Each piece of writing you do is different, but Secondly, you have to know why you are writing.

Your
there are a few general pieces of advice you purpose affects what you write. Read the question
should remember every time you write carefully and make sure you understand why you are
something. writing.
First of all, you have to know who your reader is. Thirdly, you have to know what type of text you are
This tells you how formal your writing should be. writing. Look at the following descriptions of each tex•
In general, use formal language with strangers type. Follow this guide when you write. Your writing
and people who are in authority (managers, should look like the examples here. An article should
teachers, etc). Use informal language with people look like an article, a letter should look like a letter,
you know personally (family members, friends, etc. Make sure you have everything in the right place
pen-friends, etc).

T his is what a formal letter/email should look like.

Dear- Ms Lawson, ils

Thankyou for- tljYeein!J to be inter-viewed I am wr~·tin!J to Formal letters/emails are letters/emails
you write to someone you do not know
!J'·veyou (urlher- infor-mation and to arran!Je the tLme and well. You might write one to make a
date ofthe inter-view. complaint, make arrangements, give or
request information, etc. W hen you are
FiYst0 I would like to SU!J!Jest we hold the intervie~ at five asked to write one, you will be given a
o'clock on either- the 11th oY 12th. Sinceyou aYe staym!J at the situation and some information which yo...
have to include. You should use formal
Hotel Re~ it mi!Jht be best if we met ther-e. language and start and end the letter/emall
in an appropriate way.
rhe ,·nter-view shouldlast halfan hour; and I am planni11!J
to askyou for- a descriptum o(youY tour: Our- reader-s will Key things to remember:
also be inter-ested in whyyou came on the tour and whether
you have met any t"nterestin!J people or- other travellers. • make su re you understa nd the
situation

I wonder {you could bn"n!J any photosyou have o(plaus!ou • make sure you understand who you
arc writing to
have visited We would also !t."ke to take photo!JYaphs dunn!f
• decide whether you r letter shou ld be
the t"ntewie~ so I hopeyou do not mind {I arrai1!Je that. formal or informal
• start and end your letter in an
1look forward to hear-in!J from you soon. appropriate way
• use paragraphs to separate key point'>
Your-s sin&ere0 • include all the information you are
given
Jan Merton • use indirect questions

j}!J·-·--·-·· · . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . .--.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . ... . . . .. . . . . .. . ·· ··· · · -·······--·-..--·-·-·-. ··-···-···-·· · . . . . . . ············---·-···-·-·-··---~

reoort
A report is a way of giving informat ion to
somebody clearly. They are usually formal and
consist of separate paragraphs. lt is a good idea
to give your paragraphs headings_to make
yo ur info rmation clear. You are g1ven a
situat ion and asked to write a report for
your employer, your manager, etc. You are
often asked to give your
opinion/suggestions/recommendations.
Key things to remember.
• m ake sure you un derstand the
situation
• m ake sure you know w h o you are
writing the report for
• start your report with
To: (the name of th e person the report
is for)
From: (you r name)
Subject: (what your report is about)
• use separate paragraphs for each ma in
point
• use dear h eadings fo r your
paragraphs
• use repon ed speech for things people
said
• use formal language
evem"n!J.s ant/ ni!Jhts can 6e ruite cola', so warm clotht"n!J is need&(,
farltcularfy when camft"n!J.
This is what a report should loo k like.
To: Thomas Et/wan(.s
From: Clat"re Eliot
Su6jed: Camtin!l in this area
Introduction
As rqu.e.stea', I have researchedca111ft"n!J (adlitt"e.s tit the local area
to heft the!lroUf of.students who tntentl to visit. The results are
tre.sentet/6elow, tO!Jefher with my recommendations.
Cai11f.site.s
There are two matn camf.sife.s locafjt, Ca111ft"n!J Wor/t(ant/
Sunshine Camf.st"te. Wht1e Camft"n!J Wor/t( is chetlfer; the facilt:·tt"e.s
are also more 6asic. Sunshine Ca111ft"n!J i.s .sli!Jht!y more extensive,
but it tloe.s have excellent .shower ant/cookift!J faa!t"tt"e.s.
Time o(year
Both camf.site.s are Ofen allyear round Pnce.s are lower tlun"nj
the wtnfer; 6ut the weather in thistart ofthe wor/t(can!Jef very
colt/. The camf.sife.s can 6e very busy tlun"n!J)u/y antiAU!Jusf.
Clotht"n!J
This tltpentl.s on the time o(year. However; even t"n.summer the

Recomment/ation.s
I wou/t( recommend.sfayt"nj at Sun.shme Camf.st'fe because ofthe
excellent(aa!t"tt"e.s. In my Oft"nion, the best ft'me to vi.st"t wou/t(be
Stpiember; when the weather is .sfttl!loot/but the camf.st"te.s are
not as busy as they are earlier tn the .summer.
 ~tories This is what a story should look like.

Stories are meant t o be entertaining and The Messflje

you need to use good descriptive Sudden~ a messflje appeared on the computer screen. I haJ
language.A simple plot with few
characters is usually better than a
heen suifm!f the Internet and was surprisedto he interrupted I IK· ~
complicated plot with lots of characters. aroundtlte room hut everyhody was workt'nj.
You are often given a sentence that you 'Hello. How areyou, ~rC!f?'Who t<JU/d it he? I sftlrlediJtt'nJ.
should start or end your story with. 'Hello. Who areyou?' I waitedfor tlte answer, whiclt apfeart~~
few seconds later.
Key things to remember: Afriend Be careful. You are in!freat dan!fer. 'Ifelt cold I aslu
the mysterious stran!fer what kind ofda11Jer I was in.
• give your sLOry a title
'somehody is planninj somdhtifj. 'Nervous~ I tried to
• if you are given a sentence, use it in remem her t(I hadUfSd anyone recently. As /sat ther~ wonderin!J
the right place without changing it
what to do nex; another messflje apfeared
• have a dear beginning, middle and
'Look out! Behindyou!'I turned, my heart heatin!J quick~.
end to your story
Standtifj there was a!!host! ljumted up, dosed my eyes andscream~
• keep your plot simple
Then, I heardlau!fhter. I Ofened my eyes andstandtn!f tn front r
• don't have too many d1aractcrs
me was my frientf MithaeZ with a white sheet. On the other sitleufIN
• use good adjectives and adverbs room another frientf Simon, was iJttn!f andlaUjhinJ I lookedat the
• use direct speech for what your computer screen and Mother messflje apfeared
characters say
Apn1Fool! Ha, ha!'

revtews
. This is what a review should look like .

In a review, you give your opinion of something 'The f>e1ect Crime' hy Alison {freene
you have seen (a play, a TV programme, etc) or 'The f>e1ect Crime' is Alison {freene's second novel. In ~~
read (a book, a story, etc) or a place you have she describes what happens when a work ofarl is stolen
visited (a restaurant, a hotel, etc).You should
from a mu.seum. The pokce have no 1~-U:k fndinj the
describe the most important features, explaining
why you think t hey are positive or negative criminal unft1 Detective Paul Mt1lijan solves the crime.
things. A review often ends with a suggestion or Althou!fh Detective Mt11ijan is a stronj character,
recommendation. The formality depends on who many ofthe others are very simt1ar to each other. {freene .s
your readers are, but usually you should use a a!fooddescr'ftive writer, hut the dialojues between her
neutral style (neither too formal nor too characters seem unnatural and old-fashioned If's not
informal). always easy to remember who is speakil1j and I often had
to jO hack a few pajeS to check.
Key things to remember: The plot's 'fUlte complicated, which is not surprisin!J fur
• give your review a title st-U:h a loi1J thriller. when Detective Millijan fnalr solves
• explain what you are reviewing
the crime, it's a complete surprise to learn that the thiefwas
the mu.seum director. However, he seems to solve it hy lud
• decide what key 'features your readers are
interested in instead ofskttt which spoils the endinj ofthe hook.
I would recPmmend this hook for fans ofcrime
• describe the key features in separate
paragraphs fction, who wt11fnd that there's lots ofaction to keep
• give your opinions and the reasons for them them interested However, manypeople wt11fnd the hook
• make relevant suggestions/recommendations too lol1j and dt(ficult to follow.

~· · ········ · · · · · ··············· · · · · ······ · · ············· · · · · · · · · · · · ······· · · · ········· · · · · · ··········· ··· · · ·· · ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ···································· ············· ······ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ······· · · · · · ··· · · · · ··· · ··· · ··· · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · ···-

articl~>
You are often asked to write articles for
magazines. Make sure you know who you
are writ ing for because t hat tells you how
rormal your article should be. An article
~o r other students should be lively,
nteresting and not too fo rmal. You can use
questions to interest your readers.
Key things to remember:
• give your artidc a tit le
• make su re you know who your
read ers are
• use questi.o ns to interest your readers
• use the right level of formali ty
• use exclam ation marks to give a lively
feel
• use direct speed1 for things people
sa id
sa
~ys are formal and usually written for your
t=acher. You usually have to explain whether
-ou agree or disagree with a statement, what
:"'e advantages and disadvantages of something
~. etc. You should use a new paragraph for
uch mai n point and use good connectors to
-k your sentences together.
y things to remember:
• use formal language
• use good connecting words and phrases
• present your argument clearly
• use a new paragraph for each main point
• only make points tha t are relevant to th e
q uestion
• make sure you do what the question asks
you to do
This is what an article should look like.
A Mt:~jical World
Haveyou ever watcheda vtdeo and thouJf'tt it was
disa;;Fointirtj? Some films just don't seem to work on the
small screen, do they? For today's action (Zims, there's only
one way to see them: in a modern cinema.
EverythinJ about most films, from the jJicture to the
sound, is desijnedfor the hiJ screen. SjJecial effects that look
ordt'nary on a TV screen suddenly come to ltfe t'n the ct'nema.
There s notht'nj like the excitement ofwatchinJ a scene,
hearinJ the sound all aroundyou and really fee!t'nJ kke
you re there, t'n the mtddle ofthe action.
Afarl from that jOt'nJ to the Ct'nema is a Sfecial
occasion. The smell ofthe fOfCOYn, the feel ofthe seats and
the excitement in the voices ofthe audience all make a visit
to the ct'nema feel !t:ke enten'nJ a mt:ijt'cal wodd
A vtdeo is somethirtjyou watch to!'ass the time. A
film at the cinema is an escal'e into a dream. So, for me, its
the cinema every time!
This is what an essay should look like.
/t has often heen SUJJested that only someone who
makes music can enjoy otherl'eofles music. while all of
us can enjoy music t'n our own w~ it is true that
l'layil1j a musical instrument heft;syou to understand
a jJiece ofmust'c.
7b he3in with, ittakes lonJ hours ofFradt'ce to
hecome a musician. !(you flay an t'nstrument you
understandhow much hardwork it has taken for the
musician to hecome so3ood You enjoy the music more
hecauseyou know how difficult it is to l'roduce. You also
recojm'se the ahi!t.ty ofa talented musician.
Secondly, must'c exfresses emoft'ons. !(you have
tried to exressyourselfthrouJh music, you have a
hetter Mea ofwhat a must'cian is tryt'nj to do. You
understand the meaninJ ofthe must'c and that
increasesyour enjoyment.
7b sum uF, I would aryue that the aht!tty to f1ay an
t'nstrument heft;syou to al'l'recia:te music in many ways.
Understandt'nJ the effort andthe emotion hehindthe
music makes listem'nJ to it more enjoyahle.

