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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets: List of Figures
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets: List of Figures
Table of Contents
Page
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Snow loads for hip and gable roofs. ................................................................................................... 9
Fig. 2. Snow loads for curved roofs. ............................................................................................................ 10
Fig. 3. Snow loads for valley roofs. .............................................................................................................. 11
Fig. 4. (To be used with Table 4.) Snow loads for lower roofs. ................................................................... 11
Fig. 5. Snow loads for lower roof of adjacent structures. ............................................................................ 14
Fig. 6. Sliding snow load for lower roofs. .................................................................................................... 14
Fig. 7. Snow load at roof projections. .......................................................................................................... 15
Fig. 8a. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for pitched roofs. ................................................ 16
Fig. 8b. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for flat roofs. ....................................................... 17
Fig. 9. Flat and sloped roofs with interior roof drains. ................................................................................. 24
Fig. 10. Sloped roof with roof edge drainage. ............................................................................................. 25
Fig. 11a. Ground snow load (Pg ) in psf for western United States.To obtain kN/m2, multiply by 0.048.) . 28
Fig. 11b. Ground snow load (Pg ) in psf for central United States.To obtain kN/m2, multiply by 0.048.) ... 29
Fig. 11c. Ground snow load (Pg ) in psf for eastern United States.To obtain kN/m2, multiply by 0.048.) .. 30
Fig. 12. Ground snow load (Pg) in kg/m2, for 50-yr MRI, for Western Europe. (To convert kg/m2
to kN/m2, multiple by 0.0098. To convert kg/m2 to psf, divide by 4.88.) (June 1984.) For further
information on Germany, Switzerland and Austria, see notes for Fig. 12. .................................. 31
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1-54 Roof Loads for New Construction
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
Fig. 13. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for the western United States.(To convert to
millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.) ........................................................................................... 33
Fig. 14. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for the central and eastern United States.
(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.) .................................................................... 34
Fig. 15. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Puerto Rico. (To convert to millimeters per hour
multiply by 25.4.) ............................................................................................................................. 35
Fig. 16. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Hawaiian Islands.(To convert to millimeters per hour
multiply by 25.4.) ............................................................................................................................. 36
Fig. 17. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Alaska.(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply
by 25.4.) .......................................................................................................................................... 37
Fig. 18. Rainfall intensity (i) in millimeters per hour for Western Europe, 50-yr 60-minute rainfall.
Multiply values on map by 1.07 to convert to 100-yr 60-minute rainfall intensities.
(To convert to in./hr, divide by 25.) (November 1982.) ................................................................... 38
Fig. 19. Typical tributary loaded areas for primary and secondary members. ............................................ 42
Fig. 20. Design snow loads for Example 1. ................................................................................................. 43
Fig. 21. Design snow loads for Example 2. ................................................................................................. 44
Fig. 22. Design snow loads for Example 3. ................................................................................................. 45
Fig. 23. Design snow loads for Example 4. ................................................................................................. 46
Fig. 24a. Flat roof plan for Example 5. ........................................................................................................ 47
Fig. 24b. Sloped roof plan for Example 5. ................................................................................................... 48
Fig. 25. Roof plan for Example 6. ................................................................................................................ 49
Fig. 26. Roof plan for Example 7. ................................................................................................................ 50
List of Tables
Table 1. Ground Snow Load (Pg) for Alaskan Locations in psf (kN/sq m) ................................................... 7
Table 2. Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load (Pf), Denisty (D),and
Height of Balanced Snow Load (hb) for Flat and Low-sloped Roofs ............................................. 7
Table 3. Roof Slope Factor Cs ...................................................................................................................... 8
Table 4. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow Load (Pf),
Density (D), Balance Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd) and
Max Load (Pd+Pf) ......................................................................................................................... 12
Table 4, Continued. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow
Load (Pf), Density (D), Balance Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd)
and Max Load (Pd+Pf) .................................................................................................................. 13
Table 5. Flow Capacity for Roof Drains and Piping1 .................................................................................. 20
Table 6. Hydraulic Head Versus Flow Capacity for Roof Scuppers ............................................................ 21
Table 7. Conversion of Rainfall Intensity to Flow Rate and Rain Load per Unit Area ............................... 22
Table 8. Hydraulic Head versus Roof Drain Flow ........................................................................................ 22
1.0 SCOPE
This loss prevention data sheet presents guidelines principally for snow and rain loadings and drainage for
the design of new roofs of buildings and other structures. The emphasis is placed upon the design of new
construction because structural and mechanical changes in existing buildings can be very expensive.
In general, it is the function of this data sheet to present background details and guidelines for building
designers to use in carrying out the requirements or intent of typical building and plumbing codes regarding
design roof loads and roof drainage.
It should be noted that the various guidelines presented are not based upon the worst conditions possible,
or even the worst conditions recorded. A probabilistic approach is used to establish design values that reduce
the risk of a snow-load-induced or rain-load-induced roof collapse to an acceptable low level.
1.1 Changes
September 2006. Minor editorial changes were done for this revision.
2.1.1.1 General
2.1.1.1.1 Roofs should be designed to withstand their dead load plus the more restrictive of the following
live loads:
a) The balanced (uniform) or unbalanced snow loads in accordance with Section 2.1.1.2.
b) The rain loads in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3 and precluding (i.e., ruling out in advance) instability
from ponding.
c) Other superimposed live loads, as specified, to account for the use and maintenance of the roof and
the occupancy of the building/structure.
d) A minimum design live load of 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) for flat roofs, sloped roofs less than 4 in./ft (18.4%)
and curved roofs with rise less than 1⁄8 of span, except when a reduction in the minimum design live load
is appropriate, see Recommendation 2.1.1.1.2.
2.1.1.1.2 Reductions in the minimum roof design live load of 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) when permitted by applicable
building code should be restricted for lightweight roof constructions. These constructions include all metal,
insulated steel deck, boards-on-joists, plywood diaphragm, etc. Reductions in the minimum roof design live
load should only be taken whenever the roof slopes at least 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) and both of the following are met:
a) The resultant minimum roof design live load is greater than the snow or rain loads described in the
data sheet and instability due to ponding is precluded (see Section 2.1.1.1.8).
b) The roof snow load is zero or the supported combined design dead load plus live load is at least 28 psf
(1.4 kN/m2).
2.1.1.1.3 During initial design, the building (structure) designer should submit the following information to
Factory Mutual Engineering Association for confirmation that the design live loads and drainage of each roof
are in accordance with this data sheet (if the design does not follow the guidelines of this data sheet,
proposed exceptions should be identified and compared):
a) Roof framing and drainage system plans, sections and details.
b) The applicable building and plumbing codes.
c) Identification, where a minimum design live load of 20 psf (1.0 kN/m2) governs, of reductions taken
in the minimum design live load for any primary or secondary members and their respective design dead
and live loads.
d) The ground snow load and the source if different from the guidelines of this data sheet.
e) The balanced, unbalanced, drift and sliding surcharge snow loads and drift length, as appropriate for
the roof configurations, showing loading diagrams and denoting any differences from the guidelines of
this data sheet.
f) The rainfall intensity for a 1-hour duration, the Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI) and the source if different
from the guidelines of this data sheet.
g) Primary drains and/or scuppers: type, size, maximum drainage area and flow rate, roof surface slope
to drainage point or dead-flat, and whether drains are located at mid-bay.
h) Overflow drainage provisions: whether over the roof edge, or overflow scuppers or drains; type, size,
maximum drainage area and flow rate for scuppers and drains; height to roof edge, invert (scuppers)
or inlet (drains) from the (adjacent to) design roof line; and roof surface slope to overflow point or dead-flat.
i) Maximum hydraulic head and total head for primary and overflow drains and scuppers.
j) Maximum design rain load for dead-flat roofs and at the low points of sloped roofs.
k) Analysis method for dead-flat roofs and source used to substantiate that the roof is stable based on
the design rain load of this guideline and ponding.
l) Roof slope for roofs with drainage over the edge or sloped to drains or scuppers. If the slope is less
than 1⁄4 in./ft (2%), substantiate with calculations that the design slope is sufficient based on Section
2.1.1.3.7.2
2.1.1.1.4 Roof drainage should be designed in accordance with one of the methods described in Section
2.1.1.3, or to applicable building and plumbing codes, whichever results in better drainage.
