Journal of Professional Services Marketing

ISSN: 0748-4623 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wzps20

Measuring the Affective Evaluations of Retail

Service Environments

L. W. Turley & Dawn Langkamp Bolton

To cite this article: L. W. Turley & Dawn Langkamp Bolton (1999) Measuring the Affective
Evaluations of Retail Service Environments, Journal of Professional Services Marketing, 19:1,
31-44, DOI: 10.1300/J090v19n01_03

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1300/J090v19n01_03

Published online: 24 Oct 2008.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 190

Citing articles: 12 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wsmq20
 Measuring the Affective Evaluations
of Retail Service Environments
L. W. Turley
Dawn Langkamp Bolton

ABSTRACT. Although there have been a large number of studies

which have investigated the effect of the retail atmosphere on consum-
ers, most have focused on only one or two elements from a very com-
plex environment. Attempts to understand consumers’ evaluation of the
retail atmosphere as a whole have been rare. This study develops a
five-item atmospheric affect scale, from an established concept in the
atmospheric literature. This scale groups atmospheric elements into
categories, and tests it in a fast-food restaurant setting. Reliability test-
ing on the scale indicates that a four item-scale provides the best mea-
sure of atmospheric affect in this particular type of service. The data
also suggest that the sample was able to evaluate these categories of
atmospheric variables, and that each of these categories generated dif-
ferent levels of consumer affect. [Article copies available for a fee from The
Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mail address:
getinfo@haworthpressinc.com <Website: http://www.haworthpressinc.com>]

INTRODUCTION

For over thirty years now, marketing theorists have known that it is
possible to alter the consumption behavior of retail shoppers through
the design of the retail store. Termed atmospherics in retailing and

L. W. Turley is Professor of Marketing, Department of Economics and Market-

ing, Bowling Green College of Business Administration, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity, Bowling Green, KY 42101 (E-mail: lou.turley@wku.edu). Dawn Langkamp
Bolton is Assistant Professor of Marketing, Department of Economics and Market-
ing, Bowling Green College of Business Administration, Western Kentucky Univer-
sity, Bowling Green, KY 42101.
Journal of Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 19(1) 1999
E 1999 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 31
32 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

servicescapes in services, this practice recognizes that a marketing

environment should be carefully sculpted to both induce particular
behaviors and evaluations from consumers and to appeal to a specific
target market.
Retail atmospherics is embedded in the literature of environmental
psychology when researchers in the 1950’s recognized that subjects
performed certain tasks better in aesthetically ‘‘pleasing’’ rooms, and
also reported having better attitudes in these environments (Maslow
and Mintz 1956; Mintz 1956). In marketing, over 60 articles have been
published which experimentally manipulated portions of the retail
atmosphere and examined the effects these changes have on shopping
behavior (Turley and Milliman forthcoming).
Most of the studies in this literature stream have examined the
impact of one or two variables on the behavior of consumers, rather
than their evaluation of the environment as a whole. However, a per-
son’s response to an environment may be dependent upon their affec-
tive evaluation of it (Snodgrass, Russell and Ward 1988).
At present, there is little guidance in the marketing literature for
measuring a consumer’s affective evaluation of a retail store. The
purpose of this article is to examine the literature associated with this
issue and to develop a scale which measures a consumer affective
reaction to the whole retail environment.