inf,.,rmalletters/emails
Informal letters/emails are written to a
friend or to a member of your family. You
should use informa l language and be
friendly. Even though the letter/email is
informal, you still need to use paragraphs
and include whatever information the
questions asks you to.
Key thin~s to remember:
• use informal language
• start and end your 1ctter/ernai1 in an
appropriate way
• ask about a piece of news in the first
paragraph
• use exclamation marks to give a
friendly feel
• use separate paragraphs for each
main point
• use direct q ueslion s
letters f ~pplic tion
Letters of application are letters you write
applying for a job. You need to use formal
language and good connecting words and
phrases. You should give information about
your experience, qualifications and personal
qualities clearly in separate paragraphs. lt's a
good idea to imagine that you are somebody
completely different, somebody who is perfect
for the job.
Key things to remember:
• make sure you understand what the job
is
• use set phrases for letters of application
• use formal language
• imagine you arc the perfect person for
the job
• start and end the letter in an appropriate
way
• use separate paragraphs for the main
points
• use indirect questions
This is what an informal letter/email should look ·e..
Dear Sanj~
Hi! How areyou? I hope everytht'n!f is okay. How Wt:l?
your exams? I hetyou passedthem all!
Thanks foryour letter: I can't believeyou've been o(fort
two summerjohs at the same time! You saidthat one ofth
was in a restaura11t and the other t'n a museum. !(I were
you, I woulddefinitely take the one t'n the restaurant.
The first thin!I is thatyou '//he there i11 the summer. T •
last tht"11!Jyou want to do is spendthe summer t'n a musewr
lmtljine how hon'n!f that would he! In a restaurant you 'If
meetpeople. lt mi!Jht he har-d work hut it'llhe worth t't. /'.,re
!JOt a coust'n who works t'n a restaurant and he so/sit's 1~
tt'rin!fi hut he really en;'oys t't.
The seu;ndtht'n!J is thatyou can prohahly eat at the
restaurant. You said the pay was the same, hutyou mijht
save money hy eati11!J there, soyou '//he hetter of(!
t;ood luck with if- and Ihopeyou make the ri!Jht duiste ·
Write soo11,
Love,
Elat'ne
This is what a letter of application should look like
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am wrt'tt'n!f t'n response iPyour advertiseme11f for tour
!fuitles, which I saw t'n a localnewspafer: I wou/Jlike iP 4fr:.
for o11e ofthe positions.
I he!t:eve I have the necessarypersonal 'fua!t:ties. I en;'oy
medt'n!f feople and he/pt'n!f them understa11d my tou11try IV
my culture. My knowledje ofthe local ar-ea is very!food
because I have livedher-e all my !tfe and I have visited most ..~
the local tourist attYaditms
As for formal'fuah(ications- I fassed Camhridje Ftrst
Certificate t'n En!Jfish with an A. Ialso speak some French
andt;erman a11d Iam fla11m'nj to take exams i11 6oth tho~
laH!fua!feS this summer
Althou!fh I do not have experience ofthis work I have workM
i11 »'!1 family's restaurant where I have had the chante to
meet many tourists andexplat'n a number' oftht'n!fs iP thew.
about the local area.
!(you rettut're anyfurther tnformation, please do not hesttate t:
contact me. I am avatlable for t'ntewiew atyour convenience.
I look forward iP hean'nj from you,
Yours fatthfofly,
Lena Cosmides
~ m I and inf I 1~ uaae
Once you have decided how formal your writing
should be, you need t o decide what language you
can use. Here are a few things you should
remember about formal and informal language.

f rm~l I n ua e
• We don't use contractions (I've, it's, etc) in
formal writing.
Most people do not agree with this position.

• We start and end letters in a formal way.

Dear Sir,
Dear Madam,
Dear Sir/Madam, fa m 11 n
Dear Mr Smith, • We use contractions (I've, it's, etc) in
Dear Mrs .Tones, informal writing.
I've just seen the film you mentioned. lt's great!
Yours sincerely, (after Dear+ surname)
Yours faithfully, (after Dear Sir, et c) • We start and end letters in an in forma l way.
(+your full name) Dear + first name

• We always write in complete sentences. Lots of love,

1 hope that you will be able to come to speak to the Take care,
students on the 14th December. (+your first name)

• We use formal vocabulary. • We don't always write in complete

accommodation instead of a place to stay sentences.
Sorry to hear about your dog.
• We use indirect questions.
I would be grateful ifyou could provide further • We use informal vocabulary.
information about the salary. cool instead of impressive
• We use the passive voice more. • We use direct questions.
A new law has been introduced to reduce crime. Did you pass your Spanish exam?
• We use formal connecting words and • We use the active voice more.
phrases. They 're pulling down the old theatre across the
Moreover, it is clear from statistics that more road.
people are getting divorced than ever before.
• We use informa1 connecting words and
• We don't use exclamation marks in formal phrases.
writing. Anyway, what I wanted to tell you about was the
party last night.

• We use exclamation marks.

! can't wait to see you!

...........................................................................................................................................................- - - - --~
 (sb =somebody, sth =something) idea/an a rgu m entia family
able be able to do help help sb (w) do. help sb with sth
account take into account homework do your homework, have homework to
accuse accuse sb of -ing insist insist on
add add sth to sth in spite of in spite of sth/-ing, in spite of the fad tha
admit admit (to) -ing, admit that o o o insist insist on sth/ -ing, insist that .. 0

advise advise sb to do, advise sb on, advise (sb) against slh interes t have/take/express an imerest in stJ1
afraid afraid of interested irnerestcd in
agTee agree with sth/sb, agree on sth, agree 10 do keen keen to do, keen on -ing
apologise apologise for sth know know about s th, know how to, be known as
apply apply for, apply in writing let let sb do sth
approve approve of listen listen to (music)
argue argue about sth, argue with sb look look after, look for. look at, look forward to - ing
ask ask sb sth, ask sb to do sth, ask sb about stb make make sb do, mnke the heds/a mess/a dcdsion/a
bad bad at sth. bad for sb diifcrmce/a complaint/a fort tme/a mistake/a noise/a
phone call/a suggestion/friends/make fun of
beHeve beliew sth/sb, believe in sth/sb (God)
manage manngc to do
blame blame sb for sth
object object to
capable capable of doing
occasion on this occasion
care care about, care for
part take pan in, be a part of sth
claim claim to be, claim that .. 0

p ay pay for sth, pay sb

complain complain about
pers uade persuade sb to do, persuade sb that .. 0

congratulate congratuJate sl1 on

prefer prefer to do sth rather than (to) do sth else. prdd
continue continue doing, continue to do sth/-ing to/rather than sth/-ing
deal deal with preven t prevem from -ing
decide decide on, decide lo do, decide that 000
protect protect from
demand demand that .. 0, demand st h, a demand for sth recommend recommend (tbat) sb do
deny deny-ing, deny that .. 0
refer refer to sth/sb
depend depend on sth/sb refuse refuse to do
despite despite sth/-ing, despile the fact that 000
regret regret (not} -ing, regret sth, regret to in form you
difference make n cfillerencc rely rely on
difficulty have difficulty in doing remjnd remind sb of sth/sb, remind sb about sth
do do you r best/homework/the iron ing/the housework/the say say stb ( 1o sb). sa.y that ..
0

cooking/an experiment/research/do you good

sentence sentence sb to
dream drtam of -i ng
share share sth with sb
encourage encourage sb to do slh
stop stop 10 do, stop -ing, stop sh from -ing
enjoy enjoy yourseH, enjoy sth/-ing
succeed succeed in
exam take/do/have/fail/pass an exnm, sit (for) an exnm
suggest suggest sth/-ing (to sb}, suggest that .. 0

explain explain s1h to sb. explain that 000

suspect suspect sb of. suspcCl that 0 0 0

fond be fond of sth/-ing

think think about, think of
forget forget (about) sth, forget to do, forget doing
time spend time -ing, spend time on sth, in time, on time
fun be/have fun, make fun of it's (about/high) time
good good at sth, good for sb touch in touch with sb
have have a party/a good time/a meal/a bath/a plan/an work work as/on/in sth

• . . . f i i J" " """ "OOOOOOOoOOOoOOOOOoOoOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOoOOOoOoOoOo000 0000 0000000oOoOOOOOoOo00000 " " " " o • oooo oooooo OOOO oo o0oOooOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOoOOO"""" o 0
 bring up to rare for a child until they become an adult look over to have a view of from above
bring up to mention or start discussing a subject look up to try to find sometl1ing (a word, etc) in a source
call off to dcddc to stop something that is planned to of information (a dictionary, etc)
happen make off to escape (with something stolen)
carry on to continue doing soml:thing make out to see, hear, or understand someone or
come across to find something or meet someone something with difHculty
unexpectedly make up to become friends with someone again after an
come down with to become ill, usually with an illness argUJuent
1har is no1 seriotJS make up w invent a story, ru1 excuse, a lie, ctr
come on start 10 be shown on l'elevisjon pick on to keep 1n.~ati ng someone badly or unfairly
come up (of problems, diffiCLLllies) appear suddenly put down to kill an an imal because it is very old, ill, or
come up with to think o.f something such as an idea or a dangerous
p.laJ1 put off to delay doing sometlting
cut out to remove or no 1 include put on to start showing a programme on television
fall out to stop being friends because you have had an put out to make something (a fire, etc) stop buming
argument put through connect on the rclephonc
find out to discover, to learn run out of 10 use all of' somethjng and not have any left
get away Lo escape ru n over to h it someone or something with a car
get down to make someone feel sad or depressed stand out to be easy to see or notice
get on iJ people get on, they like each other and arc take after to be or behave li ke an older relative
friendly to each other
take off to remove something you are weari ng
get on if you get on with something, you contin ue
working on it take off (of a plane, etc) to leave the ground
get over to recover from an illness, a shock, etc take over 10 replace someone in a position (of authority)
give up 10 stop doing something you do regularly take up to fi ll a particu.Jar amou nt of space or time
go about to do something, particularly something difficult take up 10 slart doing something regularly as a habit, ttc
go off to explode think up 10 invent, LO have the idea !'or the first time
go off to stop liking something or somebody you used to throw away LO get rid of something that yo u don't waJll
like turn d own to refuse to accept an offer or request
go on to continue happening or continue doing something turn int o to become
g:row on if something o r someone grows on you, you start turn off to slop a machine, eg a television
to like them af1er some time turn on to start a madtine, eg a television
grow up to become older and bigger, to become an adult turn out to develop in a part icular way or have a
hurry up to go somewhere or do something more q uickly particular result
keep on to cont inue doing som ething turn over to change to another chan nel on television
Jet down to disappoilll by not d(>ing what you are t urn over to tum sometJ1ing so that tl1c oth('r side shows
expected to do turn up 1.0 appear unexpectedly
let off to give someone li tLie or no pun islm1cnt [or
something they did wrong
let off w make something (such as a bomb) explode
look after to ta ke care of somebody
look after LO keep someth ing in good condition
look down on to consider someone to be of less value
than you
look into to investigate, to try to discover rhe [acts about
something

... ................. ........ ............................ ····•················ ... ...... .. ·····-. ··-················-···· . · ·······. ······..... ...... .. .................. ........................................ ~
Greetings and farewells tExpressing prefere~es
Hello. I prefer ... -ing to ... -ing because ...
Good morning/afternoon. I would rather ... than ...
How do you do? I find ... more interesting than ... because ...
Pleased to meet you.
Nice to have met you.
Agreeing/Disagreeing
Goodbye.
I completely/totally agree.
Yes, you're right.
Giving personal information I agree with you up to a point.
My name is ... That 's true, but ...
I'm .. . years o ld. I'm not sure I agree with you.
I'm still at school and I go to . .. I'm afraid I disagree with you.
I come from a big/small family. There are ... of us. I completely/totally disagree.
I'm t he eldest I yo ungest I seco nd eldest I etc.
I've got .. . brothers and sisters.
Giving I Asking for opinion
My dad's a .. . and my mum's a ...
In my o pinion, .. .
I enjoy ... -ing and ...
As far as I'm concerned, ...
When I have free t ime, I like ...-ing and .. .
If you ask me, . . .
My view is that .. .
Comparing W hat do you think?
A is good, whereas/while B isn't. Do you agree?
A is much better/etc than B. We should ... , shouldn't we?
A is far better/etc t han B. What do you think of ... ?
A is not as good as B. How/What about ... ?
A is not nearly as good as B.
A is almost as good as B.
!Asking for clarification
On the one hand, .. .
Cou ld you say that again, please?
On the other hand, .. .
Could you explain it again, please?
Could you say that again more slowly, please?
I'm sorry. Would you mind repeating that?
Do you mean .. . ?
 -