2.1.1.1.5 Overflow relief protection should be provided in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5.3.
2.1.1.1.6 Roofs should be designed for a rain load or total head consisting of the maximum possible depth
of rainwater that could accumulate, as determined by the relative levels of the roof surface and overflow
provisions, except for water retained (ponding) due solely to the deflected roof, as described in Section
2.1.1.3.2 and shown in Figures 8a and 8b. The roof framing designer, however, should preclude instability
due to ponding based on the estimated water buildup (total head), consistent with this guideline.
2.1.1.1.7 Roofs should be designed with positive drainage: however, dead-flat roofs consistent with this
guideline are acceptable. Sloping the roof surface 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) toward roof drains or scuppers or points of
free drainage (roof edge) should be sufficient for positive drainage. If a slope of less than 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) is
desired for positive drainage, analysis methods presented in Section 2.1.1.3.7 should be used.
2.1.1.1.8 Roof framing systems should be analyzed by the designer according to the following guidelines
(as applicable), to preclude instability from ponding based on the total (dead plus live) load supported by the
roof framing before consideration of ponding or by substantiating that a roof slope is sufficient.
a) Dead-flat roofs: the total load supported should be the design rain load, according to Section 2.1.1.3.6,
plus the dead load of the roof. An acceptable analysis method for ponding of two-way framing systems
is presented in the ASD and LRFD Specifications for Structured Steel Buildings, Commentary, Chapters
K2, American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).
b) Sloped roofs to drains or scuppers: the total load supported should be the design rain loads, according
to Section 2.1.1.3.6, distributed locally to the low areas, plus the dead load of the roof. An acceptable
analysis method, conservative for sloped roofs, is the AISC method given in Part a, using an appropriate
equivalent uniform load based on the design rain load distribution plus dead load for the total load
supported. Also, if the design roof slope is less than 1⁄4 in./ft (2%), it should be substantiated that it is
sufficient according to Section 2.1.1.3.7.2.
c) Sloped roofs to free drainage over the roof edge: if the design roof slope is less than 1⁄4 in./ft (2%), it
should be substantiated that it is sufficient according to Section 2.1.1.3.7.2.
2.1.1.1.9 Unless roofs are sufficiently sloped for drainage over the roof edges (see Section 2.1.1.3.7.2),
drains or scuppers should be provided in quantity, placement and size as described in Section 2.1.1.3.5.
2.1.1.1.10 Roofs with controlled flow drains should have an overflow drainage system at a higher elevation
as described in Section 2.1.1.3.2.4. Such roofs should otherwise be designed in accordance with this data
sheet.
2.1.1.1.11 Roof drains and vertical leaders in sizes of 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 mm) diameter inclusive should
be used, except for areas less than 2500 ft2 (230 m2), such as canopies, where 3 in. (75 mm) diameter drains
may be used. It is usually impractical to use 8 in. (200 mm) diameter drains because of drainage area
limitations and drain flow restrictions imposed by drainage piping and/or water buildup loads.
2.1.1.1.12 Three-sided channel type roof scuppers should be used whenever possible. For walls and
parapets, the four-sided perimeter, closed type scuppers should be used (see sketch with Table 6). Scuppers
and leaders or conductors should have minimum dimensions of 6 in. (150 mm) wide by 4 in. (100 mm) high
and 5 in. (125 mm) diameter or equivalent, respectively. The height of the closed type scupper should be
at least 1 in. (25 mm) higher than the estimated water buildup height (hydraulic head) developed behind the
scupper (see Table 6).
2.1.1.1.13 To assure adequate drainage, two roof drains or scuppers, as applicable, should be installed for
roof areas of approximately 10,000 ft2 (930 m2) or less. For larger areas, the number of drains or scuppers
should be in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5.1.
2.1.1.1.14 The sizing of vertical leaders or conductors, and piping for horizontal drainage systems, should
be in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5.4 and tabulated in Table 5.
2.1.1.1.15 Where overflow roof drains or scuppers are provided, they should be at least equivalent to the
primary roof drains or scuppers, and placed and sized in accordance with Section 2.1.1.3.5 as applicable.
2.1.1.1.16 Roof overflow drain or scupper drainage systems should have vertical leaders, conductors or
piping to points of discharge independent of the primary roof drainage system. If these points of discharge
can experience backup, then points of free drainage, such as over-the-roof edges or through relief openings
atop conductors, should be used.
2.1.1.1.17 Roofs and their drainage inlets should be inspected at least every three months and following
storms. They should be cleared of obstructions or accumulations of the foreign matter (described in Section
2.1.1.4.1) as frequently as individual judgment deems necessary.
2.1.1.1.18 Existing roofs (especially lightweight roof constructions) which have severely inadequate primary
drainage and no overflow relief protection should be provided with additional drainage provisions. The need
for overflow drainage should be an individual judgment in conjunction with an evaluation of existing
conditions.
2.1.1.1.19 Existing roofs which are severely exposed to collapse from snow loading should be reinforced
in the exposed area. But, where reinforcing is impractical, the Emergency Organization should include snow
removal teams. Snow removal must be safe, practical and reliable in order to be effective. A safe maximum
snow depth should be determined and snow cleared from the roofs when one-half of this depth is reached.
2.1.1.1.20 Existing roofs having roof-mounted or roof- suspended equipment and structures added or
modified, as described in Section 2.1.1.4.1, should have the supporting roof framing and columns structurally
analyzed for the resulting dead load plus live load and reinforced as determined by a qualified engineer.
2.1.1.1.21 Rack storage structures or vertical stays should not be secured to roof framing, and bulk materials
should not be placed against roof supporting walls (as described in Section 2.1.1.4.2) unless the roof and
wall systems, respectively, are so designed.
2.1.1.1.22 Columns in the traffic areas of manually operated trucks or other mobile equipment should be
protected and anchored as described in Section 2.1.1.4.2.
2.1.1.1.23 Suspended or otherwise supported ceilings which allow access for maintenance workers should
be designed for appropriate concentrated and uniform live loads based on the anticipated maintenance work.
2.1.1.2.1 General
Design snow loads should be determined in accordance with the guidelines of this section. However, the
design superimposed roof load should not be less than the minimum live or snow loads designated by the
applicable building code or less than the rain loads covered in Section 2.1.1.3. For roofs of unusual shape or
configuration, wind-tunnel or analytical modeling techniques should be used to help establish design snow
loads.
