vfacturing id explain Fits types | faere © Powder sBfasie Concepts: Introduct Spolyesters ete. Classification of a AMlebilar weight (MW), Molecular Weight Baer Processing: Methods of sin Frat. Biopolymers, Comat Su ft processing techniques PM Praduction Techniques: Different tier emerging processes: «28 rization Techniques: Patile’ rerparile Friction, Compress eture Control in Powder: Ii by Different techniques Particle Packing Mod ficros a ‘Siatering! Theory of Sintering, Siotering of BE Seine estamos Osi Jation Study, Modem Sintering tecluy littoduction to Polymers used for Additive “Adlitive Manufacturing processes are gradually increasing in thei practical application, and engineer are stating to figure out where, when and how they could be the most useful. Rather than looking to completely replace all conventional manufacturing techniques, it ris being used selectively on projects where it can offer areal advantage such as complex structures, small productions involved. Materials Polymers, Metals etc.) plays a significant and where the process to be used. part in determining how Scanned with CamScannerManufacturing idely for yaterials and can be used Greek words, ‘Poly’ that In AM Polymers, are amongst the cheapest m: commercial 3D printers. The word “Polymer” is derived from two means many (numerous) and ‘Mer’ which means units. Common plastics can be used in 3D printing, including ABS and PC. The common structural polymers can also be used, as well as a number of waxes and epory based resins. Mixing different polymer powders can croate a wide range of structural and aesthetic imaterials. The following polymers can be used: # ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) «# PLA (polylactide), including soft PLA # PC (polycarbonate) # Polyamide (Nylon) @ Nylon 12 (Tensile strength 45 Mpa) # Glass filled nylon (12.48-Mpa) # Epoxy resin # Wax # Photopolymer resins Bi Polvinlers oo 8 choclate tla seine abe BAMA IS Polymers are long chain molecules produced by linking small repeat units (monomers) together, There are many ways to link different types of monomer to form polymers. Polymers exhibit very different physical properties compared to the monomers, dependent | amounts of very long or very on the length of the polymer chains. The presence of smal ins can have drastic effects on properties of the material a) @2 O98 ee 2-2 ee —— SiaPolyamiae? See eae A polyamide is a macromolecule with repeating units linked by amide bonds-CO-NH-, linkages. Polyamides occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of naturally occurring polyamides are proteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made polyamides can be made fh step-growth polymerization or solid-phase synthesis yielding materials such as .. and sodium poly(aspartate). Widely used Polyamide in ficld of AM is short ch nylons, arami Nylon, Poly amides are represented as shown below. Scanned with CamScannerPolymers & Powder Metallurgy Advantages of using Polyamides in AM technique is High me : High toughnes High softening point - Good wear resistance . Self-lubrication Long-term work at higher temperatures Ithas excellent ¢ ; SESE AOR PF Resins are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted phenol with formaldehyde which is used as the basis for Bakelite, PF's were the first commercial synthetic resins (plastics) and have been widely used for the production of molded products strength including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and adhesives. Polyformaldehyde is composed of ~CH,-O- repeat units and can be obtained by the cationic polymerisation of either formaldehyde or trioxane. BF, HO - (CH, - 0),-H DhCLULULl (CH= Oy rN HCIO, °H, ——————. HO - (CH, - 0), - H 1 nO Ce (Moisture) _ i ek SESS ster functional group in their mers that contain the e: most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene Polyester is a category of poly! main chain. As a specific material, it terephthalate (PET) ° [0 =(R)-0-E=(®)- C= 0 tion of Polymers. is ys i avast number of ‘materials of high verisag ame given lo Polymer is a generic name g| ns and numbers Because ofa very large number and , /These materials exist in countless fo Scanned with CamScanner‘PB ctve anutacturing i There are three principal spinning methods. viz., melt spinning, dry spinning and wet spinning, In the melt spinning process, the polymers is used in the molten state, while, in the other two cases, the polymer is used as a solution in appropriate solvent. In all the three cases, however, the polymer (cither in the molten or solution form) is streamed through a spinner net which is a special | kind of plate with extremely holes for the fibres to emerge. | In its simplest form the melt spinaing process may be described as follows. Polymer ‘chips are electrically heated and melted in a heating grid. This converts the solid polymer | into a viscous mobile liquid. Sometimes, during this heating process, cross-linking or thermal degradation of the polymer may occur leading to formation of lumps. These lumps | can be easily removed from the hot molten polymer by using a filter pack, Furthermore, the } hot molten polymer should be protected from the surrounding oxygen to avoid oxidative } degradation. This is effected mostly by creating an inert environment around the molten polymer with nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam. The molten polymer then enters a constant | rate pump (known as the metering pump) which in tura, pumps the polymer melt through ! the spinneret at a specified rate. The polymer melt is thus forced through the fine holes of the spinneret from where continuous and very fine filaments emerge. The filament | emerging from the spinneret solidifies as it comes in contact with cold air. The cooling and ' solidification process may be enhanced by a cold air blast. The solid filaments emerging | from the spinneret are subsequently wound upon spindles. Scanned with CamScannerSpinaeret iymers such as polyarylonitrl or polyvinyl chloride are converted to fibers on a large scale by using the dry spinning process. The process is also shows The polyimer is dissolved in an appropriate solvent to get a s The viscosity is controlled by increasing the temperature of the Sol solution is pumped through the spinneret when fine continuous jest of the solution come out of the solvent. Solvent evaporation can be enhanced by passing dry nitrogen in a counter- current manner. min, Manufacture of cellulose acetate fibers from a 35% solution of the polymer in acetone at 40°C could be cited as a typical example of the utility of the dry spinning process. anna nA AA DR. Scanned with CamScannerCOL CEPPITE ERR peRece Baume ROE OTP | Scanned with CamScannerSources ‘ Spin dope pote Coagulation bat Westie and aawing baths jan es He i in other words, they are| olymers contain monomeric units | ‘Thermoplastic starch is unsuitable for packaging liquids. tcan sustain only brief contact \with water. It has good oxygen barrier properties. 