Un_i_t~1 :1

Present simple and present continuous

Present simple:
'"to be,
positive negative questions
I II am 1
,
I
, I
I
!
! am not i Am I 1 I
_ . ._.__j_(~l. .J 1 --- J Lrn_~ o~)_j L__ - _ ,_j_,,_ _]
You I
I
!
1
.
.1
You ! are not I
I I
I ~ you j
We I are 1 late. , We 1 ('re not) I late. I
;
Are !I we 1
'
Jate?
They I ('re ) I .I I (aren't) !
·- He--t -- - -~
Th ey
~--iie --· ·1-j·s-rio_l_. . __l r-·.-- -·1he
1 1 t h ey 1

;
She I is I I She i ('s n ot) r I Ts sh e '
It I ('s) j
.j _ __ ,
I It I (isn 't)
I 1 it
..__ _ I,

regular verbs
negative questions

~ou I ~ou I do not

j I
I I Do you
We i ! We j (don't) 1 we .
They work. I
__,,_ ,,:_j._,,,_ ,_ ,,_ , _ _ , _ __ _ _ _
I They
JI - - . - -. 1 work. 1I- _ :::1_,_
'
! _they-- ; work? I
1

He ! 1 He ! does not 1 1 Does I he 1

, . . I
Sh e !works. She I. (doesn't) II !
. 1•' sh e i
I
It It I i it .
!

•I have - he/she/it has

T go- he/she/ it goes
I do - he/she/it does
• permanent situations
f live in North London.
• general truths and Iacrs
Water boils at 100° C.
• general abilities
The present simple is used to talk about ... I play the piano.
• habits • states
My father drives to work. I know him and h is brother.
• how often things happen • the fu ture in t imetables
IL rains almost every day in the rainforest. My train leaves in an hour. (see page 172)
(or don't happen) • the future in time clauses
It never snows in the Sahara desert. I'll tell Carrie when l see her. (see page 172)

_.,_,_,____
............................................................................................................................................ -- - ~
 'Your brother plays the piano. doesn't he?'
When we want to emphasise an action or 'No. but he does play the guitar.'
situation in the present, particu]arly to 'I know you don't like peanut butter.'
emphasise that it actually happens. or that it's 'No. you're wrong. I do like peanut butter.'
different to what someone else thinks. we can (We don't use the emphatic present simple with
use the emphatic present simple. with do or does. the verb to be.)
Present continuous:
positive negative questions
I I am i , 1 am not 1
i
I
Am I; I
·--- _j( '~)j ~---·---~. i:!.~.:?.~.Lj : I
!---+- -1
You i ! You 1are not 1 I j you!
I · 1
We :a re :working. ; We i ('re not) I working. ,1 Are II we !I working?
They j ('re) j ' They (a ren' t) ! 1 1 theyJ
·-.
1

-He---r-·-·- ~ ._He. ._Jis not . - . .1 ,.-....- . . i . .i1e---l

She I. is 1
I
She ., ('s not) i ,
1
'
Ts
I
'she ,
I
I
I
1t
j
I ('s) I
!
It 1 (isn't.)
I 1
! I I it !

The present continuous is used to talk about ... Stative verbs

• actions in progress at the moment of speaking
Some verbs are not norma ll y used in continu ou~
Come inside - it's raining.
tenses becaliSe they don't describe actions. Th ese
• temporary series of actions are called 'stative verbs'. For example, we say 'I
I am learning to drive . love you', not 'I am loving you'. Some of these
• temporary situations ve rbs can be used in continuous tenses, but the
We are staying at the Grand Hotel. meaning changes.
• changing situations
This city is getting bigger every year. Stative verbs often refer to ...
• annoying habits (usually w ith always) thinking
Oh! You are always losing your keys! eg believe, imagine, understand, know
• defin ite arrangements and plans for the future emotions
(see page 172) eg love, hate, like, prefer, want, satisfy
We are having a test tomorrow. the human senses

• ••
Some people use the term present progressive
inst ead of present continuous. They mean the
eg hear, see, smell, taste, sound
appearance
eg seem, resemble, appear, look
relationships between things
same thing. eg belong to, own, consist of, include, involve
..............
Look at how the meaning changes when we use
•
unders 1n I• some of these verbs in the continuous form.
The milk smells/tastes funny.
1 Which tense do we use to talk about scientifk
facts? I am smelling/tasting the milk to see if it is okay.
I see much better with my new glasses.
2 Which rcnse do we use with ph rases like
'once a month'? Tam seeing Debbie tomorrow about the car.
3 Which tense do we use to talk about But Elvis Presley is dead ! I must be
temporary situations? seeing/hearing/imagining thjngs!

..fiiJ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

---J,
 I think you're wrong. (That is my opinion.)
1 am thinking of a famous person. Guess
..
I'll
.Q
I'll
I'll
'0
who! (I have a picture in my mind .) I Which of these is a stative verb? play/hate/come
...I'll
He looks just like his father. (He resembles his 2 Which is correct? You seem worried./You are e
father.)
e
seeming worried. ~
He is looking at me in a funny way. 3 Which of these is not a stative verb?
understand/prefer/leave
"'
With hear, see and smell, we often use can to
describe what is happening now. For example:
I can hear a strange noise coming
from the kitchen.
.·

Past simple and past continuous

Past simple:
'to be'
positive negative questions
-,..------+
1 1
.·
I
1 he
He was not 1
::e II I was
1
She 1 (wasn't) 1 I Was she i
Ir
-- You
·- . ~· t--
1
. . - . .,,
late. I It j
r-·- . -·--J - . - ·-···--1
I late. ! I it i late?
1 - -- . ·--1·- ·-··--l
,
i i
i You l were not! I I you I
We l were i · We I (weren't)i I Were I we !
They!
I
I
1
Th ey j
l
I I i they ij
regular verbs
positive negative ! questions
I
--- J
I
You I You ! you
We Il We 1! cti c:i not we
i
They I worked. They j (didn 't) work. Did they I work?
I '
He i He l he
She I She i she
It It it

• ••
A number of verbs form their past ten se in an
irregular way.
The past simple is used to talk about . ..
• single completed actions
I walked to school yesterday morning.

..... . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ... . . ... ... . . _. ·------ - - - --E\

 • repeated actions which don't happen now 'I bet you didn't ask Mary to go out.'
My father walke d to school every day when 'No, you're wrong. I did ask her and she said yes.
he was a boy.
• past states (We don't use the emphatic past simple with the
I knew her when we were at primary school. verb to be.)

When we want to emphasise an action or

situation in the past, particularly to emphasise The past simple can also refer to the present in
that it actually happened, or that it was different conditional sentences (If I had more money, ... )
to what someone else thinks, we can use the and after certain phrases (It's high time we
emphatic past simple, with did. left/I'd ra1her you came at five o'clock). This h
called the unreal past because it refers to now,
'You lived in Oxford, didn't you?'
not the past. (see page 187)
'No, but I did stay there once.'

Past continuous:
positive negative questions
I 'I 1·, I !I -,...-------'
I l I
He r ! He lwas not I : he ·
She was I j She I(wasn't) I lWas Ishe I
--+--..
1

It I
····- ···--t-.. . .-
You 1
.-J!working. u~
! I You
- ·-·-···-' working. ~. . - . -.J~
1were not ! 1 1you I
working? . . _J
We 1 were I i, We !(weren't)
I
Ii They 1
!
I
ll Were Il we I
They ! 1 ! i 1 they 1
i I 1 I J i i

Most uses of the past continuous are like the uses We also use the past continuous to talk about .. .
of the present continuous, but in the past. • actions in progress over a period of time
For example, the past continuous is used to taJk I was reading a book a]J morning.
about ... • two actions in progress at the same time
Mum was washing up while I was doing m~
• actions in progress at a point in the past
homework.
l was reading a book at ten o'clock yesterday
morning. • background information in a story
The sun was shining. The birds were
• temporary situations in the past singing. Suddenly, a bomb exploded.
I was staying in a hotel until my flat was
ready. The past simple and the past continuous are often
• changing situations in the past used together to show that one action happened
At that time, unemployment was getting (past simple) during the time defined by another
worse. action (past continuous) . For example, imagine I
• annoying past habits started watching TV at 5 pm and the phone rang
When I was a child, my parents were always at 6 pm. I can say:
criticising me. '1 was watching TV when the phone rang.'
• arrangemenL<; and plans for the future in the past
I was worried on Monday night because we 5pm 6pm 7pm 8pm
were having a test the next day. 1....................1................................. ,_
................1. ...................1....................

•
...............................:.::.~.~~.~.~~.. ~~.~..P.~~~~.~..~~!.'. ~ : ..........................-
~-·-·--. ·-- -- 1 was watching TV..~ ---- ---~

~-······ · . . . . . .. ............................................................. . . . ........ ....... . . ..........................._________................ .......... ···· ···· . .. . ............................. __

 Sometimes this means the action in progress is Yo u might also see these negative forms.
interrupted or stopped. I didn't u se to be very good at languages.
I was reading when suddenly all the Ughts I used not to be very good at languages.
went out. (this is quite formal)
Used to has this question form .
Some people use the term past progressive instead Did you use to live abroad?
of past continuous. They mean the same thing.
Be used to is used to talk about something that is
familiar to you, or that isn 't strange to you any
Compare the uses of the past continuous wi th
more. It is followed by a noun or an -ing form .
those of the present continuous (page 160). Often,
it is used in the same way, but in the past. I didn't like this town at firs t, but now I am
used to it.
I'm used to studying every day, but I found
nderstandin • it hard at first.
I Which tense do we use for a single completed Be used to can be used to talk about the past like
act ion? this:
2 Which tense do we use for backgro und I found studying every day hard at firs t
information in a story? because I w asn't used to it.
3 It's time you went to bed. Does this refer to the
When we want to talk about the p rocess of
present or the past?
becoming familiar with someth ing, we use get
used to.
Would, used to, be used to It's hard at first, but you'll soon get used to it.
Would and used to can be used to talk about past
habits, especially for the distant past. Would can
be used like this:
· - - ·-·-·
Used to and be used to are pronounced differently
When I was a child, my grandma would from the verb use.
read to me every night. I used an opener to open the bottle . (/j u:zd/)
Used to can be used in the same way: I used to live around here. (/j u :st~/ )
When J was a child, my grandma used to I am used to working hard. (/remj u: s ~/)
read to me every night.

Th e difference between them is that used to can

be used to talk about states in the past, but
would can't. 1 Which of t hese is not used for past habits?
would/used to/be used to
I used to like tomato soup, but now I hate it. (.I)
2 What is the most common negative form of
I ·weuld lilte tomato soup, aut n ov1 I :Rate it. (X)
used to?
We don't use would or used to in the n egalive or 3 Which of these can be used to talk about past
in questions very often. The negative of would is slates? would/used to
would never or would not. The most comm on
negative form of used to is never used to.
I never used t o be very good at languages .