Table 1. Ground Snow Load (Pg) for Alaskan Locations in psf (kN/sq m)
Adak 20 (0.96) Galena 65 (3.1) Petersburg 130 (6.2)
Anchorage 45 (2.2) Gulkana 60 (2.9) St. Paul Islands 45 (2.2)
Angoon 75 (3.6) Homer 45 (2.2) Seward 55 (2.6)
Barrow 30 (1.4) Juneau 70 (3.3) Shemya 20 (0.96)
Barter Island 60 (2.9) Kenai 55 (2.6) Sitka 45 (2.2)
Bethel 35 (1.7) Kodiak 30 (1.4) Talkeetna 175 (8.4)
Big Delta 60 (2.9) Kotzebue 70 (3.3) Unalakleet 55 (2.6)
Cold Bay 20 (0.96) McGrath 70 (3.3) Valdez 170 (8.2)
Cordova 100 (4.8) Nenana 55 (2.6) Whittier 400 (19.0)
Fairbanks 55 (2.6) Nome 80 (3.8) Wrangell 70 (3.3)
Fort Yukon 70 (3.3) Palmer 50 (2.4) Yakutat 175 (8.4)
Table 2. Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load (Pf), Denisty (D),and Height of Balanced
Snow Load (hb) for Flat and Low-sloped Roofs
English Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (psf) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load, Pf (psf)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
5 10 15 20 23 27 32 36 40 48 56 64 72 80
Density D, (pcf) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load Height, hb, (ft)
14.7 15.3 16.0 16.6 17.3 17.9 18.6 19.2 20.5 21.8 23.1 24.4 25.7 27.0
0.3 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.8 3.0
Metric Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (kN/m2) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load, Pf (kN/m2)
0.25 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.25 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.7 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.0
Density D, (kN/m3) Balanced Flat-Roof Snow Load Height hb (m)
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.4
0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Note: Interpolation is appropriate.
2.1.1.2.8.2 Curved Roofs (e.g., bow-string truss roofs). Unbalanced snow loads should be considered for
slopes where the ‘‘vertical angle’’ from the eave to the crown is between 10° and 60°. Portions of curved roofs
having a roof slope exceeding 70° should be considered free of snow. The point at which the roof slope
exceeds 70° should be considered the ‘‘eave’’ for such roofs. Unbalanced loading diagrams, Cases I, II and
III, for curved roofs with roof slopes at the eave of 30°, 30°–70°, and greater than 70°, appear in Figure 2.
If another roof or the ground surface abuts a case II or III curved roof at or within 3 ft (0.9 m) of the eave, the
snow load should not be decreased between the 30° roof slope point and the eave, but should remain
constant at 2.0 Ps as shown by the dashed line.
2.1.1.2.8.3 Valley-Roofs. Valleys are formed by multiples of folded plate, gable, sawtooth and barrel vault
roofs. No reduction in snow load should be applied for roof slope (i.e., Cs = 1.0 and Ps = Pf; see Section
2.1.1.2.5). For valleys formed by the minimum slopes stated in Section 2.1.1.2.8.1 and 2.1.1.2.8.2, the
unbalanced snow load should increase from one-half the balanced load (0.5 Pf) at the ridge (or crown) to
three times the balanced load at the valley (3.0 Pf) (see Fig. 3). The snow surface above the valley, however,
should not be at a higher elevation than the snow above the ridge (or crown). Snow depths should be
determined by dividing the snow loads by the appropriate snow density (D) in Table 2. The above snow load
methodology is also applicable to multiple gable and barrel vault roofs.
localized loads from snow drifts caused by wind over higher portions of the same structure, adjacent structures
or terrain feature within 20 ft (6 m). For snow drifts formed on lower roofs by windblown snow across the
lower roof, see Section 2.1.1.2.9.4.
2.1.1.2.9.1 Drift Load. The drift load on lower roofs should be taken as a triangular surcharge loading
superimposed on the balanced roof snow load (Pf) as shown in Figure 4.
Maximum drift height (hd) in ft (m) should be determined from Table 4 or the following formulas:
English Units:
3 4
hd (ft) = 0.43 √ Wb √ Pg+10 − 1.5 ≤ hc
Fig. 4. (To be used with Table 4.) Snow loads for lower roofs.
Metric Units:
3 4
hd (m) = 0.42 √ Wb √ Pg+0.48 − .457 ≤ hc
2
Wd = 4 hd, except when hd > hc + 1 ft (0.3 m), then Wd = 4 hd ≥ 6 h
c
hc
If Wd exceeds the width of the lower roof (this occurs frequently with canopy roofs), the drift should be
truncated at the far edge of the roof and not reduced to zero.
Table 4. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow Load (Pf), Density (D), Balance
Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd) and Max Load (Pd+Pf)
English Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (psf)
Balanced Snow Load, Pf (psf)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
5 10 15 20 23 27 32 36 40 48 56 64 72 80
Density, D (pcf)
Balanced Snow Load Height, hb (ft)
14.7 15.3 16.0 16.6 17.3 17.9 18.6 19.2 20.5 21.8 23.1 24.4 25.7 27.0
0.3 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.8 3.0
Upwind Drift Height, hd (ft)1
Distance Max. Drift Load, Pd (psf)1
Wb (ft) Max. Load at Wall, Pd + Pf (psf)1
25 0.97 1.16 1.31 1.44 1.56 1.66 1.76 1.84 2.00 2.14 2.26 2.37 2.47 2.57
14 18 21 24 27 30 33 35 41 47 52 58 63 64
19 28 36 44 50 57 65 71 81 95 108 122 135 144
50 1.61 1.85 2.04 2.21 2.35 2.48 2.60 2.71 2.91 3.08 3.24 3.38 3.51 3.62
24 28 33 37 41 44 48 52 60 67 75 82 90 98
29 38 48 57 64 71 80 88 100 115 131 146 162 178
100 2.42 2.72 2.96 3.17 3.35 3.52 3.67 3.81 4.05 4.27 4.47 4.65 4.81 4.96
36 42 47 53 58 63 68 73 83 93 103 113 124 134
41 52 62 73 81 90 100 109 123 141 159 177 196 214
200 3.44 3.82 4.12 4.39 4.62 4.83 5.01 5.19 5.50 5.78 6.02 6.25 6.45 6.64
51 58 66 73 80 86 93 100 113 126 139 153 166 179
56 68 81 93 103 113 125 136 153 174 195 217 238 259
300 4.15 4.59 4.94 5.24 5.50 5.74 5.96 6.16 6.51 6.83 7.11 7.37 7.60 7.82
61 70 79 87 95 103 111 118 133 149 164 180 195 211
66 80 94 107 118 130 143 154 173 197 220 244 267 291
400 4.72 5.20 5.58 5.91 6.20 6.46 6.71 6.92 7.32 7.67 7.97 8.26 8.52 8.76
69 80 89 98 107 116 125 133 150 167 184 202 219 237
74 90 104 118 131 143 157 169 190 215 240 266 291 317
500 5.20 5.72 6.13 6.48 6.80 7.08 7.34 7.58 8.00 8.37 8.70 9.01 9.29 9.55
76 88 98 108 118 127 137 146 164 182 201 220 239 258
81 98 113 128 141 154 169 182 204 230 257 284 311 338
600 5.62 6.17 6.61 6.99 7.32 7.62 7.89 8.14 8.59 8.99 9.34 9.67 9.97 10.3
83 94 106 116 127 136 147 156 176 196 216 236 256 278
88 104 121 136 150 163 179 192 216 244 272 300 328 358
800 6.34 6.94 7.43 7.84 8.21 8.54 8.84 9.11 9.61 10.0 10.4 10.8 11.1 11.4
93 106 119 130 142 153 164 175 197 219 241 264 286 308
98 116 134 150 165 180 196 211 237 267 297 328 358 388
1000 6.94 7.59 8.11 8.56 8.98 9.31 9.64 9.93 10.5 10.9 11.4 11.7 12.1 12.4
102 116 130 142 155 167 179 191 215 238 262 286 311 335
107 126 145 162 178 194 211 227 255 286 318 350 383 415
Note: Interpolation is appropriate.
1
The drift height (hd), maximum drift load (Pd) and maximum load at wall (Pd + Pf) are limited to hc, (hc × D) and (hr × D), respectively.