RESEARCH IN MARKETING
In a recent article, Spangenberg, Crowley and Henderson (1996)
noted that a shopper’s reaction to a store’s atmosphere can be ex-
plained by environmental psychology and the S-O-R paradigm. In this
context, the store’s environment is the stimulus (S), which combines a
variety of atmospheric elements or cues and causes a consumer’s
evaluation of the atmosphere (O), which in turn causes some response
(R) to this environment. In environmental psychology, behavioral re-
sponses to an environment are normally thought of as approach-avoid-
ance behaviors. Approach behaviors are positive reactions to the envi-
ronment such as a desire to stay in a place and spend time exploring it.
Avoidance behaviors are negative reactions such as not wanting to
enter a store or wanting to leave quickly. A more in-depth discussion
of each of these three concepts, as they apply to a retail atmosphere,
takes place in the following sections.
 L. W. Turley and Dawn Langkamp Bolton 33

Stimulus. A retail store can be a complex combination of a vast

number of environmental stimuli. Exhibit 1 provides a listing of some
of the most common retail atmospheric elements. These are organized
using a framework provided by Berman and Evans (1995). They pre-
sented a classification of atmospheric variables which had four cate-

EXHIBIT 1. Atmospheric Variables

1. EXTERNAL VARIABLES
a. exterior signs h. lawns and garden
b. entrances i. address and location
c. exterior display windows j. architectural style
d. height of building k. surrounding area
e. size of building l. parking availability
f. color of building m. congestion and traffic
g. surrounding stores n. exterior walls
2. GENERAL INTERIOR VARIABLES
a. flooring and carpeting h. width of aisles
b. color schemes i. wall composition
c. lighting j. paint and wall paper
d. music k. ceiling composition
e. P.A. usage l. merchandise
f. scents m. temperature
g. tobacco smoke n. cleanliness
3. LAYOUT AND DESIGN VARIABLES
a. space design and allocation h. waiting rooms
b. placement of merchandise i. department locations
c. grouping of merchandise j. traffic flow
d. work station placement k. racks and cases
e. placement of equipment l. waiting queues
f. placement of cash registers m. furniture
g. waiting areas n. dead areas
4. POINT-OF-PURCHASE AND DECORATION VARIABLES
a. point-of-purchase displays f. artwork
b. signs and cards g. product displays
c. wall decorations h. usage instructions
d. degrees and certificates i. price displays
e. pictures j. teletext
5. HUMAN VARIABLES
a. employee characteristics
b. employee uniforms
c. crowding
d. customer characteristics
e. privacy
34 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

gories; external variables, general interior variables, layout and design

variables, and point-of-purchase variables. This concept has been
modified in the literature to include an additional classification, hu-
man variables (Turley and Milliman forthcoming; Turley 1994). The
following paragraphs describe these classifications in greater depth
and briefly reviews some of the research which has been conducted in
each of the categories of atmospheric variables.
External variables include the outside of the store, exterior signs,
landscaping, parking, entrances, and the surrounding area. Although
these variables have not received a lot of attention from researchers,
some examples of research on these types of environmental stimuli
include Ward, Bitner and Barnes (1992) finding that consumers used
exterior cues to classify a retail store, Pinto and Leonidas (1994)
reporting that the location and parking cues influenced quality percep-
tions, and Edwards and Shackley (1992) noting that there can be a
relationship between exterior window displays and product sales.
The general interior variables category is comprised of stimuli such
as interior color schemes, music, lighting, scents, merchandise, clean-
liness and flooring. This category has been the most researched area of
atmospherics. Some of these stimuli, such as music (Herrington and
Capella 1996; Dube, Chebat and Morin 1995; Gulas and Schewe
1994; Areni and Kim 1993; Yalch and Spangenberg 1990; Milliman
1986; Milliman 1982; Smith and Curnow 1966), color (Crowley 1993;
Bellizzi and Hite 1992; Bellizzi, Crowley and Hasty 1983), and odor
(Mitchell, Kahn and Knasko 1995; Gulas and Bloch 1995; Hirsch
1995; Spangenberg, Crowley and Henderson 1996) have been studied
in great depth and have been found to influence a wide range of
shopping behaviors. An interesting facet of these atmospheric stimuli
is that research has shown that general interior variables can influence
buyer behavior even when consumers are not consciously aware of
them (Gulas and Schewe 1994; Milliman 1982).
Layout and design variables include such environmental elements
as space design and allocation, department locations, racks and cases,
placement of cash registers, and merchandise groupings. Research on
these atmospheric influences has shown that knowledge of a store’s
layout can influence both impulse buying and brand switching (Park,
Iyer and Smith 1989). Findings from this area also indicate that im-
pulse purchasing and brand switching are both more likely to occur
when store knowledge is low and consumers are experiencing time
 L. W. Turley and Dawn Langkamp Bolton 35