., ................................... , ... ,....... , .., ......................................................................................,_. ____

 Present perfect and present perfect continuous
Present perfect:
positive I negative questions

I! I' II
. i
I
I I, I
Iyou
i

You Jhaver IYou !have nol i i I

We :('ve) :been ... l <haven't) lbeen ... jwe
Have j we :been ... ? 1

Theyi 1done ...

·-- --- ·· r-- ·- t
! They j !done ... I
1·-·--- - - , -.. - ----··i
they I worked ...?
1· ·- - ]- ···- ···1
!
He ! !worked - ··! He , has not 1worked ·· ·I ; he :done ... ?
I 1
I . I I
j She 1 (hasn 't) I
l l

She ihas ( !Has I she

It i_' ('s) i lt
-
1
' l : it
I -
I
I I

In generaL present perfect tenses arc used to I've known Michael for seven years.
connect th e pa st with the present. I've been at this school since 2002 .
The present perfect is used to talk about .. . We' ve received over a hundred applications so
• actions and situations continuing up to now far I up to now.
I've known him for about ten years.
• a series of actions continuing up to now
l've played chess every Friday for two years We don't say: 1 have six months to see 'fa:ra . (X'
now. Instead, w e say: 1 haven't seen Tara for six
• completed actions at a time in the past months. (.1)
We've seen that film before.
• completed actions where the important thing The present pe~fed can also be used to refer to tl.
future in time clauses after when, as soon as, etc
is the present resu h
Julian has broken his arm . I'll eaU you when I've finished my homcwo;

• A number of verbs form their past partidple in

an irregular way.
When you want to say exactly when somethin_
happened, you shou ld use the past simple.
I saw that film last week at the cinema. (.1 )
I have seen that fi±FJ'Ilast weelt at tke ciflCffla. (X'
The present perfect is used witJ1 words and
expressions like: just, yet, already, This is the first
time ... , ever, never, for, since, so far, up to now, etc. With Lhe verb go, we sometimes use been as the
Rachcl has just left. past participle. Compare:
Have you seen the new James Bond film yet? John's gone to Paris. (He's there or on his "1
rhere.)
I've already told you once that you can't go
to the party! John's been to Paris. (He went there and nO\\
he is back.)
This is the first time I've used a computer.
Have you ever met a famous person?
John has never eaten Indian food.

~--· · · · · · · · ··· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · - · ·· ·· · · - · · · · ·- · · · · · · · · ···· · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · ········ · · ·· ·· · · · · · · · · · - - - · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · - ·· · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · - · · ·--· · ·- · · · ···- · · · · · · · · · ····

 QJ

"'10
Present perfect continuous: ..
.Q
10
10
"'0
positive negative questions ...
10
I l i II I II ; E
You I havel 1
You I have not 1 , i you l E
...
10
Cl
We 1('ve) l
1,
I We ! (haven ' t) I ! Have I we I
i . I I . I
They !
!
r been -mg ... 1 They I ('ve not) 1 been -mg ···j I!
~ the y been -ing ... ?
·-··1-Ie_!_. ._. . .l ! Rc-Hias ..ii<l'r- - ·1 r- - !·lie . . i
She
i
1. has .
I I
I She . (hasn't) .1
i
,
i !
1Has I she 1
i
1 I,
n 1 ('s) rt j ('s not) 1 :I it !t
I i I 1 ·1 1

The present perfect continuous is used to talk about ...

..I
• (temporary) actions and situations continuing
up to now 1 Which auxil iary verb is used to make the
I've been working here for six months. present perfect?
• (temporary) actions over a period of t ime that . .. .... +past participle
has recently ended 2 Which is correct? 1 did it yesterday./! have done it
I'm out of breath because I've been running. yesterday.
3 Which word is missing? Have you ..... .......-.....
The present perfect continuous is often llscd with cooking all morning?
words and phrases like all morninglday/week/etc,
just, for, since, etc. It can often mealJ that the
action is not complete. Articles
I've been reading a great book about
dinosaurs. (l haven't finished it.) There arc lhree articles in English: a, an and the. A
and an are called 'indefinite articles' and both
Sometimes, you have to look at the context to
mean the same tiling. An is used with words
decide:
which begin with a vowel sound: an umbrella, an
I've been working all morn ing and now I'm orange, an hour. Notice that we say 'a uniform'
going to watch TV. (J finished recently.) and 'a US citizen' because these begin with a 'y'
I've been working all morning and I've only sound. The is called t he 'definite article'.
done half of it. (I haven't finished.) We use the indefinite article (a, an) tO talk about ...

G We don't normally use ever or never with the

• single countable nouns (not particular ones)
I saw an accident yesterday.
We use the definite article (the) to talk about ...
present perfect continuous.
• single countable nouns (particu lar ones)
I've neYref seen reading any of his boohs. (X)
There's the man I mentioned yesterday.
I've never read any of his books. ( I')
• single countable nouns (in general)
The lion is a very fierce animal.
• plural countable nouns
Some people use the term present perfecr Where are the children?
progressive instead of present perfect continuous. • uncountable nouns
They mean the same thing. The weather is qu ite warm.
We don't use an article when we are talking
about ...

1-............ ................................. .................................................................................................... .

 • plural countable nouns in general • public buildings usually use the
Lions are very fierce animals. q the bank, the post office, the Theatre Royal, et..
• uncountable nouns in general 9 but: go to prison/hospital, be in prisonlhospita.
Coffee is generally bitter.
.
0
Notice how we use articles in the following
phrases: He's gone to the prison/the hospital is possible
• entertainment, media and sport when the person is only visiting.
q 'the television'= the piece of equipment
q Turn on the TV. • nationalities, no article for particular people
q watch television, on television 9 She's Nigerian.
q but: listen to the radio, on the radio • but: use the when talking about nationalities
q go to the cinema/the theatre in general
q listen to music
9 The French drink a lot of wine.

• no article for games and sports • travel

q T love tennis. 9 go home
9 on the bus. in the car, etc
• for years, usually no article
q in 2002 9 but: go by car/bus/bike/plane, etc

q but: in the 1990s, in the 20th century, etc • education

• for seasons, with 'in' and 'during' the meaning ~ go to school/university, etc, be at
is usually the same either with or without article school/un iversity, etc
9 in winter or in the winter 9 be in Class 5

• for months and days, no article

9 in March, on Friday, on Sunday
morning
He's gone to the school is possible when the perso:"
is only visiting.
9 in the morning/the afternoon/the evening
9 at night
• for subjects, usually no article
• geographical areas use the with: seas, mountain
groups, rivers, island groups, regions 9 I love chemistry.
9 the Mediterranean, the Alps,
the Thames, the Bahamas, the Arctic
• don't use the with: planets, continents, We put an before singular countable nouns witr
countries, towns/dties, streets, lakes, most a vowel sound. lt doesn't depend on spelling.
mountains, individual islands So, we say 'an umbrella' but 'a university', 'an
q eg Mars, Europe, Germany, London, Carnaby
hour' but ' a holiday', etc.
Street, Lake Superior, (Mount) Everest, Crete
q but: the Earth, the world, the Moon, the Sun,
the UK, the USA
r
• jobs usually with a or an 1 Which is incorrect? an umbrella/an uncle/an
9 She is an engineer. uniform
• use the with positions of authority 2 Which of these is correct? the Britain!the
USA!the China
9 the Mayor
3 Which is incorrect? in the morning/at the
• organisations usually use the
night/on Tuesday morning
q the army, the navy, the police, etc

.f!!J···. ····· . . . .... . . . . . . . ..... ... . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... .. . . ...... . . . . . . . . -.. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _-1
 Past perfect and past perfect continuous
Past perfect:
positive i negative questions
-.....--------1
1 I r! 1 '
You ! j You , i !you
We !been . .. .' We I 1 been ... I we been . .. ?
l i 1, I I I
Had ! they done ... ?
They 1 had 1done . . . 1 They 1 had not 1 done . . .
He i
('d) I worked ... 1 He ii (hadn't) I worked . .. Ihe worked . .. ?
i i ! ! I
Sh e j j 1 She 1 i ish e
Iit
.I
•
It :
l. Ia ! !

W h en we are talking about the past and we ••

want to talk about somethin g earlier in the past,
we ca n use th e past perfect. The past perfect is used with words and
expressions like: before, after, when, already, as
The past perfect is used to talk about ... soon as, It was the first time ..., etc. A number of
• actions and states before th e main time in the verbs form their past partkiple in an irregular
past we are interested in way.
I had heard about Alida before I met her.
• what somebody said in reponed speech (see
pages 173- 174)
Emma said she bad never been to Morocco. The past perfect can sometimes be used with
before to talk about an action which didn't
• a h ypothetical past in conditional sentences happen or wasn't completed in time.
(see page 189)
If I'd known you were coming, I would have Joel called before I had finished my
bought a cake. homework.
(= 1 hadn't finished my homework when
• wishes about the past (see pages 189- 190) Joel called.)
1 wish I had studied harder for the test.

Past perfect continuous:

positive negative questions
--------~-- --~--~--~~
l I i I I II I
i
You 1 11:

Yo u Ii I you I
.
We I I We I i ! we I
Theylhadlbeen -ing . .. They had not been -ing .. . IHadl the~ been -ing .. .?
He ('d )ll
I, He (hadn't . Ih e I
I 1
She She j she 1

It It I' it !
.
!

-······· ··· · · · · · ·· ····· ··· · · · · ····· ··· · · · · · · ····· · ··· · · · · ···· · -··--------- - - @\
 .. The past perfect continuous is used to talk about:
• longer actions which continued up to the
Comparatives and superlatives
When we want to compare two or more things,
main time in the past we are interested in
we can use the comparative and superlative forms
I h ad been running so I was out of breath
of adjectives and adverbs. We use the comparative
when I got home.
to compare things or people that are d ifferent
• what somebody said in reported speech (see and separate from each other:
pages 173-174) The blue book is bigger than all the red ones.
Mrs Collins said she had been doing the
garden. We use the superlative to compare one member
of a group with the whole group:
The past perfect continuous is often used with
words and phrases like all morning!day/weekletc, This book is the biggest one on the shelf.
just, for, since, etc. It can often mean that the one-syllable adjectives
action was not complete.
• With most one-syllable adjectives, add -er, -est.
black - blacker - blackest, young - younger - youngesr
We don't normally use ever or never with the past • If the adjective ends in -e, add -r, -st.
pe~{ed continuous. late -later- latest, brave- braver - bravest
I'd never been th inldng of doing French until • Tf the adjective has one vowel Jollowed by one
my n1um suggested it. (X) consonant, double the final consonant, then
add -er, -est.
I'd never thought of doing French until my big- bigger- biggest, thin- thinner- thinnest
mum suggested it. (v"')
tw o-syllable adjectives
• If the adjective ends in -y, replace the -y with
Some people use the term past perfect progressive -fer, -iest.
instead of past perfect continuous. They mean the happy- happier- happiest, lovely - lovelier - loveliesc
same thiJ1g. • Otherwise, use more and the most (or less and
the least)

• ...
boring - more boring- the most boring
Compare the uses of the past perfed continuous
with those of the present perfect continuous (see ····················· ...
page 165). Often, it is used in the same way, but
in the past. With some two-syllable adjectives, there is a
·choice: clever- cleverer- cleverest or clever- more
clever - the most clever. We usua ll y use th e fonns
We can often use the past (simple or continuous) w ith more and the most.
instead of the past perfect (simple or continuous),
particularly iJ after or before make the order of adjectives with three or more syllables
the actions clear: • Use more a nd the most (or less and the least)
I ate my lunch after my friend left. = J ate my interesting- more interesting- the most interesting
lunch after my friend h ad left. • If the adjective is formed from a two-syllable
adjective ending in -y, then use either more -
I the most or -ier - -iest.
unhappy- more unhappy- the most unhappy or
1 Wh ich ten se do we use after lt was the first time unhappy - unhappier - unhappiest
... ? adve rbs
2 1 wish I hadn 'l spent my money. Does this refer to • Use more and the most (or less and the least)
the past or the present? quickly - more quickly- the most quickly
3 Which word is missing? Lena ..... ....... ......... been (superlative adverbs like this ar e not used in
rking all morning and was very tired. English very much}
- - - --
~-· · · ... .. . . .. . . ........ . ................... ........ ..................... . . .. .. .. .. .. .... ................................. ···········--·--·--. ···-···. ··· ...... ........................................................
 Ql