1 Sources forming processes s 2. Sugar Polyaletides decompose harmlessly i nan body and have therefore long been plants which do not require operative rem use polylactides for packagi The starting ‘process of bacteri differences in the end product. This makes it possi Scanned with CamScannerEx IS moisnure resistance, The polymer can be formed by injection, extrusion, blowing and vacuum forming * Polylactides (lactic acid polymers)are made from lactic acid, which is in turn made fom lactose (or milk sugar) obtained from sugar beet, potatoes, wheat, msize ets, Polylactides are water resistant and can be formed by injecticr. moulding, blowing and vacuum forming. 3. Cellulose based biopolymers Applications Familiar applications of cello; cigarettes. The material is graduall Other cellulose polymer materials for many years but are losing mai Sources phane include packaging for CDS, confectionary and ly falling out of favour, however, owing to its high price. (e.g. cellulose ilm) have also been commercially available irket share to newer polymers such 2s polypropylene. The use of cellulose for making packagin material such as cellophane is long establi The material is transparent and has good folding properties. Whether in the form cellulose or of a nitrocellulose Coating, the material is wholly biodegradable an¢ can be composted by existing waste processing plant. 4, Synthetic based biopolymers Applications shed. The relatively high price of biodegradable polymers of synthetiz substances, e.g. aliphatic aromatic copolyesters has prevented them from reaching a large scale market. The best known application is for making substrate mats. Sources Synthetic compounds derived from petroleum can also be a starting point for biodegradable polymers, e.g. aliphatic aromatic copolyesters. These polymers have technical properties resembling those of polyethylene (LDPE). Although these polymers are produced from synthetic starting materials, they are fully biodegradable and compostable foams, coating or adhesives and also as moulded and fabricated articles implies that there must be a variety of ways in which the compounded resins can be processed and converted into finished products, A majority of the articles are either moulded or fabricated, while many others are made by casting liquid prepolymers into a mould and allowing them to cure or cross-link. Fibres are made by a process known as ‘spinning’ The process of moulding can be compared to making, for instance, 2 toy horse out of clay; the fabrication process can perhaps be compared to making the toy by carving it ott of a soap cake. In the moulding process, the compounded material in the form of powder, chips or granules is placed in a mould of the required shape and subjected to heat and Scanned with CamScannerPolymers & Powder Metalluray MME, ‘ated items are made of simple pressure, after which, the final product is obtained. Fabric: 4 gluing, bonding forms such as sheet, rod or tube, using processes such as cutting, shaping, and welding. About 50 years ago, there existed only afewprocesses for converting polymerie aaeee into finished products, Today, there are many processes and automatic machines for thi purpose, the important ones being calendering, casting, compression moulding, injection provldg, extsion moulding, blow moulding cold forming, wermoforming foaming, reinforcing, melt spinning, dry spinning and wet spinning. The fast three techniques are used for making fibers from fiber - forming materials, while the rest are used for converting plastic and elastomeric materials into moulded and fabricated articles. In the forthcoming veatons, we ball give an outline of these important processes. Fora more details account of these and other processes such as dip coating, fluidised bed coating, heat, sealing, electronic sealing and welding reference may be made to specialised texbooks on ‘polymer processing’. Similarly, details regarding coatings and adhesives are also beyond the scope of this >0ok. letus recapitulate that polymeric materials Before taking up various processing techniques, sda ieee are plastic materials are moulded or can either be thermoplastic or thermosetting. Once thermo} shaped under heat and pressure, they are require: temperature before being released out of the mould as ot! In the case of thermosetting materials, however, there is no m1 releasing it out of the mould, since once set under the influence 0} article does not change its shape even when handled hot. Bice ‘The ealendering process, in is simplest form, is employed to produce continuous films and sheets. The main part of a calendering machine (Fig,) is @ set of highly polished metal rollers rotating in opposite directions with provision for precise adjustment of the gap between them, The gap between the rollers determines the thickness of the sheet calendered cout. Compounded polymeric materia is fed between the rollers which are maintained at an clevated temperature, and the shect emerging from the rollers is cooled by passing through cold rollers. The sheets are finally wound up in rolls as shown in Fig, . If however, thin films are required instead of sheets, a series of rollers with a successively diminishing gap between them is employed, Polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, acrylonitrile-butadience- styrene copolymer (ABS) and rubbers are among the main polymers which are usually calendered into sheets. “4 to be cooled much below their softening hherwise they may get deshaped. ed to cool the article before f heat and pressure, the By incorporating a suitably engraved embossing roller in the calendering machine, embossed sheets of a suitable design could be produced. Besides this special decorative effects (like marbleisation) could be achieved by feeding the calender with a mixture of compounded materials of different colours, The marbleisation technique is usually employed inthe production of vinyl floor tiles made of PVC. ° “e co oe a 7 G G lal Scanned with CamScannerHBO ive Manufacturing Calender rolls += Faedstock (Compounded polymer) ——» To take-up reel Coated tabric Joring > 3.9.2 Die Casting Die casting is a relatively low cost process which consists of convert prepolymer to a solid object with a desired shape, She; : Jengths, can be produced by the ce a liquid n limited ing process. Figure illustrates the simplest version of the casting process. Here, the prepolymer compounded suitably with a curative and other ingredients is poured into a petridish, the latter representing the die, The dish is then kept in an oven at an elevated temperature for a few hours to complete the cure reaction. On cooling to room temperature, the solid product from the petridish is pulled out. The solid thus east will have a shape identical to the interior of the petridish. Instead of a pettidish: ; if a cylindrical glass tube closed at one end is used, we get the product in the form of a cylindrical rod, Instead: of « prepolymer and a curative, ~ and other ingredients can be heated to the