pressures (Park, Iyer and Smith 1989). Research also suggests that the
layout itself can influence retail sales. For example, a power isle, the
display of large quantities of limited numbers of products to create the
impression of low prices, works better when smaller numbers of prod-
ucts at greater quantities are used rather than having a larger variety of
products at lower quantities (Smith and Burns 1996).
The third atmospheric category, point-of-purchase and decoration
variables include atmospheric variables like signs and cards, price
displays, point-of-purchase displays and teletext messages. A domi-
nant research stream in this area of atmospherics is sometimes called
‘‘shelf space studies.’’ These articles explored issues such as the opti-
mal shelf number of product shelf facings, the effect of point-of-pur-
chase and product displays on sales, and the most effective use of
in-store signing (Wilkinson, Mason and Paksoy 1982; Patton 1981;
Woodside and Waddle 1970; Chevalier 1975; Curhan 1974; Curhan
1972; Frank and Massey 1970; Cox 1970; Kotzan and Evanson 1969;
Cox 1964). Based upon the accumulated findings it appears that there
is a small, positive relationship between the allocation of shelf space
and sales (Curhan 1973). Studies of the effects of product displays
have generally reported positive effects on sales. One study found that
sales of a product increased 388% in supermarkets and 197% in phar-
macies as a result of a point-of-purchase display (Gagnon and Oster-
haus 1985).
The last category, human variables are associated with cues which
arise from the store employees, their appearance and physical charac-
teristics, and from the other shoppers in the store. The most developed
concept in this area of atmospherics is consumer crowding. Crowding
has two components, the physical density of a store’s shoppers and a
consumer’s perceptions of the restrictive aspects of limited space
(Harrell and Hutt 1976). Research on this concept has tended to show
that crowding has a negative effect on the shopping experience.
Crowding can have a negative effect on browsing and comparison
shopping (Grossbart, Mittelstaedt, Curtis and Rogers 1990), number
of items purchased (Grossbart, Mittelstaedt, Curtis, and Rogers 1990),
shopping at a store (Grossbart, Mittelstaedt, Curtis, and Rogers 1990),
satisfaction (Eroglu and Machleit 1990), and shopping excitement
(Wakefield and Blodgett 1994).
Evaluation. In the S-O-R paradigm of atmospherics, the evaluation
of the atmosphere (O), is the least researched element of the theory.
36 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