Table 4, Continued. (To be used with Figure 4) Ground Snow Load (Pg) versus Balanced Snow Load (Pf), Density (D),
Balance Snow Load Height (hb), Drift Height (hd), Max Drift Load (Pd) and Max Load (Pd+Pf)
Metric Units:
Ground Snow Load, Pg (kN/sq m)
Balanced Snow Load, Pf (kN/sq m)
0.25 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.25 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.7 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.0
Density, D (kN/cu m)
Balanced Snow Load Height, hb (m)
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.4
0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Upwind Drift Height, hd (m)1
Distance Max. Drift Load, Pd (kN/sq m)1
Wb (m) Max. Load at Wall, Pd + Pf (kN/sq m)1
10 .37 .43 .46 .51 .53 .59 .66 .67 .77 .85 .91
.85 1.04 1.14 1.34 1.38 1.66 1.97 2.07 2.68 3.30 4.02
1.10 1.54 1.74 2.24 2.38 2.92 3.67 3.77 5.08 6.50 8.02
15 .49 .56 .59 .65 .67 .74 .82 .83 .91 1.03 1.11
1.13 1.35 1.47 1.70 1.75 2.08 2.45 2.53 3.18 4.03 4.89
1.38 1.85 2.07 2.60 2.75 3.34 4.15 4.23 5.58 7.23 8.89
30 .74 .83 .86 .94 .97 1.06 1.15 1.16 1.31 1.42 1.52
1.69 1.99 2.15 2.45 2.52 2.96 3.44 3.61 4.58 5.55 6.69
1.94 2.49 2.75 3.35 3.52 4.22 5.14 5.31 6.98 8.75 10.69
50 .96 1.07 1.10 1.2 1.23 1.34 1.44 1.46 1.63 1.77 1.89
2.20 2.56 2.76 3.13 3.20 3.74 4.33 4.54 5.72 6.91 8.30
2.45 3.06 3.36 4.03 4.20 5.00 6.03 6.24 8.12 10.11 12.30
100 1.32 1.46 1.51 1.63 1.67 1.8 1.94 1.96 2.18 2.35 2.49
3.05 3.51 3.77 4.25 4.34 5.04 5.81 6.08 7.62 9.16 10.97
3.30 4.01 4.37 5.15 5.34 6.30 7.51 7.78 10.02 12.36 14.97
120 1.44 1.58 1.63 1.76 1.80 1.94 2.09 2.11 2.34 2.52 2.68
3.30 3.80 4.08 4.59 4.69 5.44 6.26 6.55 8.17 9.84 11.78
3.55 4.30 4.68 5.49 5.69 6.70 7.96 8.25 10.57 13.04 15.78
150 1.58 1.74 1.79 1.94 1.98 2.13 2.29 2.31 2.56 2.76 2.92
3.64 4.18 4.48 5.03 5.14 5.96 6.86 7.17 8.96 10.75 12.85
3.89 4.68 5.08 5.93 6.14 7.22 8.56 8.87 11.36 13.95 16.85
180 1.71 1.88 1.93 2.09 2.13 2.29 2.46 2.49 2.75 2.96 3.13
3.93 4.51 4.83 5.42 5.54 6.41 7.37 7.71 9.62 11.53 13.78
4.18 5.01 5.43 6.32 6.54 7.67 9.07 9.41 12.02 14.73 17.78
200 1.79 1.96 2.02 2.18 2.22 2.39 2.56 2.59 2.86 3.08 3.26
4.11 4.70 5.05 5.66 5.78 6.68 7.58 8.03 10.01 12.00 14.34
4.36 5.20 5.65 6.56 6.78 7.94 9.38 9.73 12.41 15.20 18.34
300 2.11 2.31 2.38 2.56 2.61 2.80 3.00 3.03 3.34 3.59 3.8
4.86 5.54 5.94 6.65 6.79 7.84 8.99 9.40 11.70 14.00 16.71
5.11 6.04 6.54 7.55 7.79 9.10 10.69 11.10 14.10 17.20 20.71
Note: Interpolation is appropriate.
1
The drift height (hd), maximum drift load (Pd) and maximum load at wall (Pd + Pf) are limited to hc, (hc × D) and (hr × D), respectively.
2.1.1.2.9.2 Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features. A drift load should be applied to lower roofs or
structures sited within 20 ft (6 m) of a higher structure or terrain feature (i.e., tanks, hills) as shown in Figure
5. The drift load should be determined using the methodology of Section 2.1.1.2.9.1; the factor 1-S/20 with
S in ft (1-S/6 with S in meters) should be applied to the maximum intensity of the drift Pd to account for the
horizontal separation between structure S, expressed in ft (m). Drift loads need not be considered for
separations greater than 20 ft (6 m).
2.1.1.2.9.3 Sliding Snow. Lower roofs which are located below roofs having a slope greater than 20° should
be designed for an increase in drift height of 0.4 hd, except that the total drift surcharge (hd + 0.4 hd) should
not exceed the height of the roof above the uniform snow depth, hc, as shown in Figure 6. Sliding snow need
not be considered if the lower roof is separated a distance S greater than hr, or 20 ft (6 m), whichever is less.
2.1.1.2.9.4 Roof Projections and Parapets. Projections above lower roofs, such as high bays or higher roofs
of the same building, penthouses and mechanical equipment, can produce drifting on the lower roof as
depicted in Figure 7. Such drift loads should be calculated on all sides of projections having horizontal
dimensions (perpendicular to wind direction) exceeding 15 ft (4.6 m) using the methodology of this Section,
even though the surcharge loading shape may be quadrilateral rather than triangular. To compensate for a
probable lower drift height, three-quarters of the drift height (hd) should be used, based upon a value of Wb
taken as the maximum distance upwind from the projection to the edge of the roof.
Drift loads created at the perimeter of the roof by a parapet wall should be computed using one-half of the
drift height (hd) with Wb equal to the length of the roof upwind of the parapet.
2.1.1.3.1 General
Design rain loads should be determined in accordance with the guidelines of this section. However, the design
superimposed roof load should not be less than the minimum live or rain loads designated by the applicable
building codes or the snow loads given in Section 2.1.1.2.
Fig. 8a. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for pitched roofs.
Fig. 8b. Typical primary and overflow drainage systems for flat roofs.
10,000 ft2 (930 m2) of roof area, except the roof area may be increased to 15,000 ft2 (1400 m2) with a minimum
drain diameter of 6 in. (150 mm) or scupper width of 8 in. (200 mm).
2.1.1.3.5.2 Placement. The placement of (primary) roof drains or scuppers are influenced by the roof
structure’s support columns and walls, expansion joints, roof equipment and other projections. Preferably,
roof drains should be located at mid-bay low points, or within 20% of the corresponding bay spacing from the
low points in each direction. If roof drains or scuppers are located at points of little deflection, such as columns
and walls, the roof surface should be sloped toward them at least 1⁄8 in./ft (1%) to compensate for minimum
deflections at these locations. In general, interior (non-perimeter) drains should not be located more than 50 ft
(15 m) from the roof perimeter nor more than 100 ft (30 m) apart. Exception: distances of 75 ft (23 m) from
the perimeter, and 150 ft (46 m) apart, may be used with a minimum drain diameter of 6 in. (150 mm).
Scuppers (primary) should be placed level with the roof surface in a wall or parapet as determined by the
roof slope and the contributing area of the roof, but should not be located more than 50 ft (15 m) from a roof
juncture nor more than 100 ft (30 m) apart along the roof perimeter, except 60 ft (18 m) and 125 ft (38 m),
respectively, may be used with a minimum scupper width of 8 in. (200 mm). Careful consideration of the above
during the design phase is essential to provide adequate and uniform drainage of each roof section.