poly: 8, lubes, rods and the like 1 mixture of monomer, catalyst merisation temperature and poured into the die. Polymerisation is allowed to continue inside the die till the solid product is formed. Acrylics, epoxies, polyesters, phenolics and urethanes are suitable for die casting, Depending on the convenience and availability, the dies tor casting ave made of plaster of Paris lead or glass. During curing, the resin block shrinks in size which, in fact, helps in its removal from the die with ease, Scanned with CamScannerturing Polymers & Powder Metallurgy MDE, moving fixed platen! platen Fig 3.9 Die Casting uid rarer ited etalon: 1 of Hollow articles rer | a ANUS used for this process is shown in Fig. epl Sen erg on On oy sin Po id su Mem . sh | a | rotation | fe | rae ed Yeas talon (a. Charing te Mould (0. Heatng the Mould (@). Coorg (2, Oemoutsing (er Fig 3.10 2 The compounded thermoplastic material in the form of a fine powder is taken in a hollow mould. The apparatus has provision for rotating the mould simultaneously along the primary and the secondary axes. Afr closing the mould, it is heated and rotated. This distributes the molten plastic uniformly along the entire surface of the inside cavity of the mould, After a while, the mould still under rotation, is chilled with cold water. Now, the iformly distributed inside the mould surface cools down andj ned and the product | molten plastic material un solidifies in the shape of that surface. The mould can now be ope removed. ” instead of thermoplastic materials, a thermosetting type pret mixture can also be fed into the mould in liquid form and curing dot elevated temperature, when the product is formed. polymer and curative ne under rotation at an Scanned with CamScannerAdditive Manufacturing To a large extent, PVC articles such as rainboots, hollow balls of doll heads are made by rotational casting. Curing of the PVC is done by a physical gelation between the PVC and 2 liquid plasticiser. Gelation takes place at temperatures around ]50-200°C. Fine particles of PVC resina re dispersed uniformly in liquid plasticiser together with stabilisers and colouring agents to get a pasty substance of a relatively low viscosity. This pasty material called 'plastisol is fed into the mould and deaerated. Subsequently, the mould is rotated and heated for the required temperature and time, when gelation of the PVC occurs. The time of gelation controls the wall thickness of the product formed after achieving the required wall thickness, the excess plastisol is removed for recycling. The gelled product is further heated inside the mould, which will ensure the final fusion of PVC resin particles with the plasticiser. The finished product is taken out of the mould after being led with a water spray. ‘This method or rotational casting using a liquid material is referred to as ‘slush moulding’. A casting technique is also used to produce polymeric films. In this technique, the solution ia an appropriate concentration of the polymer in a suitable solvent is allowed to fall at a precalculated rate on an endless metallic belt of high finish moving at a constant speed. A continuous sheet of the polymer solution is thus formed on the surface of the metallic belt. When the solvent is subsequently evaporated under controlled conditions, a thin film of the polymer is formed on the surface of the belt. The film could be removed simply by stripping. Most of the commercially available varieties of cellophane sheets and photographic films are prepared by this process. Chit Rott in ete Fim r ersten tte \ 7 \ \ 1 Fig 3.11 Schematies of the extrusion film casting kinematics, OEE Scanned with CamScanner the ca ee ig tw SB’? Polymers & Powder Metallurgy SSBEeinbressigh Moulding, The compression-monlding process thermosetting materials. I jure dhows typical mould employed for compression moulding. female. is 7 the lower halves or the male and the The mould is made of two halves the upper am sn eet as. Se eeaeina in The lower half usually contains a cavity and th i Te eait nen the ould eased. The gap between the projected upper Ralf andthe cavity in the lower one gives the shape ofthe moulded article In compression moulding, the thermosetting material is subjected to Hie _ pee in a single etroke, This is accomplished by using a hydraulic press with Heate® Ptlcts, ‘Moulcing temperature and pressure can be as high as 200°C and 70kg/em espet ely The actual temperature and pressure depends on the theological, thermal and other PrOpett™ the plesie material to be moulded. The compounded material is placed in the cavity oF TE ‘mould so as to fully fill the cavity, As the mould closes down under pressure, the mat ra is squeezed or compressed between the two halves and compacted to shape inside the ccty, Ths'excectraaterial ows cut of hs rot aa,a thin Hin, Tike len wxpatied amt Of the mould is known as the lash’, Under the influence of the heat, the compacted mass gets cured and hardened to shape. The mould can be opened while itis still hot to release the moulded product. te Upper mold half . .! PP 7 v - articles from ig very widely used to prod cavi {_ Lower mold half RWN Knock-out pin Charge is loaded Charge is compressed t ; and cured Opening the mold halves and removing the part from the cavity Fig 3.12 Compression Moulding pyaar The injection-moulding process is best suited for producing articles made of thermoplastic materials. Here, the equipment cost is relatively high but the main attracting + is a amenability of the injection moulding process to a high production rate. In injection moulding , a definite quantity of molten thermoplastic material is injected under pressure into a relatively cold mould where it solidifies to the shape of the mould. / The injection - moulding machine is shown in Fig, The process consists of feeding the / compounded plastic material as granules, pellets or powder through the hopper a definite i Scanned with CamScannerAdditive Manufacturing ERIS time, intervals into the hot horizontal eylinder where 1" through a hyclraulically driven piston to push the molten mould fited atthe end ofthe eylinder, While moving throught te 9 a device called ‘torpedo’ helps spread the pl emily ofthe hot eylinder and thus ensures uniform heat distributing “The molten plastic mater! from the cylinder is then injected through a nozzle into the mould cavity. “The mould used, in its simplest form, is a two-part system, One 2 t movable part - the other stationary (sec Fig,). The stationary part is fixed t0 he cnd of the eylinder while locked on to the stationary part. By using & mechanical the movable part can be opened of | properly held in position as te molten PIasTe material 1g device has to be very Jocking device, the mould is injected under a pressure as high as 1500 kg/em*, skilfully designed in order to withstand high operatins Pressi1"s Furthermore, a propet Faw ofthe molten material (the interior regions of the mould is ‘achieved by preheating the mould to an appropriat ly, this