Less is known about how consumers form evaluations of the environ-

ment, and what these evaluations may be to different types of retail
atmospheres, than is known about the relationship between some stim-
uli and behavior in a store or service.
Prior research indicates that some elements in the atmosphere influ-
ence satisfaction, while others do not (Andrus 1986). Eroglu and
Machleit (1990) identified crowding perceptions as one of the atmo-
spheric variables which does have an impact on satisfaction. Consum-
ers also are more likely to attribute blame to a firm when a problem
occurs if the atmosphere appears messy and disorganized (Bitner
1990). Finally, there appears to be a positive relationship between the
evaluation of the atmosphere and service quality (Baker, Grewal, and
Parasuraman 1994) and store image (Joyce and Lambert 1996; Baker,
Grewal, and Parasuraman 1994).
Although relatively undeveloped in marketing, the environmental
psychology literature recognizes that the first evaluation people make
of a place they come in contact with is affective (Ittelson 1973). In this
context, affect can be defined as the positive or negative state of
emotion or feeling that is induced by a particular place (Spangenberg,
Crowley and Henderson 1996). Environmental psychologists also rec-
ognize that these place-related affective evaluations are quite complex
since different properties of an environment can induce divergent
affective reactions in the same individual (Russell and Pratt 1980).
The existing literature provides little guidance, however, for measur-
ing affective perceptions of a retail or service environment.
Response. As stated earlier, a large number of studies have manipu-
lated atmospheric stimuli and noted the effects these manipulations
have on shopping behavior. Examples of shopping behaviors which
the atmosphere can strongly influence are sales and/or purchasing
behavior and time spent in the environment.
Research has shown that sales and purchase rates can be influenced
by shelf space allocations (Cox 1970; Kotzan and Evanson 1969; Cox
1964), display and shelf position (Gagnon and Osterhaus 1985; Wil-
kinson, Mason and Paksoy 1982; Patton 1981; Curhan 1974; Frank
and Massey 1970), in-store advertising (Gagnon and Osterhaus 1985;
Patton 1981; Woodside and Waddle 1975), ambient scents (Hirsch
1995), exterior windows (Edwards and Shackley 1992), and the type
of music played (Gulas and Schewe 1994; Areni and Kim 1993; Yalch
and Spangenberg 1990; Milliman 1986; Milliman 1982). Research on
 L. W. Turley and Dawn Langkamp Bolton 37

time spent in the retail environment has shown that this response is
associated with the type of music played in the store (Gulas and
Schewe 1994; Areni and Kim 1993; Yalch and Spangenberg 1990;
Smith and Curnow 1966), colors (Bellizzi and Hite 1992), and odor
(Spangenberg, Crowley and Henderson 1996).

THE STUDY

Rather than examining the effect a particular atmospheric stimulus

has on some type of response, this study explores the overall affective
perceptions of a complete retail environment. This is somewhat of a
divergence from most studies in this area in that we examine the
atmosphere from a more ‘‘macro’’ perspective. The typical atmo-
spheric study tends to adopt a micro perspective in that one or two
stimuli in a complex environment are isolated and examined. As noted
earlier in the review of research in this literature stream, a consumer’s
affective evaluation of retail environments is a gap in our present
understanding of a retail or service atmosphere.
Measurement. The affective evaluation of a retail environment was
measured using a five item scale. This scale uses the modified Berman
and Evans (1995) classification as shown in Exhibit 1. This scale asks
consumers to evaluate a retail store in each of the major categories of
variables in that classification, and each item was measured using a
five point Likert scale. The precise wording of this five item affect
scale is shown in Exhibit 2.
The Setting. A field study was conducted at a fast food restaurant
over a four day time period. This particular restaurant is part of a
national U.S. chain, and is located in a medium sized mid-western city.
The restaurant is near a college campus and is also adjacent to a
manufacturing facility and a community shopping center. Manage-
ment of this fast food franchise was considering renovating the store,
and was therefore interested in consumers’ evaluation of, and reaction
to, their environment.
Exit questionnaires were administered to customers which asked
them to evaluate the restaurant on the previously discussed five item
scale. The questionnaire also asked respondents to provide some basic
demographic information including age, income, marital status, house-
hold size, occupation, and education. As an incentive, consumers who
38 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

EXHIBIT 2. Affect Evaluation Scale

1. In general, the outside of this restaurant is pleasing to me.

2. In general, the interior of this building is attractive.

3. I did not like the arrangement and layout of this restaurant. (reverse scored)

4. The signs and decorations used in this store are not pleasant. (reverse
scored)

5. In general, I felt comfortable with the people I encountered while eating

today.