2.1.1.3.5.3 Overflow Relief Protection. Overflow drainage should be provided for both dead-flat and sloped
roofs to prevent any possibility of water overload. The overflow relief provision establishes the maximum
possible water level based on blockage of the primary drainage system. The provision should be in the form
of miminal height roof edges, slots in roof edges, overflow scuppers in parapets or overflow drains adjacent
to primary drains, see Figures 8a and 8b. The overflow relief protection should provide positive and uniform
drainage relief for each roof section with drainage areas preferably not exceeding those of the primary
drainage or the drainage area limits in Section 2.1.1.3.5.1. Flow through the primary drainage system should
not be considered when sizing overflow relief drains and scuppers.
The inlet elevation of overflow drains and the invert elevation (see sketches in Table 6) of overflow scuppers
should be not less than 2 in. (50 mm) nor more than 4 in. (100 mm) above the low point of the (adjacent
to) roof surface unless a safer water depth loading, including the required hydraulic head to maintain flow,
has been determined by the roof framing designer.
2.1.1.3.5.4 Drainage System Sizing. After the rainfall intensity for a given location has been determined
(Section 2.1.1.3.3), one can determine the number and sizes of roof drains and/or scuppers, as well as the
sizes of vertical leaders or conductors and horizontal drainage piping, for either primary or overflow drainage
systems, as follows:
1. Sizing Conventional Roof Drains/Vertical Leaders and Scuppers
a. Determine the total number of roof drains or scuppers needed:
Equation 1.1 English Units
b. Determine the flow rate needed per roof drain, leader or scupper:
Equation 2.1 English Units
Q = 0.0104 × i × A (See Note below)
n
Where Q = drain, leader or scupper flow needed (gpm)
i = rainfall intensity (in./hr), Section 2.1.1.3.3
A = total roof drainage area (ft2)
n = number of drains needed (Equation 1.1)
English Units
Scupper Flows, gpm
Water Channel Type Closed Type
Buildup h≥H Height h = 4 in. Height h = 6 in.
H, in. Width b, in. Width b, in.
6 8 12 24 6 8 12 24 6 8 12 24
1 18 24 36 72
2 50 66 100 200
3 90 120 180 360 (see channel type)
4 140 186 280 560 (see channel type)
5 194 258 388 776 177 236 354 708
6 255 340 510 1020 206 274 412 824
7 321 428 642 1284 231 308 462 924 303 404 606 1212
8 393 522 786 1572 253 338 506 1012 343 456 686 1372
Metric Units
Scupper Flows, dm3/min
Water Channel Type Closed Type
Buildup h≥H Height h = 100 mm Height h = 150 mm
H, mm Width b, mm Width b, mm
150 200 300 500 150 200 300 500 150 200 300 500
25 63 84 126 210
50 178 237 356 595
75 327 437 656 1093 (see channel type)
100 505 673 1009 1682 (see channel type)
125 705 940 1411 2351 642 856 1284 2141
150 927 1236 1854 3090 749 998 1497 2495
175 1168 1558 2337 3894 841 1121 1681 2802 1105 1474 2211 3684
200 1427 1903 2855 4758 923 1230 1846 3076 1249 1665 2498 4163
Notes: Whenever h ≥ H for a closed type scupper, the scupper flows under channel type scuppers are appropriate.
Interpolation is appropriate.
Table 7. Conversion of Rainfall Intensity to Flow Rate and Rain Load per Unit Area
English Units:
Rainfall Intensity, i in./hr Flow Rate gpm/ft2 Rain Load/hr, psf
1.0 .0104 5.2
1.5 .0156 7.8
2.0 .0208 10.4
2.5 .0260 13.0
3.0 .0312 15.6
3.5 .0364 18.2
4.0 .0416 20.8
4.5 .0468 23.4
5.0 .0520 26.0
5.5 .0572 28.6
6.0 .0624 31.2
7.0 .0728 36.4
8.0 .0832 41.6
9.0 .0936 46.8
10.0 .1040 52.0
Metric Units:
Rainfall Flow Rate Rain Load/hr,
Intensity, i dm3/min kilonewtons (kN)
mm/hr per 1 m2 per 1 m2
25 0.42 .25
30 0.5 .29
35 0.58 .34
40 0.67 .39
45 0.75 .44
50 0.83 .49
55 0.92 .54
60 1.0 .59
70 1.2 .69
80 1.3 .79
90 1.5 .88
100 1.7 .98
200 3.3 1.96
300 5.0 2.94
Note: Interpolation is appropriate.
c) The peak flow rate is the limited (controlled) flow rate required to maintain a predetermined depth of
water on a roof and drain the roof within a given 24-hour or 48-hour period. It varies according to the
controlled drainage design criterion, rainfall intensity and roof slope configuration.
3. Sizing Horizontal Drainage Piping:
a) Determine the flow, Qp, needed per horizontal drainage pipe section:
Qp = Q times the number of drains serviced by the pipe section
b) Determine the size of horizontal drainage piping needed:
Apply the flow, Qp, needed per pipe section to Table 5 and select the pipe diameter and slope which provides
adequate flow capacity.
locally at the origin; whereas in the flat roof detail ponding occurs in every bay.
If a slope less than 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) is desired, the needed slope should be individually determined by deflection
analysis. If water must flow across one bay into another, relatively complicated two-way deflection analysis
is involved. The guidelines of Section 2.1.1.3.7.2 for roof slope with edge drainage are appropriate. The roof
framing designer should prepare calculations according to these guidelines, or other appropriate method, to
substantiate that the design slope is sufficient to preclude roof instability from ponding.
2.1.1.3.7.2 Roofs with Edge Drainage. If drains are not provided and drainage is accomplished by causing
the water to flow off the perimeter of the roof or if drains or scuppers are located only at the perimeter,
sufficient roof slope is vital, preferably at least 1⁄4 in./ft (2%). Under these circumstances, sufficient slope is
needed to overcome the deflections caused by the dead load of the roof plus the weight of the 1-hour design
storm less the effect of any specified camber. This is achieved when the actual downward pitch of the roof
surface exceeds the upward slope for all deflected roof framing at or near their downward support column
(or wall). (See Fig. 10)
If a design roof slope (Sd) less than 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) is desired, the roof framing designer should prepare
calculations, according to the following guidelines or other appropriate method, to substantiate that the design
slope is sufficient to preclude roof instability from ponding:
a) The actual slope (Sa) under the dead load of the roof less the upward camber, when specified, should
be at least 1⁄8 in./ft (1%).
b) The actual slope (Sa), upward from the perimeter of the roof, under the dead load of the roof plus
1-hour of rain load (see Table 7), less the upward camber, when specified, should be greater than zero
(i.e., upward positive slope, not flat).
c) All primary and secondary members perpendicular to the roof edge, for the entire roof slope, should
have actual slopes (Sa), calculated by the roof designer, meeting the slope criteria of a) and b) as follows:
English Units:
3
Sa (%) = Sd (%) + 240 × (Camber) − (D.L.) L ≥ 1%
L 1.44 × 24 × E × I
3
Sa (%) = Sd (%) + 240 × (Camber) − (D.L. + 5.2 × i) L ≥ 0%
L 1.44 × 24 × E × I
Where: Sa and Sd are the actual and design roof slopes in percent, respectively.
D.L. is the roof’s dead load in psf
Camber, upward camber in inches when it is specified (not optional) by fabrication specifications,
see Part e.
i, rainfall intensity in in./hr
L, span length of member in inches
E, modulus of elasticity of members material, psi
I, effective moment of inertia of member, (in.)4 per inch of (tributary loaded) roof width
To convert roof slope (percent) to in./ft multiply percent by 0.12
Metric Units: 3
0.24 × (Camber) (D.L.) L
Sa (%) = Sd (%) + − ≥ 1%
L 24 × E × I
Where: Sa and Sd are the actual and design roof slopes in percent, respectively.
