EAAE Catch A Star Black Holes

Black holes, how can we detect

them?

Proyect done by: Alba Covelo , Roy Casero Soler, Alejandro Prieto Juaneda
and Andrés Gento Blanco

School: IES Plurilingüe Eusebio da Guarda

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EAAE Catch A Star Black Holes

Explanation of black holes

As a simple way to define a black hole, it is any astronomical body whose escape
velocity exceed the speed of light, due to it’s huge gravitational force, which comes
from it’s great density. The first definition of a black hole was sujested by John
Michell and Pierre-Simon in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
(1784)i, as they say that it could exist a body where the density was high enough to
attract any light it could posibly emmit. At that time, they weren’t refering to what we
know today as a black hole, but, indirectly, they gave rise to the idea of it.

As time passed, the speculations of such astronomical body dissapeared when the
wave theory of light was developed, thinking no calculation on gravitation could cause
any modification on the propagation of light ; nevertheless, the
possibility of this black gigants to exist ressurrected the
momment the General Relativityii had taken place, a theory in
which light is submited to gravity. Taking into consideration the
theories of relativity, the black holes were defined as the region
of space-time in which the gravitational potential exceeds the
square of the speed of light.

With the theories of relativity on board, we can understand the

macroscopic universe as the fabric of space-time, stablishing a
connection between space and time, and the light as a particle
and a wave that has a non-variable velocity that can’t be
overwhelmed. Therefore, any existing body will keep moving
forward in time no matter what, and can’t go faster than the
speed of light; this is graphically represented as a light cone. Figure 1: 3D light cone
In picture 1, a ray of light is emmited at a given point of space ,
Figure 1: 3D light cone
assuming c=1 , the light moves 1 unit of time
per 1 unit of space, making diagonal lines with
the space-time graphic, taking all possible
directions where this ray of light can go, we can
observe at picture 2, that an inverted cone
appears above the hypersurface of the present
time, and another one underneath it. The space
inside the cones are all the possible paths a
particle will go or had been, being the future
possibilities the upward cone, the past ones the
downward cone and the point where both
converge, the present. As the particle can’t go
faster than the speed of light, it’s possible ways to
move through space-time are limited by the
interior of the cones, working in the frame of

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advancing forward in time as progressing up in the cone, and moving through the
space as going right or left.
Furthermore, the General Relativity explains how we understand gravity as a
curvature of the space-time produced by a body with mass, hence with density,
modifying the directions of the light cone, altering the time and the space, dilating or
contracting it depending on the observer and the specific curvature, which is directly
proportional to the density of the astronomical body or bodies that produced it. It can
be seen as the bed’s mattress, if you put an object with little mass on the mattress, it
won’t be very affected, but if you place a big one, it cave in the mattress.

Orbits of celestial bodies

In the modification of the space-time caused by an object, any moving particle passing
close enough to the astonomical body to be affected by the curvature will have the
trayectory modified, depending on the speed of the particle and the gravitational force
created by the stellar body, that we are going to picture, for example, that it is the
Sun, the most possibles trayectories, along the particles that directly fall into the Sun,
will be the ones seen in picture 3: In one part we have the particle a, which it has
enough speed to overcome the attraction of the Sun, consequently, the trayectory of
this particle will be modified, but it still be moving through the space without being
capture by the Sun; in other hand, we have the particles C and e, in this two particles,
their speed is highly enough to avoid falling into the Sun, even so they are not enough
faster to free themselves from the
gravitatory well of the Sun,
rotating around it and creating
what is called an orbit.

For the particles C and e to scape

the gravitational attraction of the
Sun, they would need another force
to increase their speed enough to
take the trayectory of the particle a;
if this happens, the momment in
which this particles liberates from
the Sun, will be the equal to the Figure 2: Types of orbits in a curved space-time
time they have reached the escape
velocity

Escape velocity
In all stellar object, the gravity will attract the matter to the centre , but there is a
possibility which if curtain mobile moves faster than it is attracted in account of the
gravitational force, in that case, it will escape from the gravity camp of the planet.

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This exact speed an object needs to be traveling to break free of a celestial body's
gravity well and leave it without further propulsion is denominated escape velocity:

v s=
√ 2 GM
r
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Vs is the velocity needed for an object to escape from the gravity camp of a planet, G is
Nm 2
the universal gravity constant G=6,67×1011 , M is the mass of the object and
kg 2
r is the radius. In the Earth the number of the velocity module is 11,2 km/s. If,
instead, that object was on a planet with the same mass as Earth but half the
diameter, the escape velocity would be 15.8 km/s.