agreed to answer the questions were given a coupon for a free sand-
wich which could be used during their next visit to the store.
Sample. Using the approach described above, 103 usable question-
naires were obtained. The demographic information indicated that
55% of the sample was under 34 years old, just over half (50.4%) were
single, 59% had household sizes of one or two, 62% had at least taken
some college courses, and that students and professionals were the two
most common occupation categories.
Findings. Subjects were asked to rate, from a macro perspective,
the five proposed dimensions of atmospherics (see Exhibit 2). Assess-
ment of this five item scale started with the calculation of coefficient
alpha (Cronbach 1951), according to Churchill’s (Churchhill 1979)
suggestions on scale development.
The initial coefficient alpha value was 0.6367. However, following
an established criterion (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry 1988) for
deleting an item, the item’s corrected item-to-total correlation for each
variable indicated that by eliminating the general layout and design
variable the resulting coefficient alpha would become 0.7175, thus
improving the alpha score to an acceptable value. Nunnaly (1978)
argues that in the early stages of research reliability measures of 0.70
or higher is sufficient. Therefore, the four remaining variables in the
scale appear to be a sufficiently reliable measure of atmospherics in
this particular setting.
As shown in Exhibit 3 the means of the remaining four dimension
measures for the sample ranged from 3.69 to 3.95 on the five point
Likert scale where the higher the number, the more positive the affec-
 L. W. Turley and Dawn Langkamp Bolton 39

EXHIBIT 3. Summary of Results from Four Item Atmospherics Scale

Mean Signif Standard

Atmospheric Dimension Score* Diff** Deviation
HUMAN VARIABLES 3.95 a .3879
General Interior Variables 3.91 a .5169
External Variables 3.85 a, b .6603
Point-of-Purchase and Decoration 3.69 b .8529
Variables

*The higher the score the more positive the affective component.
**Means with like letters are not statistically significantly different from each other.

tive component. The overall mean for the four-item atmospherics

scale was 3.85 with a standard deviation of 0.6257.
Further analysis of the data clearly revealed that the subjects’ per-
ceptions of the four remaining variables were not uniform (see Exhibit
3). Specifically, these findings show the perceptions of the point-of-
purchase stimuli in this particular atmosphere were perceived as a
significantly less positive affective component than the general interi-
or variables and the human variables. Measures of the external vari-
ables, general interior variables, and human variables were not statisti-
cally significantly different from each other.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The most important implication associated with this study is that the
authors explored a procedure for measuring consumers perceptions of
an entire retail environment, rather than the effects of a very small
element in a complex environment. The data from this study indicates
that consumers are able to evaluate major portions a retail environ-
ment and that summing of these portions provide a view of their
affective perceptions of the entire atmosphere. The data also indicates
that consumers are able to discriminate between areas of the atmo-
sphere they like, and areas that they like less.
This scale provides managers of retail stores with a powerful diag-
nostic tool. The method used in this study allows managers to identify
areas in the retail atmosphere which produce strong affective reactions
40 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

from consumers and those that they do not. In situations where store
design changes are being considered, as was the case in this research
situation, this type of data allows managers to focus on categories of
variables which are not well liked by their patrons and to avoid mak-
ing major changes to those which are. In some cases, unfavorable
portions of the atmosphere can be revised leaving the more favorable
areas intact. Using this type of information may reduce the time and
expense necessary for store redesign.
In this case, it appears that the study respondents liked the point-of-
purchase elements of the atmosphere the least. Management can use
this information to focus on this section of the store’s environment as
they renovate the store.
Additionally, this study suggests that consumers do not process all
of the sections of an environment equally. In this situation, it appears
that layout and design variables associated with this fast food restau-
rant did not significantly impact consumers affective perceptions of
the store. Their perceptions of this atmosphere were formed by per-
ceptions of the restaurant’s external variables, general interior, point-
of-purchase and decoration variables and the people or human ele-
ments in the environment. However, since data was only gathered in
one particular store, it is unclear whether this same finding would be
associated with all fast food stores, and even all retail stores, or is
peculiar to this one setting and situation.
Future research is likely to show that different atmospheric catego-
ries are more important in some kinds of stores and retail environ-
ments than they are in others. For example, signs and decoration
variables are likely to be more important in video rental stores than
they are in automobile showrooms, and human variables may not be
important in the affective evaluation of the environment of automatic
and coin-operated car wash centers.