temperature is slightly lower than the softening temperature of the plastic m: undergoing moulding. is salicned. Pressure is applied serial through a cylinder into 2 fot zone of the cylinder. ‘around the inside wall ial fastic material unio ‘The lockin' fe temperature. Usual at cessure, then it is cooled by cen material under pr article. The whole cycle to eject the moulded ‘After the mould is filled with the molt lly or in an automated mode. cold water circulation and then opened so could be repeated several times either manual feeder hopper voter gootne tic bar heaters screw moves t0 push polymer mould Inco mould Fig, 3.13 Injection Moulding mea cat bt a inc wa oat sereibipniaiatig se nese See Ns Most of the hollow plastic articles are produced by the blow-moulding technique, and numerous other hollow articles are produced Containers (see Fig,), soft drink bottle: by this process, Thermoplastic materials such as polyethylene, polycarbonate, PVC, + an! ABS polymer can be blow polystyrene, nylon, polypropylene, aerylivs, aerylonitrile moulded; however, high-density polyethylene tops the list in terms of annual consumption. Scanned with CamScanner(LE Blow moulding, i fuel, basically belongs t0 the glass industry, The esscite of the process is explained in Fig. A hot, softened thermoplastic tube, usually called ‘parison’ is properly placed inside «two-piece hollow mould When the two halves of the mould are | . + -~ ”” blowing pin at the other nd. The parison is now blown by pressurising fom within by blowing compressed air through the blowing pin. The lot parison i inflated [ike 9 balloon and goes on expanding, tint comes in intimate contact with the relatively cold interior surface of the hollow itimately assumes the shape ofthe hollow cavity of the mould, Under pressure. the parison ul roid The mould is allowed to cool and the rigid thermoplastic atcle formed is removed by opening the mould. Polymers & Powder Metallurgy made either by the injection or extrusion moulding can be norextrusion blow moulding’. | alled “injectioy The parison needed for blow process, and the technique can accordingly bec exiuder de inch-of trim 1 2 3 4 Poison ieady Moldclosescver Parton inaien 10 fil potle removed and paison mold, Extuder immed. forming new parison. Fig 3.14 Blow Moulding engi Secexty jomeniuiding sc aruatlediee i Extrusion is one of the cheapest methods available for producing many common plastic products such a, films, filaments, bes, sheets, pipes, rods, hoses and straps, all in continuous lengths. The profile of a continuous extrudate is obtained by employing forced through the die orifice suitable die, The molten plastic under suitable conditions is svhich imparts the desired profile tothe extrudate. A simple extrusion machine i illustrated | in Fig. Lig materials is fed through the hopper as either sion for electrical heating for softening the further worked through the cylinder by 9 helically flighted ofthe plastic material rises owing (0 the frictional heat produced by the compression of the charge peoween the rotating screw and the cylinder i surface. During its joumey from the hopper (0 the die, the plastic material passes through distinct zones named feed zone, compression Zone ‘and metering zone, as shown in the ‘figure. Each zone contributes in its own way f0 he overall extrusion process. The feed zone, ompounded pla In this machine, the € 1 having provi powder or granules into a eylinde material. The hot plastic charge is revolving screw. The temperature Scanned with CamScannerAdditive Manufacturing for instance, receives he charge from the hopper and cends it over to the core sression zone No beating takes place in the feed zone. In the compression zane, however, the powdered charge melts due to heat conducted from the heating elements ane is compzessed by the working of the screw. The pasty molten plastic material i¢ then sent te the metering section, where it acquires » constant flow rate, imparted by the helfeal flight of the screw. The pressure built up in this section enables the polymer melt to enter the die and erserge out of it with the desited profile. Due to the highly viscous nature of some polymers, however, ‘one more region called the working zone may also be required, wherein the polymer could be subjected to high shearing forces for effective mixing, The extnided material of the required profile emerging from the die is quite hot (usually 125° C to 350°C) and has to be cooled rapidly 10 avoid desheping. The extrudate is accordingly carrie ovr a conveyor belt through a tub containing cold water. During this process, the material 4 ssipates heat to the water and gets set. Cold air blast and cold water spray can also bs used for cooling, The product formed is cut to the desired length ot wound on to rolls - The extrusion process is also used for coating wires and cables with PVC or rubber and for coating roll-formed metal strips with suitable thermoplastics thermoplastic granules cold water in extruded AF SS? ota 3 motor and hydraulic pump Water out Fig 3.15 Extrusion Moulding saathemsieming EN Thermoforming is a highly useful process for fabricating three - dimensional articles from plastic sheets, Even some large products, such as submarine hulls are made of ABS sheets by thermoforming techniques. ‘The technique can be outline as follows. The thermoplastic sheetis bewed toits softening temperature. The warm flexible sheet is then pressed into the female half =t a matched etal die dully assisted by the male half. Now, the sheet assuntes the requied shape of the mould, On cooling, the shaped articles becomes rigid! and can be removed troww the mould, In. modified method, the hot plastic sheet is sucked into the cavity of the fenta:e mould under the influence of vacuum to give the desived shape, This method is called ‘vacuum forming’. Scanned with CamScannerPolymers & Powder Metallurgy (PEE, PreeCianengaten) Fig 3.16 Thermoforming SORES Senden vs i Reinforcing a plastic matrix with a high-strength fiber material results inthe formation of what are called ,iber-reinforced plastic’ (FRP). FRP's have outstanding properties such sshigh strength-to-weight ratio and excellent corrosion resistance and easy to fabricate ‘There are several methods available for the production of reinforced plastic. Three of the most commonly used techniques are: (1) The hand lay-up technique; (2) The filament- winding technique; and (3) The spray-up technique. 