"'10
,..
.Q
A number of adjt·ctives and adverbs, and one or When yo u want to say that two things are or 10
two other words, form the comparative and the are n ' t the same, you can use 10
superlative in an irregular way: as ... as: ...10
irregular adjectives M y computer is as fast as yours. (=My E
computer is the same speed as yours.) E
• good- better- best
0
...
10

• bad- worse- worst My computer isn't as fast as yours. (=My

computer is slower.)
irregular adverbs
• The adverbs early, late, fast, hard and often
follow the rules for adjectives.
• early - earlier- earliest
• •••••••
When we want to ta lk about the .result of
something increasing, we can use the+
• often - more often - the most often comparative, the+ comparative:
• .far - farther/further- farthest/furthest The older my grandfather becomes, the
• badly- worse - worst slower he gets.
irregular determiners The more you exercise, the fitter you
become. ..
• little - less- the least
• much/many - more - the most
I
With the comparative, we usually use than: .:.ck our "" •
Rachcl is older than all her cousins. 1 Whar is the comparative form of bright?
2 What is the comparative form of comfortable?
When you want to emphasise the difference,
you can use much: 3 Which word is missing? My bag isn't as big
............................... yours.
My dad is much older than yours.

The passive
We make the passive by using an appropriate A good way to think about the passive is to start
form of the verb to be and the past participle of with an ordinary active sentence:
the main verb: They took the young man to hospital.
This castle was built in 1450.
This sentence is in the past simple, with 'They' as
Your papers will be collected at the end of
the subject and 'th e young man' as the object.
the exam.
To make it passive, we put the object [irst, then
tl1e verb to be in the right tense (here, past
simple), then the past participle of 'take':

They took the young man to hospital.

The young man was taken ro hospital.

· · · ·· ··· ···· · · ·· · · · ···· · · · · · · ·· · · · ··· · · · · · · · · ···· · · ·· · · ···· · ·· · · · · · · · · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·-·· --··~--------- - - ~
 Notice that the verb 'was' is in the same tense as
'took' in the first sentence (past simple). Also
..notice that we do not need to say who did the 1 Which word is missing? The lottery ................ won
E action . When we do want to say who did it, we by a man from London.
.
E normally use by. We normally onJy do this
Cl when it is important information. For example: 2 Which of these is not normally used in the
passive? appear/break/make
Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese.
When we want to say that the action was done
llSing something, such as a tool we use with:
The dead man had been shot with a pistol.
- 3 Write one reason for using the passive voice.

C untl.ble and uncountable nouns

There are different kinds of nouns: those we can
count (a book, two books) and those that we can't
We tJSe the passive ... count (information, advice) .
• when we don't know who does/did something Please pass me those pencils, would you?
The bank has been robbed I (countable)
• when we aren't interested in who does/did The news was a bit of a shock. (uncountable )
something, or it's obvious
A man was arrested at the airport as he got Uncountable nouns often refer to collections of
off the plane. things, materials and other things we think of as
• (or emphasis 'masses' rather than individual objects. You have
The radio was invented by MarconL (We are to be careful because nouns that arc countabl e il'
mainly interested in the radio, not Marconi.) your language might be uncountable in English.
Here are some common uncountable nouns.
Some verbs are not normally used in the
passive. They include intransitive verbs (without information, advice, luggage, baggage, knowledge,
objects) and verbs such as have, let, lack, seem, money, news, travel, furniture
appear, resemble, fit and suit.
We use a singular verb wirh these nouns.
Some verbs can take two objects: a direct object Your advice was really useful.
and an indirect object. For example:
Our teacher gave us some photographs. Some nouns can be countable with one
meaning and uncountable with another (coffee, a
There are two possibilities in the passive. The coffee). This often happens when we talk about a
first is probably more common. material or substance and a th ing made out of it.
We were given some photographs (by our For example:
teacher). Chocolate is made using cocoa beans.
Some photographs were given to us (by our (uncountable, refers to the substance)
teacher) . Would you like a chocolate? (countable,
refers to one from a box of chocolates)
Some sentences have a clause as the object. You really should get your hair cut.
People think/say/believe that the economy is in (uncountable)
trouble. There's a hair in my soup! (countable)
There are two possibilities in the passive. The We often use different words with countable
first is probably more common. and uncountable nouns. Here are some.
The economy is thought/said/believed to
be in trouble. Countable nouns: many, how many, a lot of, lots of
It is thought/said/believed that the
some, a few, few, a number of a, an, one, two, three,
economy is in trouble. etc, the
Uncountable nouns: much, how much, a lot of lots
of, some, a little, little, an amount of a piece o_f, the

- ~ ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................- - - - 1
 · -.
Use many and much before a noun in negative
statements and in questions. In positive
Sometimes, you might want to use a countable
noun instead of an uncountable noun. With
many of them, you can do that by using the
phrase a piece of ... , eg Let me gjve you a piece
:,"'
..Q

..."'
10
E
statements (and also in negative statements and of advice. E
questions) use a lot of, lots of, or a large
number/amount of (You can use much or many in There are some w1countable nouns which are
..,...
10

positive statements, but it's very formal.) plural and which take a plural verb. They do not
have a singular form. These include: jeans,
Few/little and a few/a little mean different th ings. trousers, spectacles, scissors, groceries, etc.
few (coumable nouns} We neeE:l a Aelv scissors. (X)
J have few friends./= not many/ We need some new scissors. (.I}
a few (countable nouns) We need a new pair of scissors. (.I)
1 have a few days off work. I= some/
little (uncountable nouns)
They gave us little information. I= not much/ 1 Which of these is countable?
a little (uncountable nouns) money/advice/question
Let me give you a little advice. I= some/ 2 Which is correct? The news was shocking.!The
news were shocking.
The phrase only a few ... means 'not many' and 3 Which is incorrect? informations/trousers/jeans
only a little ... means 'not much'.

The future (I)

There are a number of different ways of talking Do you think we'll see Tom at the party?
about the future in English. It can be confusing Do you think we're going to see Tom at the
because often more than one of them could be party?
correct. Sometimes you have to think about
which is more natural. It helps if you think When we predict the future but we are not so
about what you want to express. sure of our pred ictions, we can use other modal
m aking predictions verbs (see pages 179-181).
When we make predictions that we are sure of Be careful! You might have an accident.
based on our own judgement or knowledge, we Do you think we might see Tom at the party?
often use will. I think United could win the Championship
I think United will win the Championship th is this year.
year.
making decisions
When we make predictions based on evidence We often use will when we are making a
we can see now, we often use be going to. dedsion .
Look out! You're going to drop the drinks! Oh, I don't know. Mmm ... l'll have an
omelette, please.
In general, be going to is more informa l than will
and is mainly used in conversation. Often, we I'm really tired. I think I'll stay in tonight.
can talk about predictions using both of them
with no difference in meaning .

- - - - - ----
.................................................................................................................................................... -- - ~
 -

.."' But we can a lso use be going to if we want to No, I'm n o t doing your homework for you.
"0
.. emphasise the intenti on .
I'm really tired. I think I'm going to stay in
No, I'm not going t o do your homework for
you .

e
"'E tonight.
talk ing a bout tim e tabled f uture events
...
liS
Cl talking about plans, intentions and The time or date when some things happen is
arrangements decided in advance, usually by something like a
When we want to tell somebody abou t our timetable or the calendar. When we want to talk
plans or intentions, we often u se be going to. about things like this, we can use the present
I'm going to apply for a job at that new simple.
factory. Our plane le aves at four in the morning.
I'm going to be a teacher when 1 finish Our exams start on 20th May.
university. (Not: I'm beiAg a tea cher. ..) Next year, my parents ce le brate their 50th
wedding anniversary.
When we have made some arrangements
(bought a ticket, agreed to meet, etc), we often Christmas Day f alls on a Friday this year.
u se the present continuous.
I'm meeting Helen tomorrow outside the These ideas can often be expressed using either
library. the present continuous (for arrangements), be
We're flying to Paris and then staying in a .qoing to (for intentions and predictions) or wi/1
great hotel. (for predictions) .
Our plane is leaving at four in the morning.
We don't normally use the present continuous for
Our exams are going to start on 20th May.
talking about intentions. However, the
difference between an intention and an Next year, my parents are celebrating their
arrangement can be quite small, so you could 50th wedding ann iversary.
use be going to in both of these situations. It Christmas Day will fall on a Friday this year.
depends on what you want to emphasise. Christmas Day is going t o fall on a Friday this
I' m goin g t o meet Hclen tomorrow outside year.
the library.
We're going to fly w Paris and then stay in a
great hotel.
The present simple is also used to talk about the
m aking offers, promises, suggestions, future in clauses after words like when, until, if,
refu sals what, ctc, as well as in conditional sentences
When we make offers, promises or suggestions, (see page 178).
we generally use will or shall. In modem English, I hope we see Mike when we a re in York.
shall is quite rare and is usuall y used in (Not: ... 'When ·.ve wmse iA Yorlc )
questions. When we refuse to do something. we I can't call Mary until she gets home from
can use won't, the present continuous or be going to. school.
• offers Jf I go to university, I'll probably study maths.
I'll help you, if you like.
Shall I open the w indow for you?
(Not: WilJ I .. .)
vo andin I•
• promises
I'll return your book as soon as I've read it. I Which is more informal? will/be goin_q to
• suggestions 2 Which tense do we use to talk about future
Shall we try that new Chinese restaurant? arrangements?
• refusals 3 Wh ich word is missing? .......... ................ we go to
No, J won't do your homework fo r you. [ the cinema this t?vening?

