voting patterns, with more voters choosing to vote for parties with the better green and blue
credentials.

Sustainable fishing

The Marine Stewardship Council report that in 2019 sales of MSC certified sustainable seafood reached one
million tonnes for the first time and demand for sustainable fish was on the increase.

#thinkocean

We can all be conservationists, and many people are doing their bit at home to protect the Ocean.
Ocean habitat restoration

Around the world, many projects are now seeking to restore marine habitats, such as mangrove and seagrass.

Source:
https://oceanconservationtrust.org/think-ocean/ways-to-think-ocean/
https://www.semesteratsea.org/courses/the-coastal-zone-impacts-and-vulnerability/

E. Effects of human activity on the atmosphere

These key ideas relate to the causes and effects of human-induced climate change.
The potential for human activities to increase the temperature of the Earth through greenhouse gas emissions
has been described and calculated for over a century. Volumes of scientific research across multiple scientific
disciplines agree that humans are warming the climate, and the 2013 IPCC Fourth Assessment
Report states, "Human influence on the climate system is clear. This is evident from the increasing greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere, positive radiative forcing, observed warming, and understanding of the
climate system." (From the IPCC AR5)
There is overwhelming evidence that human activities, especially burning fossil fuels, are leading to increased
levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which in turn amplify the natural
greenhouse effect, causing the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere, ocean, and land surface to increase. That
greenhouse gases "trap" infrared heat is well established through laboratory experiments going back to the mid
1850s when Sir John Tyndall first measured the effect.
The well-documented trend of increasing of CO2 in the atmosphere is caused by the burning of fossil fuels and
massive land cover changes. The "smoking gun" that shows clearly that human activities are responsible for
recent increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is provided by carbon isotopes (carbon atoms of different
atomic weight). These isotopes allow scientists to "fingerprint" the source of the carbon dioxide molecules, which
reveal that the increased CO2 in the atmosphere is caused by fossil fuel burning.
Due to the basic physics of heat-trapping gases and an exponential rise in population and energy consumption,
humans have become a force of nature. Clearly, this is a topic with enormous political, socio-economic and
emotional dimensions, but the scientific results show clearly that:
Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, are altering the climate system.
Human-driven changes in land use and land cover such as deforestation, urbanization, and shifts in vegetation
patterns also alter the climate, resulting in changes to the reflectivity of the Earth surface (albedo), emissions
from burning forests, urban heat island effects and changes in the natural water cycle.
Because the primary cause of recent global climate change is human, the solutions are also within the human
domain.
Because we understand the causes of climate change, that paves the way for effective solutions to be developed
and deployed. 

Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, contributes to the greenhouse effect, which causes
the atmosphere to trap heat, making temperatures rise in the oceans and on the planet. According to the U.S.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have
increased by 38 percent since 1750, while methane concentrations have gone up 148 percent during the same
period. Most scientists attribute this increase to the widespread combustion of fossil fuels.
Depleted Ozone Layer
The ozone layer, a protective covering of the atmosphere, helps to block ultraviolet radiation. In May of 1985,
scientists from the British Antarctic Survey discovered that something was destroying ozone molecules above
Antarctica. Study of the problem traced the destruction to chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting
chemicals, and in 1987, countries around the world signed the Montreal Protocol to discontinue the use of CFCs.
CFCs include chemicals typically found in aerosol sprays, in refrigerants used in air conditioners and in blowing
agents for foam and other packing materials.
Air Pollution
Humans also affect the atmosphere locally through air pollution. Compounds released by fossil fuel combustion
often create ozone molecules at the ground level. This poses a threat to people with breathing difficulties, and
can damage the lungs with long-term exposure. The EPA regularly publishes air quality alerts for affected areas,
and advises people with breathing difficulties or environmental sensitivities to stay inside on days where ozone
concentrations are highest.
Long-Term Effects
Even after banning certain chemicals or cleaning up the air, it will take some time for the atmosphere to heal.
Even though CFCs were banned in the U.S. in 1985, their molecules live a long time in the atmosphere. The
British Antarctic Survey estimates that the hole in the ozone layer may take as many as 50 years to disappear,
provided no new threats to the ozone come into play.
In the same way, the Earth’s ecosystem re-absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere very slowly, which
means that even stabilizing CO2 output levels may not be enough to prevent major atmospheric changes.
Studies by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change suggest that even if human beings cut carbon output
levels by 50 percent, the Earth would still see a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the next century
due to the changes already in motion.