1. The Hand Lay-up Technique This is probably the simplest method for producing reinforced plastic articles. The quality of the end product depends toa large extent on the skill of the operator. The whole process consists of the following steps. To being with, the mould is given a thin coating of a agent such as polyvinyl alcohol, silicone oil or wax. (This is done to prevent the final fabricated article from sticking to the mould) The mould is then coated with a resin matrix, A precut glass cloth or mat is then laid over the resin layer. Now, another layer of the resin coating is given over the glass cloth, Rollers are used to press the glass cloth on the resin uniformly and also to remove the entrapped air bubbles. Altemate layers of resin and glass cloth are Jaid in a similar sequence until the required thickness is built up (Fig.). The whole set-up is then cured either at the ambient or clevated temperature, After the curing is completed, the reinforced plastic material thus formed is removed from the mould and subjected to trimming and finishing, Sheets, auto body parts, boat hulls, duets and building components are produced by this technique Scanned with CamScanner‘Additive Manufacturing ERISA, Rosin Reinforcement Pig 3.17 Hand Lay-up Technique “This is a very widely used method For producing reinforeed plastic articles such as high pressure cylinders, storage tanks and rocket motor bodies In this process, a continuous through a bath of resin and “zed out. The resin-dipped length of strand, roving or woven tape of the fiber is asset! 1 of the excess resin 1s squet: of th 4d shape and subsequently ‘Avand reaches roller B by passing over curative. As the strand comes ou filament or strand is then wound over a mandrel qu cured under the influence of heat. The through roller 2 tension pin P, Since roller 13 is rotating ata speed higher than that of réller A, the filament ie actually pulled and stretched by roller B under tension imparted by the pin P. Stretching takes place at zone S. Alter passing through roller 13 the properly drawn filament is collected oma metal bobbin. During the drawing process, the filament diameter Beis reduced as it is Stretched under tension, but, at the same time, the molecules get oriented parallel to the axis ies very significantly. of the filament. This orientation improves the tensile prope Resin dpcum ooh squeeze unit oie 7 | ¢ ment-winding Technique Unit traverses norzonially ‘Mandrel \ Resin-dipped strand wound over mandrel Fig 3.18 Filament-winding Technique se Mrennepeosknceta meena 3d. Best Tecatmentester ha are given to fibres to make them more useful. The weatments Many special post treatments include scouring lubricating, sizing, dyeing, etc. Scanned with CamScanner‘ ¢ __ 440 | Soap and synthetic detergents are used for ‘scouring. Scouring, in fac, is nothing but | | the removal of dirt and other impurities from the fibre surface. ‘Lubrication" is a treatment given to fibres to protect them from external friction that may be imparted on the fibre by neighbouring fibres or by a rough metallic surface with which the fibres may come in \ contact during processing. Mostly, vegetable oils are used as lubricants, Lubrication also helps to reduce static electricity build-up on the fibres. Polymers & Powder Metallurgy “Sizing’ is a process by which a protective coating is given to fibres. For many fibres, polyvinyl alcohol or gelatin is employed as a sizing material, which holds the projecting bres on the main axis of the yarn and this ensures smooth weaving, Weaving is generally followed by dyeing and lence, before dyeing the ‘size’ should be removed by washing \ Customers are atracted by providing an increasing variety of colours tothe fabries, and | thig is done by dyeing, Dyeing is carried out by immersing fibres into a die solution till the dye penetrates into the fibres. Hydrogen bonds or van der Waals’ ype of bonds play a very significant role in the absorption of the dye by the fibre, Penetration usually takes place at the amorphous regions of the fibre. ‘Acid dyes are absorbed quickly by fibres made from cellulose or Proteins. This is understandable as acid dyes can easily bond with amino or hydroxyl groups Present in such polymers. The process of dycing synthetic fibres such as polyester, acrylics or polyamides te rather slow. Elevated temperatures, of course enhance the dyeing process. Colouring of fibres made from polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, etc, is practically impossible unless sites are made available for the absorption of dyes through copolymerisation or by chemical oxidation. ipmowderfietayss i Powder Metallurgy (P/M) has been defined as the art and science of producing metal powders and making semifinished and finished objects from individual, mixed or alloyed powders with or without the addition of nonmetallic constituents, Production of P/M parts Favolve mixing of elemental or alloy powders with additives and lubricants, compacting the snigture in a suitable dic and heating the resulting green compacts acontrolled atmosphere furnace so as to bond the particles metallurgical”, The resulting parts are solid bodies of material with sufficient strength and density for use in diverse fields of applications. Highly-porous parts, precise high-performance components and composite materials can be produced by P/M route. P/M offers compositional flexibility, minimized segregation graded microstructures with varying physical and mechanical yetallurgy in terms: of quality, cost, tical raw materials through @ Sag sa shits a na Powder Metallurgy, recognized today as one of the most important manufacturing ‘processes for making several industrial products, dates back to a long time in history. One : and the ability to produce properties, P/M also offers advantages over ingot mi precision, productivity as well as by its ability to conserve crit high level of material utilization, Scanned with CamScannerManufacturing “fg of hha rode sponge ston poses, These powders wee sso? elude import. manafturing proces became evident as early orders were produced and strengthened with tora for we ‘The development of ungten af idem P/M instr. ite growth, Subsequently, fous and nonfeous pats, compo suengthond alloys made by P/M came into use. Apart rom finished prod neyed ie members aplatns node ecology. npr examples this category include we of metal powders in printing catalysts in chemical industries ad in food indus, Several important innovations tat have taken place in materi yess few decades have further enhanced th scope es not only for many commercial ut aso fr cult, the growth of PM was phenomenal during the last quarter ofthe 20 century withthe development of novel material processing techniques such as Atomiztion, Mechanical | Alloying (4A), Rapid Solidification Process (RSP) for powder production. Cod Isostatic Pressing (CIP) and Hot Iostatic Pressing (HIP) for component fabrication A brie history | ofthe development of powder metallurgy i given in Table PM is sed forthe manufacture of finished or semifinishied products (e.g bar and sheet) fiom metal powders, Powder metallurgy bas also established is superiority by being the | says fri predtion of evel indi somone sch pros bearings * and filters and carbide to! 3, PIM components ae being increasingly used in & "wide variety of industries a the technology combines both unique technical features wit economy and other addtional advantages such as ss and enetgy efficiency, tory ofthe Development of Powder Metallurgy Dave Description ‘Origin "3000 BC |"Sponge