@ )··········································································································································································-··-······-··-···-·························································································································-.....f
Question tags
In sentences with the verb be as a main verb, we
make question tags using be. We usuaUy make
the question tag positive il the verb is negative
and negative if the verb is positive.
It's warm, isn't it?
You're not nervous, are you?
In sentences with an auxmary verb, we make
question tags using the auxiliary.
You're going to Greg's party, aren't you?
You haven't forgot1en, have you?
I'm meeting you tomorrow, aren't I?
(Not: ..., amH't I?)
Emily can play the piano, can't she?
When the sentence doesn't have an aux iliary
verb, we use the verb do.
You live in the town centre, don't you?
Phil plays football on Saturdays, doesn't he?
Colin has a very big house, doesn't he?
We use question tags when we want to ...
• ask someone to agree w ith us
It's a nice day, isn't it?
• check whether something is true
You've been to Paris, Sue, haven't you?
When we are asking someone to agree with us
our voice goes down at the end of the sentence.
When we are checking whether something is
uue our voice goes up at the end.
Reported speech
We use reported speech when we want to tell
someone what someone else said. We usually
have to change the tense if the reporting verb is
in the past. We sometimes bavc to change other
words as well, such as pronouns (we, you, etc) or
•
We also use tags when we want somebody to do
something, either using let's or an imperative.
When we want to add a quest ion tag with let's,
we use shall we?
Let's order a p izza, shall we?
After a positive imperative, we use
will/would/could you? and after a negative
imperative, we use will you? .
Pass me the salt, will/would/could you?
Don't go out w ith Sandra, will you?
In sentences with a negat ive word like never,
little, no, hardly, nobody, etc, we use a positive tag.
You never turn up on time, do you?
Nobody called while I was ou t, did they?
There's no reason to leave now, is there?
In tag questions where the subject is 'there', we
repeat 'there' in the tag.
There's a lot of vocabu lary to learn, isn't there?
1 You've met Paul, ........... .. ..... you? What is
missing? didn 't/haven 't/aren 't
2 What question tag do we use after Let's ... ? do
we/will we/shall we
3 Write one reason we use question tags.
words that refer to time and place (now, here,
etc.). We also ha ve to decide which reporting
verb to use, for example, said, admitted, su,qgested,
etc.
 . This is how the tenses change ...
Direct speech
Present simple
'1 am hungry,' said Tim.
Present continuous
'I am writing a letter,' sa id Alice.
Past simple
'We had an ice-cream on the bea ch,'
said Colin.
Past continuous
'We were talking about footbaJJ,'
sh e said.
Present perfect simple
'I have had a great idea! ' Simon sa id.
Present perfect continuous
'Georgia has been w aiting all day, '
my mum sa id.
(The past perfect simple and past perfed continuous tenses stay the same.)
• Reported speech
• Past simple
Tim said (that) he was hungry.
• Past continuous
Alice sa id (that) she was writing
a letter.
• Past perfect simple
Colin said that they had had an
ice -cream on the beach.
• Past perfect continuous
She sa id that they had been
talking about foot ball.
• Past perfect simple
Si mon said (that ) h e had had a
grea t idea .
• Past pelfect continuous
My mum said (tha t) Geo rgia had
been waiting ail day.

Some modal verbs change ... • here becomes there

'J ca n speak three languages,' said Jerry. • today becomes that day
Jerry said (that) he could speak three • now becomes then or at that moment
languages. • tomorrow becomes the following day or the next dC'I
'Ben will be at the party,' she sa id. • yesterday becomes the day before or the previous da
She said (that) Ben would be at the party.
• ago becomes before
'All students must be on tim e,' sa id the head
teacher. The words this, that, these and those change as
The head teacher said (that) all students had follows:
to be on time. • this/that+ noun become the/that
With reported questions, we use if or whether
• these/those + noun become the/those
and change the tense and the word order.
• this/that (as subject or object) become it
'Have you finished?' Sarah asked me.
Sarah asked me if/whether I had finished . • these/those (as subject) become they
• these/those (as object) become them
With wh- questions (what, who, ctc), we repeat
the question word and change the tense and the 'I hate this film,' said !\lice.
word order. Alice said she hated the/that film.
'Who left the fridge open?' asked Mrs Harris. ' I want th ese books,' Tony sa id.
Mrs Harris asked who h ad left the fridge Tony said he wanted the/those books.
open. 'This is a great sh ow,' Dad said.
Dad said it was a great show.
We also often have to change words that refer
to time and place: 'These are nice candles.' sa id Mary.
Mary said they were nice candles .

.fjl). .... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .... . .-.. . _,_. .,___. ._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _

 'I bought these in town,' sajd John .
John said he had bought them in town .
'I left my purse here five minutes ago,' said
Donna.
Donna said (that) she had left her purse there
five minutes before.
'We can finish these exercises tomorrow
morning,' our teacher said.
Our teacher said we could finish the
exercises the following morning.
We ca11 also report what someone saki using
different verbs, each with their own grammar.
'I didn't steal your money!' Peter said.
Peter denied stealing/having stolen my
money.
'No, I won't let you go,' my mother said.
My mother refused to let me go.
'What about an ice cream?' my dad said.
My dad suggested an ice cream.
My dad suggested (our) having an ice cream.
My dad suggested (that) we (shou1d) have an
ice-cream.
'I'm a great chess player,' said Will.
Will claimed to be a great chess player.
With imperative statements, we use a reporting
verb such as told, ordered, commanded, etc.
'Sit still!' sa id the hairdresser.
The hairdresser told me to sit still
'Don't say a word,' said Carol.
Carol told me not to say a word.
'Form a line,' said the officer.
The officer ordered th em to form a line.
We often don't make any changes to the verb
when we are reporting what somebody said
very soon after they said it, when we are
reporting a scientific fact or when something is
still tme .
'It's quite cold,' said Harry.
Harry just said (that) it's quite cold.
'Light from the Sun takes eight minutes to
read1 us,' the professor said.
The professor said (that) light from the Sun
takes eight minutes to reach us .
'I have a niece in America,' Mr Wood said.
Mr Wood said (that) he has a niece in
America.
We also don't make changes to the verb when
we use a reporting verb in the present tense.
Mark says that he is staying in tonight.
·'lg!
1 What do we use reported speech for?
2 What do we change ago to in reported speech?
3 Write three reporting verbs.
Indirect questions
We use indirect questions when we want to ask
questions politely. We use an introductory
phrase (Could you tell me where ... ) followed by
the normal word order (... the bank is?) . We
don't use question word order in the second
part. Some indirect questions need a question
mark at the end and some don't. Look at the list
below.
Some introductory phrases ...
with a final question mark
Can/Could you tell me ... ?
Could you let me know ... ?
Do you know ... ?
Do you think you could teU me ... ?
without a final question m ark
I wonder if you can/could tell me .. .
I wonder H you could let me know .. .
I wonder if you know .. .
I would Jike to know .. .
Here are some example sentences. Notice the
word order .. .
Do you know who that man is?
(Not: Do you Jmovl •Nho is tfiat man?)
Could you let me know where the meeting is?
I wonder if you know where I can find a
chemist's.
I would like to know when I will receive my
refund.
Do you think you could tell me how this
works?
 Ql
Ill

.."'"'"'
.Q
When the direct question is a 'yes/no' question,
we use zf or whether.
indirect question
I wonder if you could tell me who is responsible.
...
"'0
Direct question: Do you know which is bette r?
"'
E Are you going to John's dinner pany?
..,...
E
Indirect question:
c.;)
Could you let me know if/whether you are ing!
going to John's dinner party? I Wh y do w e use indirect q uestions?

If the relative pronoun (who, which, etc} is the 2 Wh ich word is m issing? .................. .......... you tell m~
subject of the relative clause and there is no what time it is, please?
other noun or pronoun, we just acid an 3 Do all indirect qu estio ns need a question mark
introductory phrase: a t the end? yes/no
direct question
Who is responsible?
Which is better?

Infinitives and -ing forms after verbs

Some verbs are followed by the full infinitive and some by the -ing form. Some verbs can be followe d
by both, sometimes with a change in meaning.

Here are some common verbs that arc followed by ...

the infinitive the -ing form both, with no

(or very little)
change In meaning

afford, agree, appear, admit, appreciate, avoid, begin, continue, hate,

arrange, ask, altempl, be be capable of, good/bad at, , be intend, love,
pleased/able, etc, be interested in, can't help, : prefer, start
choose, decide, expect, can't stand, consider, delay, I
fail, happen, help, hope, I, deny, d'!Sa/ss, d'zs l'k . 11
z'e, en;oy,
intend, learn, manage, ! feel, like, finish, give up, 1
offer, plan. prepare, l imagine, involve, look I
pretend, promise, refuse, : forward to, mention, !
seem, tend, want, wish, ' mind, miss, practise, I
would like succeed in, suggest. talk
abollf, think of

These verbs mean different things when they arc Do you remember visiting Germany when
fo llowed by the full infinitive or rhe -ing form. you were two?
remember • do something you arc/were planning to do
• have a pidure in your mind of a past event Did you remember to caJI Diane this
morning?

j}!). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._. _. ______,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-

 forget I woul€1 liiEe going to tA:e effiefl'la !:his e>o'ening. (X")
• not be able LO remember a past event (usually I would like to go to the cinema this evening. (.I) .,..
I'll never forget ... ) J would prefer to meet on Satmday, if possible. (.I)
I'll never forget meeting Paula for the first time.

• not do something you arc/were planning to do

Oh, 1 forgot t o ask Donna about th is evening.
1 Which of these is followed by the -ing form?
try afford/suggest/refuse
• do something as an experiment to solve a
2 Which of these is followed by the full
problem infinitive? deny/consider/plan
It's hot in here! Let's try opening a window.
3 Which ol' these is correct? I remember to
• make an effort to achieve something go/going to school for the first time.
I've been trying t o open this jar l'or ten
minutes!

stop
Prefer, would rather, hod better
• stop an activity Prefer and would rather are both u sed to express
I stopped smoking ten years ago. preferences. Had better is used for saying what
someone should do. Try not to confuse them.
• pause and do something else in the middle of
We don't say i¥el>fbi hetEer. They arc used like
an activity
this . ..
I was studying all evening, but I stopped t o
have a snack at seven. prefer
lJO 011. I prefer basketball to football. (gencraUy)
• continue 1 prefer playing basketball, rather than
After the break, our teacher went on football. (generally)
explaining the grammar to us. I prefer playing basketball to (playing)
• stop one activity and start a new one football. (generally)
After explaining the grammar, our teacher I prefer to play basketball, rather than (play)
went on t o tell us what the homework was. football. (generalJy, or on this occasion)
I prefer not to play basketball during the
regret
week . (generally, or on this occasion)
• be sorry about what has happened
I would prefer to play basketball this weekend
You'll regret sp eaking to me like that!
rather than football. (on this occasion)
• be sorry about giving somebody bad news
We regret to inform you that the flight to
Berlin has been cancelled.
We don't normaJly say .' de11: 't J9refer ...
like
• enjoy
I'm sure we all like r eceiving presents. would rather
• choose to/be in the habit of/think it is a good idea I would rather play basketball than (play)
I like to leave home at seven so that J get to football. (generally, or on this occasion)
work on time. l'd rather not play basketball. (on this occasion)

G ·-···- · · - had better

You'd better see a doctor.
When we want to use would like/prefer for a You ' d better do your homework, rather than
particular occasion, we use the .full infinitive. sit and watch TV.