DD.L., Roof’s dead load in kN/m2
Camber, upward camber in mm when it is specified not optional by fabrication specifications,
see Part e.
i, rainfall intensity, in mm/hr
L, span length of member in meters
E, modulus of elasticity of members material, in kN/m2
I, effective moment of inertia of member, in (m)4 per meter of (tributary loaded) roof width
d) If secondary members are parallel to relatively stiff perimeter walls (e.g., masonry or metal panel walls),
the actual roof slope should be increased to compensate for maximum deflection (adjusted for any
specified camber) of the secondary member closest to the wall. Therefore, the actual slope computed in
the equations of Part c above should be adjusted by a decrease as follows:
Sa Decrease (%) = – (Max. Deflection of secondary member) 100
(Distance secondary member from wall)
where: deflection and distance are in the same units (e.g., in. or mm)
e) The following are cambers specified in the Standard Specifications of the Steel Joist Institute (SJI)
for LH-Series (Longspan) and DLH-Series (Deep Longspan) Joists and Joist Girders:
30 ( 9) 3⁄8 (10)
50 (15) 1 (25)
60 (18) 11⁄2 (38)
>60 (>18) See SJI Specifications
The above cambers should not be assumed for K-Series (Open Web) Joists because it is optional with
the manufacturer.
The baseplates of these columns should be anchored to their foundations with a minimum of four 1 in. (25 mm)
diameter anchor bolts, and protected with concrete curbing or concrete-filled pipe bumpers to resist and/or
prevent impact loads from these vehicles. Walls, particularly masonry, should not be laterally loaded by placing
bulk materials (e.g., sand) or rolled products (e.g., carpets or paper) against them, unless the wall and roof
structure is designed to resist significant lateral loads. Likewise, rack storage structures or vertical stays,
for confining rolled products in storage, should not be secured to the roof framing system unless the framing
and bracing systems are designed to resist significant laterally-induced loads.
20
I
15
S
O
15
45° W
Y
20
B
25
50°
L 35 W
10 15 35
G W
R 20 30 35
10 W 15 G G 35 40
15 W 40
10 20 C M
10 15 35 P
F W 30
15 F
15 30 W 25
15 25 K
B 40
D M 30
10
R
20 20 F B
B F C N 35
15 W
10
30
10 S
V
Zero S B C 25 25
B V
A A 40
B 15 10 S M T
20
C
40° 10
15
I
W B 15 20
E
F 45°
C
Y 20 P 15 20 20 15 H
L 10R
K 25 N R
P O
5
D 10 K
5 O G P L 10
15 S L
10 B 15 K R 20 20
5C O L
20 20
R 15 H V
P
10 15
W W R L
Zero 15 5 20 20
W
A F 15
L 10 B L
R
J 20 C 15
5
L E N
R 20
15 W M
20
W P
G T 15
15 B
M
Zero E
15 H 10 Y K 40°
35° 5 H
20
F
C
I C C
L Zero
10 F L
S 15 15 S 10
M R
20 15
5 15
10 15 10 O
H Y A T
5 10 L
15
C
Zero 10 Q L
R T T
A 10
W B
Zero
20
E L 20
P
15 10
W C
I Zero L
P 10 15 15
Zero
G V
10
35°
W
5
30° 5
T R 10
Y
L
C 5
A S
Zero
30°
25°
115° 110° 105° 100°
Fig. 11a. Ground snow load (P g) in psf for western United States.
To obtain kN/sq m, multiply by 0.048.)
L O E D W
R 20 20 L 35
W 25 R
F 15 L
15 30 30 M 25
C
N 20 N
C O P
20 L 25
40° 15
B 20
E 40°
K
20 C M
F V
20 E
C C
F L
S 10 S
D
15 G
15 L
A 15 10 O 15
T 15 P
W
Q L A C
10 10
B
20
L 20 10
L J
35° 10 15 15 P
V
O 35°
10 5 L
10
10 C
R M C
5
L E
C 5
5
5
5
F T
W
A S
30° Zero
Zero 30°
S H
Zero
Fig. 11b. Ground snow load (P g) in psf for central United States.
To obtain kN/sq m, multiply by 0.048.)
C
100
90
70
L
80
70
E 60
S
P
B
M N 70 60
60 40
60
W
50 60 P 50
50 C 40
C A C
W 50
50 60 G 30
40 G C
50 S
40 U N W W
C 30 35 S
60 W G N S
G R A
S P
A N B 30 35 N 20
40 B W P
35 40 35 N
40 F 30 E I E 35 D
F F
L T 40 25
35 G 25
35 P
G
M 30 D T 30
K J
P R W
W 30 30
20 30 25
R O N 25 R 20 S
S A Y Y
25 A 30 C
35 15
F S P
N 25 35
P 20 25
W 30
20 20
25
C C 25 30 15
V R
W 25
20
15 20
S L
D
T W
C
P
S L 15
C
10 S
I S
10
10
10
J
L
C
M C
H G W
H D
C
10
G C
C 5
C
T M
E
T
5 D Zero
F
T
W
ro
Zero
Fig. 11c. Ground snow load (P g ) in psf for eastern United States.
To obtain kN/sq m, multiply by 0.048.)
30° 25° 20° 15° 10° 5° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35°
65°
240
250
240
400 290
500 500 300
Reykjavik 260 290
260
260 65°
A
500 260
SE
500
60° 350
400 220
N
Trondheim
IA
300 300
200 240
EG
250 180
RW
350 450 250
NO
200 Helsinki
400 15
300 0
400 13 240
300 0 220 60°
150 300
500 250 180 200
50 65 350
350 250
200 Tallinn
150 250
55° 85 110 Starvnger 150 Stockholm
Inverness 150
85 600 200
110 450 150 150
40 250
65 Goteborg Riga
Glasgow
65 NORTH 100
200
BALTIC
OC AN TIC
50
85
S EA SEA
N
55°
EA
50 Vilnius
65
ATL
Belfast
Dublin 100 Copenhagen
70 95
50 40
50° Liverpool 65 65 Hamburg
55 Amsterdam
40 Essen W arsaw
Birmingham 95
The Hague
30 London
135 Berlin
40 40
Brussels 110 135
30 40 90 180 220 50°
110 110
70 40 Frankfurt
40
70
95
Prague
50 Paris 135
120 135
135 170
40 50 145
220
45° Munich
70 150 Vienna
150
Budapest
40 145 220
100
Bern
200
Lyon 90
40 50 90
200 45°
Milan
40 60 40 60 40
Bordeaux 100
90 Belgrade
200
60
100 AD
RI
40
180
60Florence
60 90 AT
Porto
50
100 60 200 50100 120 60 IC Sofia
50 150
40° 90 SE
60 A
60 100 100
60 60 Marseille
200
Rome
Barcelona
80 60 Taranto Tirane
Lisbon 80 Madrid 120
60 200 40°
80 60
120 60
Sevilla 100
80
50 60 60
200 MEDIT Palermo
50 60 ERRA N 60
35° 50 EA N SE
50 A 60
60
60 20°
35°
0 200 400
5° 0° 5° 10° 15° Kilometers
0 100 200 300
Miles
Fig. 12. Ground snow load (Pg) in kg/m 2, for 50-yr MRI, for Western Europe. (To convert kg/m 2
to kN/m 2, multiple by 0.0098. To convert kg/m 2 to psf, divide by 4.88.) (June 1984) For further
information on Germany, Switzerland and Austria, see notes for Fig. 12.