ion” for tools and other implements _| India, Emp! T200AD__| Cementing of noble metals (platinum) South Ameria (neas) 1781 | Fusible platinum arsenic alloy France, Germany Production of platinvarsenie chemical rio | Frou France 1822 Platinum ingot mating fom powders Franse i | igh-iemperature sintering of platinum powder 1856 {compacts ona commercial basis bi Wollaslon method of producing compact 1839. [platinum fom platinum sponge (basis of England modem P/M technique) Scanned with CamScannerPolymers & Powder Metallurgy 10 4 1870 United States Py ) Tsis.1500 Tried Sates | \ arly 19005 | Poros United States | 1915-1930 [Cemented eabides ‘Germany 1920s United Siaes 1940s [Iron powder metaluey ‘Cena Europe PIM wrought 198s and | prodves, pee 1960s sited states 18705 ral ited States a 19805 United States | United States and oo England ‘The main steps in PM component production are: Pewder production, finishing operations Powder Product ‘The raw material for P/M components is the powder. These powders are engineered materials inthe sense they are manufactured to precise specifications to facilitate subsequent processing. The powders used in P/ re elements, clemental blends or powders. Te choice of sta extent by the fabrication for makiag powders. Most common method is the atamization, which produces nearly method produces powders of both ferrous and specialty pow stainless steel, superalloy (nickel base) as well iso made by this technique. Reduction of compounds is, duction of iron, copper as well as tungsten. Scanned with CamScannerAdditive Manufacturing Pe eee aienie inc desired size range, id for the end requir crs. Lubricants (0.5 on of the ide wares Properties of green and sinters Compac Compaction of powder mi ir safe operation and fe ion of compact, The powder type The strength 10 wi "green compact,” is then taken for sintering. Cons ‘Out at high temperature, Hot extrusion, hot pressing are examples of this category. These methods are used {% components requiring near theoretical density compact part, ust Sintering Sintering ofthe green compac furnace under « controlled atmosphere {0 bond the part iperatures about 70% of the absol fusion of atoms, gi integrity ipact. In other words, sintering serves to co bonded werent body havi occurs during sintering resulting in densification of significant improvements in the physical and mechani can be carried out in a variety of furnaces. Mesh bel and are used up to 1,200°C, Walking beam and pusher. ‘ice properties. Shrinkage This densification enables of the part. Sintering ‘most common ty box-type furnaces. Sintering nly used atmospheres include because of its lower 10 enhance sintering low sintering and portant development is led the scope of P/M products sintering are also adopted for s the Metal Injection Moy tremendously. Scanned with CamScannerMLE, Polymers & Powder Me! ns, These ‘one oF more secondary of filing ope rove surface finish inerease density fe repressing, grinding and plating, and corcs! Ines resintering is also done afer repressing, TR advantages Process Advantages wing important process advantages: le Drno serap) Enabtes close dimensional foleranees-—nearnet shapes possible }) Produces good surfs (W)_ Provides of resistance and plat (vi) Facilitates manufacture of complex, other metal working processes to moderate to high-volume component production requirement (uiiyComponents can be produced at reduced cost as compared 1 many other processes. ie. costeff (ix) Components of hard is which are difficult to machine can be readily ‘ranufaetured, e, tungsten wires for incandescent lamps (4). tispossibleto produce componentsin pure form. Purity ofthe starting materials can | te poserve trooghout the proces, requirement fr many ces! applications. Energy-efficient Environment-friendly. for increasing strength or enhanced wear proving corrosion resistance shapes, which would be impractical with Metallurgical Advantages iurgy enables the production of: with uniform chenscal composition with the desired characte | he absence of segregation during solidification, These ' willbe reflected in the finished pan. i structures (ryst Wide variety of systems, refractory metals , and composites (v)_ Parts with contealled porosity Is—me ys of miscible and itamiscible tungsten and molybdenum, ceramics, polymers Scanned with CamScanner[ itive Manufacturing EA itve Commercial Advantages/Special Characteristic of Powder Metallurgy Parts include: | Important commercial advantages of P/M allurgy parts can be oil-impregnated: to parts can be resin-impregnated ty or they can be infiltrated with id shock resistance, arid for | | Feous and nonferous powder metal function as self-ubricating bearings. Similarly, to seal-interconnected porosity to improve densi a lower melting point metal for greater strength an making electrical contacts. Gi) Parts can be heat-treated and plated if required. PIM parts are also amenable to processing by conventional metal-forming processes like rolling and forging, (ii) Costeffective production of simple and complex parts, very close to final dimensions at production rates that can range from a few hundreds to several thousands parts per hour. (iv) Offers long-term performance reliability in critical applications. Spm opnayen ei egies eee ier Met Hee Powder Metallurgy has a wide range of applications rangini | advanced aerospace components. P/M components have established themselves as an : economic alternative to components made from other manufacturing processes as well as : the only means to produce some components which cannot be made by other methods. 1g from automotive to 7 ‘The engineering applications of P/M consist of three groups: (Parts, which, are impossible to manufacture by other methods, like porous bearings, filters, bimetallic immiscible copper-lead alloys for use in bearings as : well as hard and soft magnetic parts, | Gi Pans, which are dificult to make by other production methods a, for example. parts made of tungsten and molybdenum which cannot be made efficiently by any other process. ii) Components, where powder metallurgy is an effective alternative lo parts made by casting and forging as, for example, small gears and connecting rods. Table gives a summary of various powders used in preparing different components and special applications. Application Powder used | Abrasive finishing Slot cleaning Iron, steel, stainless steel Abrasive wheels Iron, steel, copper, Lin, nickel Alloy production Steels, electroslag steel, free Nickel, lead, fe not Lings ten, ferrosilicon machining steel, cast iron, ductile feiromolybdenum, ferromanganese, iron, aluminium, it iron tungsten, molybdenum, selenium, tellurium Scanned with CamScanner| | : | Polymers & Powder Metallurgy CAME, Agriculture Animal feed Iron Animal medication Cobalt Chelate fertilizers Iron Rami machinery Iron, steel, copper, bronye Food enrichment Iron, copper, manganese Fungicides Copper Lawn and garden equipment Iron, steel, iron alloy, copper, bronze Seed cleaning Iron Seed