In the hypothetical case the escape velocity is precisely the same as the speed of light,
there is not a particle capable to liberate itself from being attracted to the stellar
object, this happens when the celestial body we describe is a black hole. To settle on
the characteristics of the object to produce this, and assuming it only has mass
without rotation or charge, we utilize the Schwarzschild radius

Schwarzsichild radius
This is, thecnically, the distance between the singularity and the event horizon; the
singularity is an instant at the epicenter of the black hole, where all the mass is
compacted, and the event horizont is the point where the force of gravity prevents any
particle to escape from this massive bodies. In the hypothetical situation an estellar
body reaches this lenght, it will be converted into a black hole, where any particle
(even light) won’t be able to flee from the gravitational force once it crosses this radius.
Where c is the light speed, the Schwarzschild radius, Rg, measures :

Rg = 2GM/c2. iv

The Schwarzschild radius for our sun is

3 km, it means that if the sun has a 3km
radius with the same mass, it would be
a black hole; for the Earth, the volume
would be more likely a pea size.
With this the general funcionating of a
black hole can be more knwoledgeable.

Figure 3: Space-time in singularity

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EAAE Catch A Star Black Holes

How does a black hole works?

The black holes are fascinating astronimical bodies where the General Relativity
formulas are taken to their limit.

Within the framework of a black hole ubicated at a given point of space where certain
particle or body finds itself at a specific distance to start getting attracted by the
gravitational force of the massive body, represented in the picture 4: the light cone
pictures the particle and its possible paths, the event horizon as the borders of the
cilinder and the singularity as the zigzagging line in the center of the cilinder. The
particle comence the route into the singularity at the most distant light cone from the
event horizon, at this point the particle would be moving though time in a vertical line
if it mantains the repose in the space, safe from falling into the clack hole; the moment
it moves towards the black hole the light cone would start to curve, and staying in
repose would mean to go in a diagonal trayectory, which concludes into the
singularity, as we can observe in the second and third light cone (counting from right
to left) . However, we can also see that the particle could still mantain itself away from
entering falling into the blackhole if it moves in the space, creating a new trayectory,
represented as the arrow from the third light cone. In the circumstance the particle
still goes into the singularity, at a certain moment, the speed needed to escape the
gravitational well would be higher than the speed of light, the spot in the space where
the particle turns from technically free into condemned to converge in the singularity,
is called event horizon, represented in the fourth light cone with its possible paths,
only able to converge. Subsequently, there are represented other four light cones of
particles already in the blackhole, with their light cones so incliningm due to the
curved plane of space-tune they are positioned, that advancing through time becomes
what initially was moving left or right, and moving through the space becomes what at
the start was advancing through time; we can understand for this reason why the
singularity is considered a moment, because if we keep moving through time or space
there will be an inevitable instant where the particle collapse into the singularity.

Observing the lenght to archieve one unit of time from the first light cone in
comparation to the consecutivetly, we can undesrtand how for different bodies, for
example astronauts, the most distant one will see the other one fall more and more
slowly as it comes closer to the event horizon, as for that one the times need to
advance more to get one unit of time of the other; the moment the astronaut falling
into the black hole archieves the event horizon, the observer outside the black hole will
only see an static image of the astronaut inside the black astonomical body; due to the

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fact that the photons reflecting on the astronaut and creating his image won’t be able
to return and form it, because they are also being absorved by the black hole

This is the basic explanation of how a black hole with only mass functions, but there
could be other types of black holes, more explained in the No-Hair Theorem.v

No-Hair Theorem

The no-hair theorem declares the perceptibles characteristics of a black hole, which
are only three: the mass, the electrical charge and the angular momentum. This
theorem is a consequence of the general relativity, so it becomes widely accepted; the
name comes from as an allegory, picturing the black hole as abald head with other
little features.

The basic property of this astronomical bodies is the mass, without it there is no
chance of existing for this huge devoring beasts, the other two qualities alterates how
the black hole will act in the universe. Depending on the active characteristics , there
will be presented four types of black holes.

The ones with electrical charge, negative or positive, will start attracting any other
particle with the opposite charge, this is explained because the electromagnetic
interaction is hugely stronger compared with the gravitational interaction, until the
charges neutralize each other, converting the black hole into one without electrical
charge, but mantaining all the other properties equal. Mathematically, we still need to
consider the electrical charge into the possible existance of the black hole.