The ground snow load map for Europe is to be used when the property is located in the countries
indicated. Interpolation for snow loadings between isopleth lines is generally acceptable in regions not
having high hills or mountains (see footnote).
The snow loadings for Switzerland, Austria and Germany should be determined by the discussion below.
Switzerland
The following is from the Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects.
For H < 2000 m:
2
Ps = 40 +
( )H , but at least 90 kg/m2
55
where H is the altitude above sea level in meters and Ps is the snow load for the altitude in question.
For H > 2000 m: Use measured snow loads.
Austria
Snow load is not always in direct proportion to altitude above sea level. The following guidelines are
approximate and should be confirmed with local data.
Germany
For Germany multiply the loads shown on the map by the following:
1.0
1.0 1.0
1.0
45° 1. 5 1.0
1.0
1.5
2.0 50°
N
EA
1.5
OC
2.5
IC
CIF
PA
40° 1.5
1.5 2
.0
45°
1.5
2.0 1.5
2.5 3.0
2.5 1.5 2.0
35° 2.0 1.0
1.5
40°
3.0
2.0 1.0 2
.5
1.5
30° 1.5 1.5
35°
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.0 2.0
2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0 200 400
Kilometers
0 100 200 300
25° 30°
Miles
25°
20°
Fig. 13. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for the western United States
45°
Page 34
RIOR
LAKE SU PE
2.7 5 2. 0
2.75 2.25
2.5 2. 25
AN 2.25
LAKE MIC HIG
3.0 2. 25 2.25 2.25
2.5 2.25
2.5 2 .25 2.5
LAKE HUR ON 2.25
3 .25 2.25
45° IO
LAK E ONTAR
2.75
2.5 2.5
2.25 2. 25 2. 5
LAKE 40°
ERIE
2 .5 5
3.0 2.75 2.7
2.5 2.75
3.0 2.75
2.75
N
3. 0
3.75
CEA
40° 3.25
2.75
IC O
3.25 3.0
A NT
3.25
A TL
3.25 35°
2. 6 3.5 3.75
4. 0
3.75
3 .2 5
3.5 3 .25 4 .0
35° Legend:
4.25 100-YEAR 60-MINUTE
3.5 PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
3 .2 5 3 . 75 * KEW WEST. FLORIDA VALUE 30°
REPRESENTATIVE FOR FLORIDA KEYS
3 .7 5
2 .5 2.75 3.0
0 200 400
Fig. 14. Rainfall Intensity (i) in inches per hour for the central and eastern United States.
100-YEAR 1-HOUR RAINFALL (INCHES)
67°45' 67°30' 67°15' 67°0' 66°45' 66°30' 66°15' 66°0' 65°45' 65° 65°15'
18°45' 18°45'
ATLANTIC OCEAN
4 4 4.5 4.5 4
18°30' 4 4 4.5 5
18°30'
Min Val 3.4 3.5
CULEBRA ISLAND
3.1
4.5
18°15' 4 5 18°15'
5.5
6 VIEQUES ISLAND
6.5 5.5
MONA ISLAND
5.5 4.6
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
3.1
18°0' 18°0'
5 4.5 4 4 5.5
5 5
4.5 4.5
Roof Loads for New Construction
17°45' 17°45'
67°45' 67°30' 67°15' 67°0' 66°45' 66°30' 66°15' 66°0' 65°45' 65°30' 65°15'
0 10 20 30 40 50
Kilometers
0 10 20 30
Miles
Source: U.S. Weather Bureau, Technical Paper No.42, 1961
Page 35
1-54
Fig. 15. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Puerto Rico. (To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.)
100-YEAR 1-HOUR RAINFALL (INCHES)
160°0' 159°30'
6
5 6 157°0' 156°30' 156°0'
1-54
4 5
Page 36
7 158°0'
3
4
MOLOKAI
2.5 3
5 4
22°0' 22°0' 3 5.5
4 4 2.5 2.5 2.5 3
KAUAI 3 3 5 3
6 21°0' 45 21°0'
LANAI 6
7 3 2.5 2.5 3 4 MAUI
1.5 2.5 8 5
NIHAU 21°30' 6.5 3 21°30' 2 6
7
3 3 8
160°0' 159°30'
3 2.5 2.5
OAHU 5
2.5
2.5 3
3 KAHOOLAWE 4
3
2.5 5
KAHOOLAWE
4
0 10 20 30 40 Miles
Fig. 16. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Hawaiian Islands.
(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.)
175° 170° 165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°
Barrow
0.4 Kaktovik
0.4
70° Point
70°
Lay
0.5 Umiat
.5
0.5
Kotzebue
Shungnak
Fort
0.5 Yukon
0.6
0.6
0.7
65° 0.7 65°
Fairbanks 1
0.8 Galena
Gambell 0.8 0.7 0.8
Nome 0.9
0.6 0.9
0.48 0.8 Anchorage
Takotna 0.6
0.8 Northway
0.5
0.8
0.7 0.9
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
0.8 1.4
0.6 Kodiak 0.6
0.57
1 1.2 0.8
St. Paul 0.6 1
1 Ketchikan
St. George Meshik 0.8
Chignik 1.4
Cold 1 0.6 1.2
Bay
0.88
0.80
0.90
Atka
Adar
175° 170° 165° 160° 155° 150° 145° 140° 135° 130°
0 100 200 300
Kilometers
0 100 200
Miles
Page 37
1-54
Fig. 17. Rainfall intensity (i) in inches per hour for Alaska.
(To convert to millimeters per hour multiply by 25.4.)
1-54 Roof Loads for New Construction
Page 38 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
NORWEGIAN
SEA 43 65°
Trondheim
32
32 32
37
54 54
43 32
37 37 43
Oslo 32
32
Stockholm 60°
43
43
Glasgow 32
32 27
37
32 48 43
32
54 54
NORTH 32
27 48
SEA 37
Copenhagen 27
Belfast 43 48
Liverpool 48
Dublin 32 43 BALTIC
SEA
37 48 55°
32
37 Hamburg
43
Birmingham 32
54 32
32 43
London 64
48 Berlin
32
Essen
64
32 64 32
Brussels
Wars
32
32
48 Frankfurt 32
48
32 Paris 54 Prague
32 32 32
70
50°
48 54
ATLANTIC 80
48
OCEAN 86
70
48 64 Munich
Vienna
32 54
Bern
32 54 Budapest
Yon
59 32
86
54 48 86 Bordeaux 134
43
59 48 64
96 Milan 48 54
107
54
48 107 45°
43 37
70 Florence Belgra
Lisbon 96
70
54
128 AD
43 Madrid Barcelona 59
59 96 48
RI
70 96 AT
86
IC
48
64
64 128
48
SE
A
T irane
Taranto
54 128 70 48
59
107 48 43
70 MEDITERRANEAN 59 40°
59 59
SEA 54
Palermo
75
75 64
54
75
86
0 200 400
Kilometers
0 100 200 300
Miles
Fig. 18. Rainfall intensity (i) in millimeters per hour for Western Europe, 100-yr 60-minute rainfall.
(To convert to in./hr, divide by 25.)
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-14, Construction Systems.
Data Sheet 1-55, Weak Construction and Design.
4.2 Others
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Allowable Stress Design Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings, Commentary K, Chapter K2.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings, Commentary K, Chapter K2.
American Iron and Steel Institution (AISI), Base Test Method for Purlins Supporting a Standing Seam Roof.
American Iron and Steel Institution (AISI), Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members.
ANSI A58.1, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
ANSI/ASCE 7-88, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (AEIDC).
Fig. 19. Typical tributary loaded areas for primary and secondary members.
January 2001. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
GIRTS Issued: Subject: ZEE SECTION PROPERTIES 2/1/93 Table C-22.