-····················..·····························..····················..·····································································-···--- - -
 You'd better do your homework, instead of
sitting and watching TV.
You'd better not fail the test.
Conditionals (I): zero, first, second
There are many different kin ds of sentence
using if, and it can be a little confusing. You
have to dedde whether you're talking about the
past, the present or the future. You also have to
decide whether you're ta lking about a real
possibility or an unreal possibil ity (unlikely,
impossible or hypothetical) .
Real possibility, present and future
Zero conditional: if ... present tense ...
present tense
This is used to talk about genera l truths and
scientific facts.
If you read a lot. you learn lots of vocabulary.
If you are making a cake, you need to use
fresh eggs.
You can also write all conditional sentences the
other way ro un d, with the if clause second.
You learn lots of vocabulary if you read a lot.
You need to use fresh eggs if you are makjng
a cake.
First conditional: if ... present tense ... will ...
bare infinitive
This is used to talk about real possibilities in the
present, in the future, or generaJJ y.
If you read a Jot, you wi11 learn lots of
vocabulary.
You will need a good dictionary if you are
learning English.
If you have studJed, you'll do well in today's
test.
1 Which is correct? f would rather stay/to stay hert
2 You ................ .. .... . better see a dod.or. Which word _
missing? would/had/should
3 Which is correct? I wouldn't rather .. . /I don't
rather ... 11 would rather not ...
Instead of will, we can also use these other
modals or the imperative.
If you are going to the party, you can take this
cake I made.
If it's too late, we should call them tomorrow.
I might/may take up French if I pass my
English exam.
If you've finished, do the next exercise.
•••
When we are talking about the future, we use if
... present tense, not if ... will ...
If yot1 'Nill see TiRa toffi orrovl, teH her I' m
~(X)
If you see Tina tomorrow, tell he r I'm sorry. (.I)
We can use would like (=want) in first
conditional sentences like this.
I would like to study French if I pass my
English exam.
1 Which kind of conditional do we use to talk
about real possibili ties?
2 Which of these is used for an unreal
possibility? If ... present tense .. .I If ... past
tense ...
3 In conditionals, can you use other modals,
apart Jrom would? yes/no
Unreal possibility, present and
future
Second conditional: if ... past tense ... would
... bare infinitive
This is used to talk about unreal possibilities
(things that are unlikely, impossible or
hypothetical) in the present and in the future.
If I won the lottery, I would move to Ha waiL
I'd get a new car if I had enough money.
If you weren't having a lesson now, what
would you be doing?
The use of the past here is called the unreal past,
because it refers to the present or the future,
not the past.
Instead of would, we can also use these other
modals.
If I won the lottery, I could leave my job.
I might feel happier if I went to another
school.
Instead of Jfl was ... we can also say If I were... ,
espedally in formal English.
H I were Prime Minister, I would introduce
new laws against pollution.
For information on talking about unreal
possibilities in the past (third cond itional), see
page 189.
Unless, in case, as long as
unless
Unless means 'except if'. We can use it to replace
if ... not in some sentences. When it refers to the
fu ture, it is followed by the present tense (like if).
Modals (I)
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs which express
things like possibility, obligation, etc.
Modal verbs ...
• don't change for person or tense.
He might go to the cinema tonight.
(Not: He R'ligl'lts go to the cinema tonigfit. )
I'll be there unless it rains.
I= I'll be there, except if it rains./
I= 1 won't be there if it rains./
We can't use unless to replace if not when if not
doesn't mean except if.
If I wasn't ill, I'd play tomorrow. ( ~ )
(if not doesn't mean except ifhcre because you
are actually ill)
so we can't say:
Unless I vvas ill, I'd play tom:onow. (X)
in case
In case means 'because it might'. We use it to
talk about things we do to prevent an unwanted
result. When it refers to the future, it is followed
by the present tense (like if).
Write down the address in case you forget it.
(=Write down the address because you might
forget it.)
as long as
As long as means the same as only if. When it
refers to the future, His followed by the present
tense (like if). You can also use so long as with
the same meaning.
You can borrow my pen, as/so long as you
give it back to me at the end of the lesson.
(= You can borrow my pen only if you give it
back to me at the end of the lesson .)
1 What does unless mean?
2 Which phrase means 'because it might'?
3 What does as long as mean?
• don't use do in questions.
Can you play the guitar?
(Not: De yet:t can play the guitar?)
• are followed by the bare infinitive (without to}.
I think I will call John .
(Not: I think I will to cell John .)
----- ----- - - - ~
 • ea n be made negative usiJ1g not or -n 't. I must stop eating so much fast food.
You shouldn't speak to your mother like that. (personal obligation)
(Not: You elm'l't should SJ3eah to your Jnolher You must make more of an effort in class.
liketfiat. ) (personal obligation)
• don't have an infinitive. You have to use 1 have to be at work at nine tomorrow.
another word or phrase. (external obligation)
1 hope to be able to attend the meeting.
Oo you have to wear a unHom"J at your
(Not: I ho~e to can atteFHl the meeting.)
school? (external obligation)
The modal verbs include will, would, can, could, Have you got to wear a uniform at your
may, should, must, might, shall and ought to. We school? (external obligation)
also use the phrase have (got) to like a modal,
although it changes like an ordinary verb.
He has to go to work. (.!)
To talk abour the past we use had to.
He's got to go to work. (./)
We all had to leave the building when the
Does he have to go to work? (.!) alarm went off.
Has he got to go to work? (.I)
Dees fie haYe get te go to •Norlc (.X) Like other modal verbs, must doesn't have an
infinitive, so after other modals and when we
Have got to is generally more informal than have to.
need a full infinitive we use (to) have to.
expressing ability: can, could If I'm late, I'll have to apologise to the boss
Can you open this jar? It's stuck. (present again .
ability) I'm sorry to have to tell you th is, but you've
My cousin can play ten different musical failed the exam.
instruments. (general ability)
Mustn 't does not mean the same as don't have to.
I could walk when I was just six months old.
You mustn't speak while the teacher is
(general ability in the past)
speaking. (Don't do it.)
I wish I could play the violin. (hypothetical
You don't have to get me a birthday presem.
ability)
(Tt isn't necessary, but you can if you want to. )

Although you can form questions beginning

witl1 must, it's very unusual and formal.
Like other modal verbs, can doesn't have an
infinitive, so after other modals and when we Must we argue about this all the time?
need a full infinitive we use (to) be able to.
It's more common to form questions using have to.
I'll be able to get a better job after I finish
Do we have to argue about this all the time?
university.
1 might be able to see you tomorrow at six. asking for and giving permission : can, could,
I pretended to be a ble to speak .Japanese. may
We use can, could and may to ask for and give
expressing obligation: must, have to permission now, in the future and generally.
Must is generally used for personal obligation May is more polite than could and can, and could
(feelings of the speaker and hearer, etc) and is more polite than can.
have (go!) to for external obligation (rules, laws, Can I stay at Anna's this weekend, Mum?
what other people tell you to do, ctc). They are
Excuse me. Could l borrow your pen for a
both used to talk about the present, the future
second?
and general obligation.
May I speak to you for a moment, Mr Connors?

~·············..·······.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................._
 When talking about t11e past, we normaiJy use The exam resuJts ought to be on the website
could. by now.
(=The exam results arc probably on the
,.
My parents said l could go to the party so I tO
started getting ready. website by now.} e
(see pages 173-175 for more about reponed With non-stalivc verbs, we often use the
..e
tO
\:)

speech) continuous infinitive (be-ing) to talk about

actions happening now or about probable future
asking for and giving advice: should, ought to
arrangements.
We use should and ought to to ask for and
They should/ought to be having their
give advice about now, the future, or generally.
dinner now.
You should tell your teacher about your
Ben should/ought to be arriving at about
problems.
seven o'dock.
We ought to call if we're going to be late.
Shouldn't we start getting ready for t h e expressing certainty: must, can't
party? We use must when we arc (almost) sure about
something now, in the futu re or generally, often
(For criticising past actions, see pages 189-190} because we have seen some evidence.
Your father's late. He must be stuck in traffic
expressing possibility: may, might, could, can
on his way hom e.
We use can to talk about general possibilities.
Hi! You must be Mrs Johnson.
Jn Russia, it can be quite hot in the summer.
When we are (almost) sure that something isn' t
We use may, might and could to talk about true, often·because we have seen some
possibilities in the present, the future and evidence, we use can't.
generally. We sometimes use may to show that
That can't be the postman at the door. He's
something is more likely to happen.
already been today.
I may be a bit late for Friday's lesson.
Peter might have the right answer for With non-stative verbs, we often use the
number ten. continuous infinitive (be-ing) to talk about
actions happening now or about probable future
There could be some easy questions on the
arrangements.
exam.
They must/can't be having their dinner now.
With non -stative verbs, we often use the Kelly must/can't be going to Athens this
continuous iniinitive (be-ing) to talk about weekend.
actions happenb1g now or about possible future
a.rrangemcms: (For the modal perfect, see pages 186- 187 . For
Ian may be doing his homework right now. will and shall referring w the future, see pages
171-172. For would in conditional sentences, see
Sophia might be playing tennis at the moment.
pages 179 and 189)
l could be going to London this weekend.
(For deduc.tions about past possibility, see •
pages 186-187)
vour an I
•
1 What follows a modal verb? the infinitive
expressing probability: should, ought to without 'to'Jthe infinitive
We use should and ought to to say that something with 'to'
is probably true or will probably happen. 2 Do modal verbs have an infinitive? yes/no
Mr Davies should have the report by now. 3 Wh ich modals do we often use for giving
(= Mr Davies probably has the report by now.) advice?

_________
................................................................................................................................................
Relative clauses

Relative clauses tell us more about people and things.

The man who started Microsoft is now very rich.

relative clauses

Bill Gates, who started Microsoft, is now a very rich man .

In the first sentence, the relative clause
identifies the man we are talking about. Tt is
called a defining (or identifyin...q) relative clause. The
sentence does not make complete sense without
the relative clause.
The man is now very rich. (Which man? We
don't know.)
whom :> for people as the object of the
relative clause (in very formal
English) and after prepositions
All students whom the head teacher has
invited to dinner must reply before 5pm.
That's the man to whom I gave the money.

In the second sentence, the relative clause just In defining relative clauses, we ...
gives us extra information. It is called a non- • don't use conllllas.
defining relative clause. The sentence makes Those are the books which I told you about
complete sense without it. yesterday.
• can use that instead of who or which (that is
BiJJ Gates is now a very rich man.
more informal).
Relative clauses are often introduced by relative Those are the books that l told you about
pronouns. We use ... yesterday.
which :> for things • often leave out the relative pronoun when it is
Have you got the book which I lent you? the object of the clause.
Those are the books I told you about
who :> for people yesterday.
There's the man who stole my bag!
that :> for people, things, times and places In non-defining relative clauses, we ...
This is the bike that I got for Christmas. • separate the relative clause with commas.
whose :> for possession Ronald Reagan, who was the President of the
Tony, whose father is a lawyer, is in trouble United States, is ill.
with the police. • can't use that as a relative pronoun .
when :> for times RoB:ald Reagan, that 'ivas the President of the
l still remember the moment when I saw her United Slates, is ill. (){)
for the first time. • can't leave out the relative pronoun.
where :> for places Ronald Reagan, was the President of H1e
England, where footbaU began, has strong Uniteel States, is ill. (){)
sporting traditions.
why :> for reasons
That's the reason why he's always late.
 • When the relative pronoun (which, who, etc) is
the subject of the relative clause, you do not
need another subject.
That's the girl who is going out with John. (.I)
The resort which we spent our holiday in was
very quiet.
The resort that we spent our holiday in was
very quiet.

We can use other prepositions apart from in.

Tfl.at's the girl rNho sfl.e is going out ·.vith JofiA. {,K) The one we choose depends on the normal
- ~ ·~
meaning of the preposition.
Which can also be used to refer to the rest of the The school that/which my mum went to was
sentence: very traditional.
He got an A in his exam, which impressed Tl1e restaurant at which we met was closed.
everybody.
We can do the same thing wi.th when.
(Th is doesn't mean his exam impressed
The day when 1 won the lottery started badly.
everybody. It means the fac.1 that he got an A
impressed everybody.) (=The day on which I won the lottery started
badly.)
(=The day that/which I won the lottery on
y ur I
• started badly.)
1 Which rela tive pronoun do we use for things? When we use where and when, however, we
who/which/w hom don't need a preposition.
2 Here's the book which I borrowed from John. Does I will always love New York, the city where I
this need any commas? was born. (.I )
yes/no I will always love New York, the city
3 Do we use that as a relative pronoun in non- which/that I was born in. (v")
defining relative clauses? 1 will always love New York, the dty in
yes/no which I was born. (.I)
I 'tv4ll always love ~Te,,y Y<)flt, the city wft:el'e I
Relative pronouns and prepositions was eom iR. (X)

Where can be replaced by preposition+ which.