coaling Aluminium Soil condition Iron-coppet Aerospace . Brake linings Copper, lead. tin, high-nickel alloys. giuphile, iron Cures (electronic components) Iron, permalloy Counter weights Tungsten, copper, nickel, iron Filters for fuel, air, hydraulic fluids — Bronze, stainless steel, nickel Heal shields Beryllium, tungsten Heat shield coaling Aluminium. Mectanical methods of powder production a i) Chopping or Cutting ) Abrasion methods iii) Machining methods iv) Milling $.16:1;Chopping'o In this process, stands of hard stel wit, in diameter as small as 0.0313 inches are cut into small pieces by means of a milling cutter, This technique is actually employed in the manufacturing of cut wire shots which are used for peening or shot cleaning. Main disadvantage using this method is itis difficult and costly to make powders, In this type sinc a mass of metal might be atacked 7 some form of abrasion, Some of Abrasion methods are, a) Rubbing of Two Surfaces: + When we rub two surfaces against each other, hard surface removes the material from. the surface of soft material. Scanned with CamScannerBURANON tive Manufacturing * @ production method has been frequently employed, especially to alloy Powders, when supplies from conventional sources have been tn obtainable, Such methods are also used for manufacture of coarse powders of dental alloys. Filing can also be used to Produce finer powder if its teeth are smaller. ©) Scratching: Ifa hard pin is rubbed on some soft metal the powder flakes are produced. Scratching is a technique actually uscd on a large scale lor the preparation of coarse magnesium powders. SHBSARERTIAE A machining process, using for example a lathe or a milling cutter in which something more than just scratching is involved, since the attacking tool actually digs under the surface of the metal and tears it off. On lathe machine by applying small force we get fine chips, | A large amount of machining serap is produced in machining operations. This scrap in the | form of chips and turnings can be further reduced in size by grinding, { iat Reet sgt % einige bh aM The basic principal of milling process is the application of impact and shear forces between two materials, a h 4 soft, causing soft material to be ground into fine particles. Milling techniques ble for brittle materials. Most popular of milling is, Ball Milling Ball mills This contains cylindrical vessel rotating horizontally along the axis. Length of the cylinder is more or less equal to diameter. The vessel is charged with the grinding media. During rolling of vessel, the yrindiny media & powder particles roll trom some height. This process grinds the powder materials by impaeVcollision &attrition Rotating direction of mill + | = iy 3.19 Ball Milling ‘ assis Scanned with CamScanner| Polymers & Powder Metallur; oy (LL | | Grinding To grind a sintered sponge metal from reduetion and clectrolytic processes, jam and | hammer crashers are used above all, Grinding ina jaw crasher is performed between 2 fixed | jaw and a moving one (Fg,) and represents the first stage of disintegration, ‘where a coarse } powder is obtained, This is subsequently milled (oa final product in some ype ofa mill, in a hammer grinder the material is crushed using an impact of hammers attached on a rotor, jaw Crusher 8 Gyratory Crusher crusher and Cone crusher Fig 3.20 Jaw crusher, Gyratory “almost all metallic elements can be produced in the form: ofpowders by suitablechemical | reactions or decomposition. Mostly chemical methods are based on the decomposition of @ ; 4 into the elemental form with heating or with the help of some catalyst. The bo shods are chemical reduction and decomposition. ee arly oxides, by the use of reducing agents (solid or che most widely used and the oldest method of producing metal powders. as hydrides, oxalates and formates can also be used as starting venient, economical and extremely flexible method to control the properties of the product such as si/c, shape and porosity over & wide range. It is widely employed for producing powders of iron, coppet, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, thorium ‘and titanium. Powders produced by this route exhibit ores within each powder particle and hence are called sponge powders. This sponginess, Controlled by the amount and size of the pores, aids in improved compaction and sintering Characteristics. Gases sue as hydrogen, carbon ‘monoxide, disassociated ammonia, coal gas, enriched furnace gas, natural gas, partially-combusted hydrocarbons, alkaline metal vapours, carbons as well as metals arc used as reducing agents in gaseous reduction of compounds. compoun main chemical me Reduction of compounds, particul gaseous) is one of Other compounds such material for reduction. This is a con Scanned with CamScannerThe general equations for reduction of metallic oxides by hydrogen or 2arbon monoxiée are respectively. | MO+H,t -»M-+H,Ot MO +COt -»M+CO,t STS Bi ¥ NRTA a ee SH COP eens Metal carbonyls arc formed by passing carbon monoxide at high pressure over heated metal sponge and condensing the vapour as liquid. These are volatile liquids and usually stored as liquid under pressure. Decomposition of carbonyls of cotelt, iron, nickel, molybdenum and tungsten has been used to produce fine powders with high purity. The liquid is purified by fractional distillation and is then decomposed in the temperature range of 150 to 400°C at atmospheric pressure to produce fine, high-purity metal. The carbon monoxide released during decomposition is recycled. SaaS Atomization In this process molten metal is broken up into small droplets and rapidly frozen becore {he drops come into contact with each other ot with a solid surface. The principal method is to disintegrate a thin stream of molten metal by subjecting it to the impact of high energy jets of gas or liquid (shown in figure). Methods of metal-powder production by atomization: (a) Gas atomization; (b) Water atomization; (©) Vacuum atomization Water atomization: High pressure water jets disintegrates molten mecal stream. Water jets are used mainly because of their higher viscosity and quenching ure gradient on @. formation of various morphologies of particle structures Scanned with CamScanner‘Additive Manutacturin re depend on powders. For example, water atomized stel red structures may are invariably present inthe po ‘though undesirable are treated a another example. Apart from the phases pre to reaction with moisture or oxygen. Such oxides may be reduced during sintering in a reducing atmosphere, Some metals which te eaily oxidize, ike alurinium aways have | atin surtice oxide fil, The chances of oxidation of powders increase wth factors like ing particle roughness. Microstructural ig which may be an added advantage during s-nering, increasing the driving force for sintering. | Grain sizeof powders canbe studied using microscopy. ral, the grain size of a | powder is dependent upon the method of production, Fine grain size gives better sintering | and