CONCLUSION
In this study, the authors viewed the retail environment from a
different perspective than most of the atmospheric studies which have
been reported in the literature. Rather than isolating on one or two
elements in a very complex retail environment, this study investigated
holistic or macro impressions of the atmosphere. Using an established
conceptual view of the retail atmosphere the authors developed a five
 L. W. Turley and Dawn Langkamp Bolton 41

item scale which, when summed, measures affective perceptions and

evaluations of the entire store atmosphere.
Reliability testing on the scale indicated removing one item from
the five-item scale, layout and decoration variables, provided the best
measure of atmospheric affect. However, future research will have to
confirm whether this finding is applicable only to fast-food restaurant
or for other types of retail categories as well.
The data also showed that consumers had stronger affect for parts of
this environment than they did for others. This finding suggests that
respondents can discriminate between groups of atmospheric variables
when asked to do so.
More research is needed which explores the way consumers process
and evaluate retail environments as a whole. For example, what cues
or categories of cues are most salient to them when encountering a
retail environment for the first time? After thirty plus years of re-
search, we probably need to move from focusing solely on individual
cues in a complex environment toward achieving an understanding of
how entire retail atmospheres are evaluated and processed by potential
consumers.

REFERENCES
Andrus, D. (1986). ‘‘Office Atmospherics and Dental Service Satisfaction,’’ Journal
of Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 1, (Summer), pp. 77-85.
Areni, C.S. and Kim, D. (1993). ‘‘The Influence of Background Music on Shopping
Behavior: Classical Versus Top-Forty Music in a Wine Store,’’ in McAlister, L.
and Rothschild, M.L. (Eds.), Advances in Consumer Research, Association for
Consumer Research, Provo, UT, pp. 336-340.
Baker, J., Grewal, D., and Parasuraman, A. (1994). ‘‘The Influence of Store Environ-
ment on Quality Inferences and Store Image,’’ Journal of the Academy of Market-
ing Science, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 328-339.
Bellizzi, J.A. and Hite, R.E. (1992). ‘‘Environmental Color, Consumer Feelings, and
Purchase Likelihood,’’ Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 9, (September/October),
pp. 347-363.
Bellizzi, J.A., Crowley, A.E. and Hasty, R.D. (1983). ‘‘The Effects of Color in Store
Design,’’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 59, (Spring), pp. 21-45.
Berman, B. and Evans, J.R. (1995). Retail Management: A Strategic Approach,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Bitner, M.J. (1990). ‘‘Evaluating Dervice Encounters: The Effects of Physical Sur-
roundings and Employee Responses,’’ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 54, (April),
pp. 69-82.
Chevalier, M. (1975). ‘‘Increase in Sales Due to In-Store Display,’’ Journal of Mar-
keting Research, Vol. 12, (November), pp. 426-431.
42 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