The Schwarzschild black hole, with only mass is the most simple, how it works has
been explained in the point ´´how does a black hole works`` , it is static and spherically
simetrically; the Reissner-Nordström black hole has mass, electrical charge, it is static
and spherically simetric; the Kerr- Newman black hole depends on the mass, electrical
charge and angular momentum, it is stationary and axisymmetric; and the Kerr black
hole only posses mass and angular momentum, it is stationary and axisymmetric.

Figure 4: Tipes of black holes

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EAAE Catch A Star Black Holes

Taking account of this properties, the differents solutions to form a black hole in
equilibrim as a final state permit us to obtain a new formula to represent the distance
where the event horizon is located at: r +=M + √ M −Q −a vi
2 2 2

From this formula we can observe that the parameter of the black hole are restrasined
by the value of each feature, the following limit must be satisfied by: Q 2+ a2≤M 2 .

When this regulation is violated, the black hole would only have a lonely and naked
singularity represented in the plane of space as an asymptotic line. In the real
universe, such odd things should not exist. However, this still explains the different
and existing types of black holes in the real universe.

Kerr Black Hole

As it was explained before, the black holes with

electrical charge would be neutralized in the real
universe, and the most simple black hole with only
mass was the basis of how this astronomical bodies
works, however, if we add angular momentum, we
introduce, not only more parts to the anatomy of the
black hole, but more ways to affect the space-time
around this celestial body.

In this variety, the rotation of the black hole also

produces a rotation of the space-time around thisFigure 5
astronomical body, it provokes that any particle that
enters into the gravitatory camp gains over time more velocity as it orbits around the
black hole. Therefore, the photons, which are affected by the consequences of the
angular momentum, that passed along the black hole without going beyond the event
horizon will have their trayectory even more curved than before, producing the oval
form of this black holes. As a particle gets closer to the black hole it will be archieving
at some point an aceleration impossible to be overcame, rotating innevitable as the
same direction as the black hole, but with the possibility to escape from the
gravitational well if a highly enough force with an opposite direction from the black
hole is produced to overcome the gravitational attraction. Continuing the falling into
the black hole, the process would still archive the point of no returning, the Inner
Event Horizon; but differently from the Schwarzschild black hole, someone could
hypothetically avoid the singularity as it is now a place in the space and not a moment
in time, unafortunatly, this is hypothetical, because what mantains the singularity
from being an instant in time is the fact that this black hole is stable, but the entering
of any particle would disturbe it, returning the singularity into a moment in time.

The reason of the existance of this black holes is merely theorical, but the primary
solution for this question is the death of an already spinning star.

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Life cicle of a black hole

Fist, we have the , there are a few hypothesis for this, the two more known resolutions
explains, in one of them, that in the comence of the universe, when the aceleration of it
was at a huge velocity in comparation to the one we have nowdays, close to the time of
the Big Bang, some matter started to acumulate in some point given of space, with
this matter acumulated the acelarition of the universe was deeply retain in that
certain region, however, the universe kept growing with that points withan incredible
high gravitation force, what we reffer now as a black hole; the other describes the
process where a star with a determined mass converts into a black hole through out
it’s death.

When a star burns through all of its fuel (all the hydrogen of its nucleus is fusioned in
helium), the object collapse, or fall under itself. For smaller stars (about 3 times the
solar mass), the new core will become a star or a white dwarf star. But when a bigger
star collapses, it continues to compress and, if it reaches its Schwarzschild radius,
creates a stellar black hole.
During their life they feed itself with stars, planets, photons and wherever they can,
even other black holes, but they are not forever, or at least for the theory made by
Stephen Hawking, the Hawking Radiation vii, this is a non-proved theory which will be
explained later.
This tipes of black holes are relatively small, but incredibly dense. They pack quite 3
times the mass of the sun into the diameter of a city. This results in a crazy amount of
gravitational attraction pulling on objects around the black hole. Stellar black holes
then consume the dust and gas from their surrounding galaxies, which keeps them
growing in size.
According the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , "the Milky Way
viii

contains a couple of hundred million" stellar black holes.