uniform shrinkage. I | Surface texture is another characte is influenced by the shape ofthe po tie, which canbe studied using microscopy. Texture ‘method involved, Surface texture strongly inuences Rough surfaces have more fiction and die filling red to spherical powders. This such as the presence of mieropore be studied by microstructural inv fina properties of product, acoseee ale Scanned with CamScannerures may mountor uents as iron and copper is mation ermay ss. The ar due gina ‘have s like ‘ural iby sing, ofa ing ue ad tae ie (it i eS of power particles without the fowder compacts of and segue ge. Compaction s ‘of sintri akage he finished parts, In other cases, such as cemented eatbieess (achieved through ht pressing of the component powders aHN=E ‘of external pressure on powder con like vibratory compaction and slip casting do not use any external PresSUre- ay be advantageous to cold press mixture ofthe component powders ay not be lous always: for example sintering of compacts containing eleme syed brass powder ‘cold pressed and sintered. Generally, prealloyed pow rand cannot be at temperatures where sufficient densification occurs. Fine powders ass densification Engen ie camp splge he 8 i i pls sed ee ‘alternative, apart from powder pressing and shay is the full-density processing, relies on the simultaneous application of high pressure and high temperature, and is d for high-performance components used in critical applications. rtieles ean be consolidated and “The differences between compaction and shaping technologies have an impact on the production costs. Important considerations are the component sie, desired Snel density ena shape complexity. A general categorization of shaping technologies is 2s follows: @ Binder assisted extrusion: elongated parts fine powders, constant cross-section, relatively simple sha + Gi Injection moulding: complex, small componens, high-performance materials. é 39 i ” YD P 4 } PRIS on 2022 PPPS Scanned with CamScannerAdditive Manufacturing BN iveanetntarig ny precision. 23 Be Bh eprops alo a primary requirement for ace employed ing a mol re of 65 - 75°C. Bt ions reduce the scosity systems ages aver time. Ge ems. Ther 1g, Candle wax is a common thermoplast idely employed in powder-shaping technologies, lack of hazards. A mixture of two-thirds paraffin moulded between HO and 150. After moulding, immersion in solvents or evaporation by healing low the mixture 1 flow water content and polymer, forms gels on cooling soaps, sugars and marches. Aficr sin place until sintering, These tion results ina single, large evaporation ofthe are preferred for extrusion, tape sstends throughout the component. This mass thous ise and various candidate binder systems ean be used with any Several formulations are in w 5 are preferred owing lo their transient role. powder or shaping technique. Low-cost bind; Scanned with CamScannerust wet erween sals are ‘ection uriog, tering abient ning Desired Binder ‘Abinder used ving ve Low inherent viscosity at the shaping temperature. ‘strong and rigid after shaping. lecular weight. (b) Powder ‘With regard to powder interaction, a binder must ) Wet and adhere to the powder shape. The work part afler compaction is teen rneaning not yet flly processed. The compaction is particles of powder i proximity while imparting the desired part configuration. The following methods are adopted for compacting: 1. Die Pressing 2. Centrifugal compacting jection moulding 3 4 5. 6 7 8 9. to the contour of vary from 80 Mp: the powder used. Mechanical presses are Hydraulic presses are for com Hydraulic mechar # Adie of adequate «# Feeding devices for 1 Upperand lower pu 7 compact. upon the of for compacting objects at tow pressure. . The basic components are: ape and dimension ves to apply pressure, and to assist in the ejection of the green Scanned with CamScanner‘* Control system to maintain the magnitude of pressure and rate of pressure application, speed of punches etc, Upper & a4 puch ™ Wel opie | me f Lower | punch | I Fig 3.29 Die Pressing Single Action: Die Compaction: Used to manufacture flat, thin parts such as washers, discs, thin rings etc. The lower punch is stationery during the application of pressure by | the motion of the upper punch acting from the direction only on the powder placed in the ! cavity. After compression the punch is raised in.order to eject the part from the die cavity. Advantages are: | @ Tools used are very simple © Mechanical or hydraulic press may be employed. ip. a ; . | Disadvantage: it is not suitable for manufacture of long parts because of non-uniform density distribution. and bottom punches. Equal or different amounts of pressure may be employed from each direction. The die table remains stationery and the upward movement of the lower punch, ejects the part out. This technique can be used for the manufacture of thin walled bushing and cylindrical bearings. Scanned with CamScanneressures up to 3 MPa. ‘cting on cach particle carbide and for o! sul ; 0 avy metals SUC “aie compaction. The mak oe targer time for the meee ‘The powder is swirled in # The uniform density is obtain’ Tfnod is employed £5 of powder. This method ie materials that are relatively Gmoompressible BY Fr yecause it take drawback of this process 1S relatively SIOWer PI the method. vowing fluid to be absorbed by 300-3000 RPM Material flow Compacting Fig 3.31 Centrifugal im rods having controlled porosity metal powder is fed between form a sheet of sufficient ry. The metals that can be Sao a Raliog: This method is used with uniform mechanical propert two rolls which compress and inte! tig then rerolled i and Stainless steel. for making continuous strips and ies. In this method, the rlock the powder particles to strength as shown. It and heat treated if necessa rolled are Cu, Brass, Bronze, N' Nozzle —_ Injection moulding Fig 3.32 Rolling Scanned with CamScannerAdditive Manufacturing Rolling process Fig 3.33 Roling iS BTS PRU TAKBRIAROSne Cm ce Gravity oF “loose powder” sintering is used to mike porous metal parts from powders that diffusion-bond easily (most production parts arc made from bronze). In this process. no outside pressure is applied to shape the part. The appropriate material, graded for size, is poured into a mold cavity, which is a void in the shape of the finished part. These metal particles are then heated to their sintering temperature at which point a metallurgical bonding takes place, and joining “necks” are formed al contact points. Metallugical Bonding Or / Fig 3.34 Shows Metallurgical Bonding of Gravity sintering method SSUISTERDIBENSiC reacting eae é In this method, the pressure generated by an explosive is used to compact the metal powder. Metal powder is placed in water proof bags which are immersed in water container cylinder of high wall thickness. Due to sudden deterioration of the charge at the end of the cylinder, the pressure of the cylinder increase. This pressure is used to press the metal powder to form green compact, Scanned with CamScanner