Churchhill, G.A. (1979). ‘‘A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing
Constructs,’’ Journal of Marketing Research, Vol.16, (February), pp. 64-73.
Cox, K. (1970). ‘‘The Effect of Shelf Space Upon Sales of Branded Products,’’
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 7, (February), pp. 55-58.
Cox, K. (1964). ‘‘The Responsiveness of Food Sales to Shelf Space Changes in
Supermarkets,’’ Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 1, (May), pp. 63-67.
Cronbach, L.J. (1951). ‘‘Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests,’’
Psychometrika, Vol. 16, pp. 297-334.
Crowley, A.E. (1993). ‘‘The Two-Dimensional Impact of Color on Shopping,’’ Mar-
keting Letters, Vol. 4, (No. 1), pp. 59-69.
Curhan, R.C. (1972). ‘‘The Relationship Between Shelf Space and Unit Sales in
Supermarkets,’’ Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 9, (November), pp. 406-412.
Curhan, R.C. (1974). ‘‘The Effects of Merchandising and Temporary Promotional
Activities on the Sales of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables in Supermarkets,’’ Journal
of Marketing Research, Vol. 11, (August), pp. 286-294.
Curhan, R.C. (1973). ‘‘Shelf Space Allocation and Profit Maximization in Mass
Retailing,’’ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 37, (July), pp. 54-60.
Dube, L., Chebat, J.C., and Morin, S. (1995). ‘‘The Effects of Background Music on
Consumers’ Desire to Affiliate in Buyer-Seller Interactions,’’ Psychology & Mar-
keting, Vol. 12, (July), pp. 305-319.
Edwards, S. and Shackley, M. (1992). ‘‘Measuring the Effectiveness of Retail Win-
dow Display as an Element of the Marketing Mix,’’ International Journal of
Advertising, Vol. 11, pp. 193-202.
Eroglu, S.A. and Machleit, K.A. (1990). ‘‘An Empirical Examination of Retail
Crowding: Antecedents and Consequences,’’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 66, (Sum-
mer), pp. 201-221.
Frank, R.E. and Massey, W.F. (1970). ‘‘Shelf Position and Space Effects on Sales,’’
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 7, (February), pp. 59-66.
Gagnon, J.P. and Osterhaus, J.T. (1985). ‘‘Effectiveness of Floor Displays on the
Sales of Retail Products,’’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 61, (Spring), pp. 104-116.
Grossbart, S., Mittelstaedt, R.A., Curtis, W.W. and Rogers, R.D. (1990). ‘‘Environ-
mental Dispositions and Consumer Response to Store Atmospherics,’’ Journal of
Business Research, Vol. 21, pp. 225-241.
Gulas, C.S. and Bloch, P.H. (1995). ‘‘Right Under Our Noses: Ambient Scent and
Consumer Responses,’’ Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 10, (Fall),
pp. 87-98.
Gulas, C.S. and Schewe, C.D. (1994). ‘‘Atmospheric Segmentation: Managing Store
Image with Background Music, in Achrol, R. and Mitchell, A. (Eds.), Enhancing
Knowledge Development in Marketing, American Marketing Association, Chica-
go, IL, pp. 325-330.
Harrell, G.D. and Hutt, M.D. (1976). ‘‘Crowding in Retail Stores,’’ MSU Business
Topics, Vol. 24, (Winter), pp. 33-39.
Herrington, J.D. and Capella, L.M. (1996). ‘‘Effects of Music in Service Environ-
ments, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 10, (No. 2), pp. 26-41.
Hirsch, A.R. (1995), ‘‘Effects of Ambient Odors on Slot-Machine Usage in a Las
Vegas Casino,’’ Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 12, (October), pp. 585-594.
 L. W. Turley and Dawn Langkamp Bolton 43