There are also supermassive black holes. These enormous black holes are millions or
maybe billions of times as massive as the sun, but they are about the same diameter.
Such black holes are at the middle of just about every galaxy and their gravity affect
all of the objects of the galaxy, including the Milky Way (Sagitario A) .
Scientists aren't certain how such large black holes spawn. Once these giants have
formed, they gather mass from the dust and gas around them, allowing them to grow
to even more enormous sizes.
Supermassive black holes could also be the results of hundreds or thousands of small
black holes that merge together. Another option is that supermassive black holes could
arise from large clusters of dark matter ix. This is a substance that we are able to
observe through its gravitational effect on other objects; however, we don't know what
dark matter is composed of because it doesn't emit light and can't be directly observed.

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EAAE Catch A Star Black Holes

There are also intermediatex ones. Before they were discovered, scientist thought that
they didn’t exist but in 2014 astronomers found an intermediate black hole in an
espiral galaxy. They have between 80-130 solar masses.

At the theorical end of the black hole, it emits some particles and energy in form of
radiation that we might could receive, but it is merely theorical and this radiation is
too low to be observed, but there are other observations to prove by a practical way
that black holes are real .

How can a black hole be observed?

The Black holes attract photons to the centre (singularity) and the others are expeled
far away. This makes a black hole invisible, but there are some methods to observe it.
With a powerful telescope you could appreciate how a lot of stars and other bodies are
revolving around “nothing”, what would guide to a deductive demostration of them;
but there is another method to discover black holes, this is the studying of the orbits of
some stars in Sagittarius A*, where an invisible body with a huge mass (a black hole
by deduction) creates several orbits. This is ubicated in the centre of the Milky Way.
Many scientist studied the speed of different stars. S2 xi was one of the stars that they
saw during 10 years and astronomers calculate that it spends 16 years to go round the
black hole, and on the other hand the sun spends between 5 225-250 million years.

Figure 6: S2 orbit

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De aquí en adelante tiene que completarlo Andrés una vez

hecho el experimento. También cabe anotar que alguna imagen
del inicio no tiene bibliografía o está muy pegada al texto, son
cosillas que arreglaremos una ves se termine el resto del
trabajillo

What are gravitational waves?

Gravitational wavesxii are ripples in the space-time caused by a very strong process
between two massive objects, they were predicted in the general relativity. The
gravitational waves that we usually detect come from the collision of two black holes,
they can be also produced by a supernova and the collision of two neutron stars. In
1974, two astronomers discovered a binary pulsar. They believed that they could emit
this unkown waves. They studied the changing of the orbit of the stars to predict the
Einstein’s theory. Eigth years later their measurements were extremly similar as the
predicted results of the relativity.

WHAT IS AN INTERFEROMETER?

Figure 7: LIGO's Measurements

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EXPERIMENT

https://youtu.be/OuxLo-lrOss

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336056151/figure/fig2/AS:807222447726592@15694682
37037/Space-time-is-separated-into-regions-called-space-like-where-causality-does-not-apply.png

https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/r9800254/800wm

https://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/2-whats-escape-
velocity.html

2 https://physicsworld.com/a/black-hole-is-hairless-reveals-analysis-of-gravitational-
waves/#:~:text=The%20no%2Dhair%20theorem%20is,head%20with%20few%20defining
%20features.

https://www.space.com/15421-black-holes-facts-formation-discovery-sdcmp.html

300.000km/s

https://billadamsphd.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Space-time.jpg

4https://earthsky.org/space/star-s2-s0-2-single-milky-way-monster-black-hole
5https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/milky-way-rotation#:~:text=At%20our%20sun's
%20distance%20from,the%20center%20of%20the%20galaxy.

GRAVITY WAVES:
https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/what-are-gw

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i Philosofical Transactions of the Royal Society: Worked made by John Michell and Pierre-Simon
ii General relativity, Einstein’s most famous work.
iii Escape velocity, https://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/2-whats-escape-
velocity.html.

iv Swchazschild radius,https://www.britannica.com/science/Schwarzschild-radius. Formula based in the escape

velocity one.
v No-hair theorem, deduced about the Einstein-Maxwell ecuations.
vi Event horizon formula
vii Hawking radiation, https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/07/01/this-is-why-well-never-detect-
hawking-radiation-from-an-actual-black-hole/
viii Astronomy obsrvatory in Massachusetts
ix More information abou dark matter: https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy
x Article about intermiate black holes: https://astronomy.com/news/2019/07/what-are-intermediate-mass-black-holes
xi Article about S2: https://earthsky.org/space/star-s2-s0-2-single-milky-way-monster-black-hole
xii Gravitational waves: https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/what-are-gw