The resort where we spent our holiday was k vour u
very quiet. 1 Write the missing preposition. This is the town
(=The resort in whlch we spent our holiday ... ......... ........... which my
was very quiet.) molher was born.
2 This is the school to that my dad went. Is this
Less formally, we can put the preposition at the correct? yes/no
end of the clause. When the preposition is at the
end of the clause, we can also use that. 3 Here's the house in where my ,grandma lives. Is
this correct? yes/no

Result clauses: so, uch too enough

So, such, too and enou,_qh can be used to talk about My brother's so handsome that he's thin king
results. of becoming a model.
so We drove to the station so slowly that we
adjective missed our train.
... so... { adverb } ... rhac ... I have to do so much homework that I
don't have time for hobbies.
many/much + noun
................................................. ··················································································---·- - - - - - - -
 1 can't come out tonight because I've got too
much work t o do.
When so is used to mean as a result, it isn't
follow ed by that. It's too difficult for me t o do.
It was very late so l decided to leave. (.I)
It ·.vas very. lafe so that I decided ..to lea ¥e. (X)
Too is used to refer to something that is bad or
such negative or that prevents us from doing
something.
a/an + adjec.tivc +singular noun}
It's too cold to play o utside. (.I)
... such ...{ adjective + plural noun ... that ...
Don't vlorr;·! You a re tee flopu lar. (X)
a lot of+ noun
When the meaning is positive, use other words
It was such a boring lesson that I fell asleep. and phrases, such as really, extremely (wHh
My cousins tell such funny jokes th a t I can't adjectives or adverbs) or lots of (with nouns).
help laugh ing.
Don't worry! You are really popular.
We've got such a lot of homework that I
don't th ink 1 can do ir all.

• ••
enough
.. . (not) enough+ noun (+ for and/or + full
infinitive)
In all the above examples, the word that is
optional. Yes, I've got enough time.
Yes, I've got enough time to help you .
My brother's so handsome he's thinldng of No, I don't have enough time to help you .
becoming a model.
No, there isn't enough time for us to go
I have to do so much homework I don't have shopping.
time for hobbies.
My cousins reil such funny jokes I can't help adjective } enough+ for and/or )
laughing. ... (not) { adverb ( full infinitive

Both so and such can be used without a that You're old enough to go to school on your
clause as an emphatic way of saying 'very' or own now.
' really' .
It's not warm enough for us to go swimm ing.
Yo·u're so stupid! 1 didn' t learn the vocabulary well enough to
pass the test.

••
It was such a great fi lm!

too
adjective Too and enough are not followed by a that clause.
... too ... adverb +for and/or ) Th e coffee vt'e:s tee hot: that: I couldn' t drinlt
{ ( full infinitive it. (X)
many/much +noun
The coffee was not cold eFtoegk lhatl could
drinlc it. (X)
They told my dad he's too old.
They told my dad he's t oo old for the job.
They told my dad he's t oo old to do the job.
You 're driving too slowly.

fEJ···. · ···. . . ... ... ........ .... . . .... . . ..... ... ...... . . .... . ..... .... . . ......... . . . . . . . ._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . ..... . . . . ...... ... .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....
 In formal contexts, we can use the phrase so as
Check your understanding! before the full infinitive. So as isn't very common
l What do we use too to refer to? something in conversation.
positive/somet hing negative The Prime Minister today met MPs so as to
2 It was so hot that I got a headache. Is this correct? inform them oi" his decision.
yes/no
With a negative infinitive and with stative verbs,
3 He's old enough that he can drive a car. Is this we normaJJy use in order not or so as not. We
correct? yes/no don't normally use the full infinitive on its own .
We left early in order/so as not to be late.
Infinitives of purpose I studied hard in order/so as to be ready for
the test.
We can use a full infinitive to refer to someone's
purpose.
1 rang to speak to George. Check yo
We left early to get to the station on t ime. l I went home for to get my keys. Is this correct?
1 tang faF ta speah. to George. (X) yes/no
V.'e left eaFly foF gettiRg ta the station on 2 Which phrase means the same as in order? so
#ffie. (X) that/as for/so as
3 Which is correct? I studied not to fail the
We can also use the phrase in. order before the
full infin itive. In general, in order is more formal test.! I studied in order not to fail the test.
than the fuJJ infinitive alone.
I am writing in order to request further
information.

The causative • and with when we want to refer to the tool or

equipment.
I'm having my hair cut tomorrow. You look like you've had your hair cut with a
We got our garden done last week . knife and fork!
William shou ld have his car cleaned. It's a mess!

We use the causative when somebody else does •This structure

• • • • • can also be used to refer to things
something for us. We often use it for things we
pay other people to do. Like the passive (see that other people cUd/have done to us but which
pages 169-170), we use the causat.ive when the •we ctidn't ask them to do, for example, steal ing
person who does the action is unimportant or something of ours.
obvious or for emphasis. We form the causative I've had my bag stolen. (=My bag has been stolen.)
using ...
• have in the right form +object+ past participle
We can also use the verb ,qet instead of have. Get
is less formal. As with the passive voice, we can l When do we u se the cau sative"?
use by when we want to say who does rhe 2 Which verb can be used to form the causative,
action. apart from have?
You should have your arm looked at by a doctor. 3 Which is correct? Get your hair cut/Get cut
your hair.

···················································································································································-····- - --------- - - -- - --~

 Gradable and ungradable ungradable adjectives and adverbs
adjectives and adverbs The match was ............................... amazing.

There are Lwo different kinds of adjective and In this sentence, we can use words that mean
adverb. Words like happy, big, angry, slowly, 'completely'.
quickly, ctc, are gradable. Th is means we th ink of absolutely
these ideas as a scale.
.................................................................................................................... ~
The match was completely amazing .
big very big extremely big incredibly big totally

Words like wonderful, impossible, perfect, etc, are

ungradable. We think of these as things you
either are, or aren't. tn other words you are Quite with a gradable adjective means 'fairly'.
either perfect or you aren't. We don't think of Quite with an ungradable adjective means
these ideas as being on a scale. 'completely'.

We use different words with gradable and

ungradable adjectives and adverbs.
gradable adjectives and adverbs
I Which of these is gradable?
James is ............................... tall. perfect/ cool/wonderful
In this sentence, we can use words that refer to 2 Wh ich of these is ungradable?
degree or amount. beautiful/impossible/tall
very 3 Which of these do we use with ungradable
a little adjectives? really/absolutely/very
a bit
r ather
.Tames is quite tall.
really
extremely
incredibly

Modals (2): modal erfect

ModaJ + p erfect infinitive (have +past must, can't, couldn't
participle) We use must/can 't + perfect infinitive to talk about
You must have felt great when you got your guesses about the past that we are (almost) sure
exam results. of. Often, we arc {almost) sure because we have
You shouldn't have spoken to her like that. some evidence.
You drove without a licence? You might There's John's coat. He must have forgotten it.
h ave killed someone! Angie hates sweet th1ngs. She couldn't/can't
Paul m ight have forgotten our date. h ave eat en the cake that was in th e fridge.
Could you have left your keys at the hotel? should, ought to
We use should/ought to+ perfect infinitive to

~................................................................................................................................................................................................................._...............................................................................................................
 now This time next week ...
The future (2) (eg Wednesday (eg next Wednesday
morning) morning)
We have already looked at some ways of ta lking ....................................................................................................................,...
about the future in Unit 6 (see pages 171-172).
Here arc some other ways. t t
.................................................... I will be Lying ..........................,...
Future p erfect: will + have + past participle on a tropical beach.
I'll have finished my homework by 8
o'clock.
We use the future continuous to talk about an
I w on't have spoke n to John by the time I action happening at a point in the future.
see you . (Compare this with the present continuous and
the past continuous.)
We use the future perfect to show that an action
will happen at some point between now and a We can also use may and mif}ht to talk about
time in the future. actions possibly happening at a point jn the
future.
now 8 o'clock Don't call at one o'clock tomorrow becau se 1
may /might be having my lunch . (possibly)
I'll have :finished
................................ my homework by 8 o'clock.
................................................................................................ ,...
Fut ure perfe ct cont inu ous: will+ have been
I finish my homework at some point between + -ing
these times. We use the future perfect continuous to talk about
actions that are in progress up to a point in the
future.
This means that at 8 o'clock I can say: 1 have
finished my homework. I'll have been living here for ten years at the
end of J une.
So, now I can say: I will have finished my
homework by 8 o'clock.
l started living here now the end of J une
We can also use other modals (might, may, ······················••t ••··································l ··································'t···········,...
should) to talk about actions that will possibly or
probably happen between now and a point in
the future.
Call me on my mobile because we l 0 years
m ay /might have left by midnight. (possibly)
I should have fi nished my homework by At the end of June, I can say: 7have been Hvin£J
six, so give me a ring then. (probably) here for ten years.
So, now 1 can say: I wi/1 have been livin£J here for
Future continuous: will + be + -ing ten years at the end of.June.
This time next week, I will be lying on a
tropical beach.

S ······································································································································..····························································-··················································..··········································································-

1 /'L/ have finished by 6 o'clock. When will I finish?
before 61after 6
2 Can we use other modaJs instead of will in the
future perfect? yes/no
3 What tense is used to talk about a n action
happening at a point in th e fu t ure?
Transferred negation
I don't think Laura is coming to the party.
I don't suppose we'll have the picnic because
it's raining.
When we want to express a negative idea using
think, suppose, believe or imagine, we normally
make these verbs negative and not the second
verb.
l t:A inl( I can't come on Saturday. (X) (not
natural)
Conditionals (2): the third conditional
We can't change the past. When we want to
imagine the past being different, we can talk
about it using the third conditional.
hypothetical (unreal) possibility,
past
Third conditional: if ... past perfect ...
would have ... past participle
If I had known about the party, I would
have gone.
{I didn't know abotH the party I didn't go.)
We wouJdn't have been on time if we
hadn't run.
(We ran . We were on time.)
Instead of would, we can also use these other
modals.
If I had known about the party, I might have
gone. (J'm not sure.)
.Q
I don't t hink I can come on Saturday. (.!')
(more natural)
SaHl says she thinlts she aoesH't l1ave your
~. (X) (not nat.ural)
Sam says she doesn't think she has your
book. (.!') (more natural)
We don't do this with the verb hope.
I deR't hope vte lose the matcl1 tomorrovt. (X)
I hope we don't lose the match tomorrow. (.I')
1 Which is better? I think he ~s not coming./!
don't think he's coming.
2 T don't hope my mum has forgotten my birthday! Is
this correct? yes/no
If we had had enough money last night, we
could have gone to the dncma. (rt would
have been possible.)
n din I
•
I Does the third conditional refer to a real
possibility? yes/no
2 What does t he th ird conditional refer ro? the
past/the present/the futut·e
3 Can we use other modals, apart from would?
yes/no
Wishes and regrets
The tenses we use with wish are like the tenses
we use in hypothetical conditional sentences
(past lO talk about the present, past perfect to talk
 ..
'1:
-c.
about the past). You can see this because we can
use If only ... as an emphatic form of I wish ....
I wish you wouldn't speak when I'm speaking.
I wish you would stop making that noise.
...
"'
e
e
Wishes about the present/future: wish +
past (simple or continuous) (or past
• ....... ····-·- -·-··· ---~- ..................... ---· .

..."' modal) We don't say: 1 mish l;¥eultl.. . (X)

'-'
1 wish I was/were taller. (If only I was/were
taller!)
We only use wish to talk about hypothetical
Don't you wish you knew more languages? situations. When we want to ta lk about real
I wish I was having German lessons. possibilities in the past, present or future. we
I wish I could come with you next week. usually use hope.
I hope we have a good time next Saturday.
Wishes about the past (regrets): wish+ past
I hope you enjoyed the party last night.
perfect
We wish we had seen that film when we had
the chance. yo r u e
I wish I hadn't told Hannah all my secrets.
1 Twish 1 was still in bed! What does tills refer to?
Wishes about other people's behaviour: the past/the present/the future
wish+ would 2 I wish 1 would stop smoking. Is this correct?
We can use wish to talk about things that other yes/no
people do that annoy or irritate us. 3 1 wish T pass the exam next week. Is this correct?
yes/no

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