Example 2: Determine the roof snow load for a proposed (bow-string truss) curved roof building for Boston,
MA. The building has an 80 ft clear span and 15 ft rise, circular arc wood deck roof construction with insulation
and built-up roofing (see Fig. 21).
a. Ground snow load (Pg) from Figure 11c:
Pg = 30 psf (1.4 kN/m2)
b. Flat roof snow load (Section 2.1.1.2.5 or Table 2):
Pf = 0.9 (30) = 27 psf (1.3 kN/m2)
c. Vertical angle measured from eave to crown (see Fig. 21):
Tangent of vertical angle = rise = 15 = 0.375
1⁄ 2 span 40
Vertical angle = 21°
The following examples illustrate the methods used to establish design rain loads and roof drainage for some
of the roof drainage systems discussed in the data sheet.
Example 5: A proposed building for Dallas, TX, has a roof, 168 ft (57 m) by 336 ft (102 m), with bay
dimensions, 28 ft (9 m) by 28 ft (9 m). Joists are spaced 5.6 ft (1.8 m) o.c., normal to beams which span
from column to column. The roof edge has a continuous cant 3-1⁄2 in. (88 mm) high except a varying height
parapet, 10-1⁄2 in. (267 mm) max where scuppers are shown. Size the (primary) roof drains and overflow
provisions (using roof edges or scuppers as appropriate), denoting the required hydraulic head at the primary
drainage device (drains), and the total head at the overflow provisions (roof edges or scuppers) and the
design rain load to be used by the roof framing designer, when:
a) The roof is dead-flat with interior roof drains (at mid-bay) and roof edge overflow relief as shown in
Figure 24a.
b) The roof is sloped, 1⁄4 in./ft (2%), to the low-point line where roof drains are placed. Overflow relief is
by scuppers set 3-1⁄2 in. (89 mm) above the low-point line at the perimeter of the roof as shown in Figure
24b.
Solution (a.) Flat Roof — Figure 24a
1. Rainfall intensity (Fig. 14): i = 4 in./hr (100 mm/hr)
2. Number of drains needed (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.a):
n= A = 168 × 336 = 3.8 ≤ 8 (using eight 6 in. [150 mm] dia. drains)
15,000 15,000
Hydraulic head = 2.6 in. (65 mm) < 3.5 in. (88 mm) roof edge height
Therefore, overflow relief allows the needed drain flow.
6. Total head at roof edge overflow provision (See Fig. 8b):
Total head = Roof edge height
Total head = 3.5 in. (88 mm)
7. Design rain load (Sect. 2.1.1.3.6.3):
Design rain load (psf) = Total head×5.2≥15 psf.
Design rain load = 3.5×5.2 = 18.2 psf (0.86 kN/m2)
8. The flat roof should support the maximum depth of water of 3.5 in. (88 mm) or 18.2 psf (0.86 kN/m2)
over its entirety. The roof framing designer should check the roof for instability due to ponding based on this
load. Installing wide, low hydraulic head scuppers along the roof edges could reduce the design rain load
and also the minimum design live load for the roof framing, see Section 2.1.1.1.2. (Note: Snow load should
not govern at this location.)
Solution (b.) Sloped Roof — Fig. 24b
1. Items 1 through 5 from Solution (a) are applicable.
3. Flow rate needed per overflow scupper (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4, Part 1.b):
Select equivalent scupper from Table 6 for needed flow capacity Q (Part 4). Assume a scupper, 7 in.
(180 mm) by 24 in. (610 mm) wide with H = h. Flow capacity (under channel type) Q = 1284 ≥ 1080 gpm
(4860 ≥ 4080 dm3/min).
According to Sect. 2.1.1.1, Recommendation 2.1.1.1.12, the scupper height h should be 1 in. (25 mm) higher
than the (estimated) water depth H. Check Table 6 for H = 7−1 = 6 in. (150 mm) under channel type (H < h)
for the needed flow rate (Part 3):
Q = 1020 ≥ 587 gpm (Q = 3860 ≥ 2220 dm3/min)
6. Total head at scupper overflow provision (see Fig. 8b) w/scupper set 3.5 in (88 mm) above roof surface:
Total head = hydraulic head (H) + height to scupper invert
Total head = 4.1 + 3.5 = 7.6 in. (190 mm)
7. Design rain load at low-point line (overflow scuppers) [Sect. 2.1.1.3.6.3]:
Design rain load (psf) = total head (max) × 5.2 ≥ 30 psf (1.5 kN/m2)
Design rain load (max) = 7.6 × 5.2 = 39.5 psf (1.9 kN/m2)
8. The sloped roof should support a maximum depth of water of 7.6 in. (190 mm) at the low-point line of
the roof and a maximum average depth of water, of 3.8 in. (95 mm) or 19.8 psf (1 kN/m2) across the valley
of the sloped roof. The roof framing designer should check the roof for instability in the roof valley due to
ponding based on the design rain loads. Above the valley of this sloped roof, applicable code permitting, the
roof beams and joists may qualify for reductions in the minimum design live loads, see Section 2.1.1.1.2.
Example 6: A proposed building to be located in St. Louis, MO, has a roof 200 ft (61 m) by 400 ft (122 m)
and it has six roof drains (at mid-bay). Overflow drains are placed adjacent to the primary drains and set 3 in.
(75 mm) above the roof surface. The roof slopes 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) as shown in Figure 25. Size the primary and
overflow roof drains, denoting the required hydraulic head above the overflow roof drains and the total head
and the design rain load to be used by the roof framing designer.
c) Flow rate needed per drain (primary and overflow) (Section 2.1.1.3.5.4 Part 1.b):
d) Size of the primary and overflow drains (as equivalent) and their hydraulic heads:
Select a 6 in. dia. drain (Table 5); Q = 540 ≥ 458 gpm (150 mm dia. drain;
Q = 2040 ≥ 1730 dm3/min)
Hydraulic head (Table 8 by interpolation) = 3 + (1⁄2) (458 − 380)
(540 − 380)
g) Total head at low point of roof = hydraulic head (H) + height to scupper from the roof’s low-point.
Total head at low-point (max.) = 2.7 in. + 4 in. = 6.7 in. (168 mm)
Total head adjacent to scuppers = hydr. head (H) + height to scupper from adjacent roof surface.
Total head at scuppers = 2.7 in. + 2 in. = 4.7 in. (119 mm)
h) Design rain load at roof drains, low-point of roof (Sect. 2.1.1.3.6.3):
Design rain load (psf) = total head (max.) × 5.2 ≥ 30 psf (1.5 kN/m2)
Design rain load (max.) at drains = 6.7 × 5.2 = 34.8 psf (1.7 kN/m2)
i) Design rain load at scuppers (Section 2.1.1.3.6.5)
Design rain load = total head (max) × 5.2 psf (Note: minimum rain load does not apply because
scupper is not at roof’s low-point.)
Design rain load at scuppers = 4.7 × 5.2 = 24.4 psf (1.2 kN/m2)
j) In the low areas at the roof drains, the design rain load will be 34.8 psf (1.7 kN/m2), but it will rapidly
decrease with the roof slope of 1⁄4 in./ft (2%) away from the low cricket areas and possibly qualify for live
load reductions, see Section 2.1.1.1.2. The roof designer should check the roof for instability in the low
areas due to ponding, based on the design rain loads.
NOTE: Reference to Section, Figure and Table numbers is to Section 2.0. Most referenced Figures
from Section 2.0 are reproduced in this Job Aid.
Note: The above snow methodology is also applicable to multiple gable and barrel vault roofs.
Fig. 4. (To be used with Table 4) Snow loads for lower roofs