References
National Climate Assessment, 2017, Chapter 1: Our Globally Changing Climate - Key Finding #3: "Many lines of
evidence demonstrate that it is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the
observed warming since the mid-20th century. Formal detection and attribution studies for the period 1951 to
2010 find that the observed global mean surface temperature warming lies in the middle of the range of likely
human contributions to warming over that same period. We find no convincing evidence that natural variability
can account for the amount of global warming observed over the industrial era."

F. Essential concepts for sustaining life on Earth

Sustaining life on earth is one of the biggest problems we are facing right now that is linked to three sustainability
pillars: environment, social, economic. Living in harmony with nature requires an understanding of the concept of
a sustainable community and accessibility to clean air, pure water, and fertile soil. Despite our technological and
scientific advances, we are dependent on this life support system (Tukker et al. 2014). Clean air refers to the
degree to which air is clean enough for living organisms to remain healthy. Good water quality describes the
conditions of water including biological, chemical, and physical characteristics that are suitable for use for a
particular purpose (Ashraf and Sarfraz 2016). Another important element of environment is soil fertility that refers
to the ability of a soil to sustain plant growth and provide shelter to organisms. Changes to these environmental
elements will disturb the balance of our ecosystem (Fig. 1). Polluted air, contaminated water supply, and infertile
soil pose serious risks to humans and the environment, and as a result of these changes, we are now facing big
challenges in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Proactive strategies to prevent and mitigate
these problems from getting more severe are required in order to adapt on how to manage and sustain human
life on earth (Rulli et al. 2013). Issues of global warming, water availability, and soil degradation are not only
visible in rural areas but also include urban areas as well that affected anthropogenic activities. To overcome this
issue, proper and holistic management of the ecosystem needs to be embraced.
Fig. 1
Essential for life on earth: water, air, and soil
Full size image
The aim of this special issue is to provide and share new scientific insights on impacts of climate change, water
pollution, and soil degradation on resources and ecosystem. This Special Issue aims to foster applied research
on diverse topics associated with adaptation and mitigation toward clean air, pure water, and fertile soil.
Furthermore, it is aimed at providing and recommending relevant policy-making decisions and seeking
knowledge for addressing environmental destruction issues toward sustaining life on earth system (Pfister et
al. 2011). Climate resilience and adaptation strategies, improvement of existing water management practices,
and sustainable land transformation could help improve our environment for present and future use. These
efforts can directly furnish to develop or slow down the impacts of environmental degradation and human health
damage. Adaptation strategies and measures can be classified (Tölgyessy 1993) into:
1.
Planning and applying new investments such as reservoirs, irrigation systems, capacity expansions, levees,
water supply, wastewater treatments, and ecosystem restoration.
2.
Monitoring and regulation practices of existing systems to accommodate new conditions (ecology, pollution
control, climate change, population growth).
3.
Maintaining existing systems such as dams, barrages, irrigation systems, canals, pumps, rivers, and wetlands.
4.
Making modifications to water users (rainwater harvesting, water conservation, pricing, regulation, legislation,
basin planning, funding for ecosystem services, stakeholder participation, consumer education, and awareness).
5.
Introducing new green technologies such as desalination, biotechnology, drip irrigation, wastewater reuse,
recycling, and solar panels. In this context, the objective of this Special Issue is to publish high-quality
manuscripts that highlight and focus on practical and theoretical and understanding on sustainable practices for
clean air, pure water, and fertile soil.
References
Ashraf MA, Sarfraz M (2016) Biology and evolution of life science. Saudi J Biol Sci 23(1):S1–S5
Article Google Scholar 
Pfister S, Bayer P, Koehler A, Hellweg S (2011) Projected water consumption in future global agriculture:
scenarios and related impacts. Sci Total Environ 409(20):4206–4216
Article CAS Google Scholar 
Rulli MC, Saviori A, D’Odorico P (2013) Global land and water grabbing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110(3):892–
897
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Tölgyessy J (1993) Chemistry and biology of water, air and soil. Elsevier Science, USA
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Tukker A, Tatyana B, Giljum, S, Arjan DK, Stephan L, Moana S, Konstantin S, Richard W (2014) The global
resource footprint of nations. Carbon, water, land and materials embodied in trade and final consumption
calculated with EXIOBASE 2.1, Leiden/Delft/Vienna/Trondheim