Ittelson, W.H. (1973). ‘‘Environment Perception and Contemporary Perceptual

Theory,’’ in W.H. Ittelson (Ed.), Environment and Cognition, Seminar: New York,
pp. 1-19.
Joyce, M.L. and Lambert, D.R. (1996). ‘‘Memories of the Way Stores Were and
Retail Store Image,’’ International Journal of Retail and Distribution Manage-
ment, Vol. 24, (No. 1), pp. 24-33.
Kotzan, J.A. and Evanson, R.V. (1969). ‘‘Responsiveness of Drug Store Sales to
Shelf Space Allocations,’’ Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 6, (November),
pp. 465-469.
Maslow, A.H. and Mintz, N.L. (1956). ‘‘Effects of Aesthetic Surroundings: Initial
Effects of Three Aesthetic Conditions Upon Perceiving ‘Energy’ and ‘Well-Be-
ing’ in Faces,’’ Journal of Psychology, Vol. 41, pp. 247-254.
Milliman, R.E. (1986). ‘‘The Influence of Background Music on the Behavior of
Restaurant Patrons,’’ Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 13, (September), pp. 286-
289.
Milliman, R.E. (1982). ‘‘Using Background Music to Affect the Behavior of Super-
market Shoppers,’’ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46, (Summer), pp. 86-91.
Mintz, N.L. (1956). ‘‘Effects of Surroundings: Prolonged and Repeated Experience
in a ‘Beautiful’ and ‘Ugly’ Room,’’ Journal of Psychology, Vol. 41, pp. 456-459.
Mitchell, D.J., Kahn, B.E. and Knasko, S.C. (1995). ‘‘There’s Something in the Air:
Effects of Congruent or Incongruent Ambient Odor on Consumer Decision Mak-
ing,’’ Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 22, (September), pp. 229-238.
Nunnaly, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory, 2nd Edition, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A., and Berry, L.L. (1988). ‘‘SERVQUAL: A Multiple-
Item Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality,’’ Journal of
Retailing, Vol. 64, (No. 1), pp. 12-40.
Park, C.W., Iyer, E.I., and Smith, D.C. (1989). ‘‘The Effects of Situational Shopping
Behavior: The Role of Store Environment and Time Available for Shopping,’’
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15, (March), pp. 422-433.
Patton, W.E. (1981). ‘‘Quality of Information and Information Display Type as a
Predictor of Consumer Choice of Product Brands,’’ Journal of Consumer Affairs,
Vol. 15, (Summer), pp. 92-105.
Pinto, M.B. and Leonidas, L. (1994). ‘‘The Impact of Office Characteristics on
Satisfaction with Medical Care: A ‘Before and After’ Analysis,’’ Health Market-
ing Quarterly, Vol. 12, (No. 2), pp. 43-54.
Russell, J.A. and Pratt, G. (1980). ‘‘A Description of the Affective Quality Attributed
to Environments,’’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 38, (No. 2),
pp. 311-322.
Smith, P. and Burns, D.F. (1996). ‘‘Atmospherics and Retail Environments: The Case
of the ‘Power Aisle’,’’ International Journal of Retail & Distribution Manage-
ment, Vol. 24, (No. 1), pp. 7-14.
Smith, P.C. and Curnow, R. (1966). ‘‘Arousal Hypothesis and the Affects of Music
on Purchasing Behavior,’’ Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 50, (No. 3),
pp. 255-256.
44 JOURNAL OF PROFESSIONAL SERVICES MARKETING

Snodgrass, J., Russell, J.A., and Ward, L.M. (1988). ‘‘Planning, Mood and Place-lik-
ing,’’ Journal of Environmental Psychology, 8, pp. 209-222.
Spangenberg, E.R., Crowley, A.E., and Henderson, P.W. (1996). ‘‘Improving the
Store Environment: Do Olfactory Cues Affect Evaluations and Behaviors?’’,
Journal of Marketing, Vol 60, (April), pp. 67-80.
Turley, L.W. (1994). ‘‘Designing and Evaluating Effective Retail Environments,’’
Business and Public Affairs, Vol. 20, (No. 4), pp. 11-18.
Turley, L.W. and R.E. Milliman (forthcoming), ‘‘Atmospheric Effects on Shopping
Behavior: A Review of the Experimental Evidence,’’ Journal of Business Re-
search.
Wakefield, K.L. and Blodgett, J.G. (1994). ‘‘The Importance of Servicescapes in
Leisure Service Settings, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 8, (No. 3), pp. 66-76.
Ward, J.C., Bitner, M.J., and Barnes, J. (1992). ‘‘Measuring the Prototypicality and
Meaning of Retail Environments,’’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 68, (Summer),
pp. 194-220.
Wilkinson, J.B., Mason, J.B. and Paksoy, C.H. (1982). ‘‘Assessing the Impact of
Short-Term Supermarket Strategy Variables,’’ Journal of Marketing Research,
Vol. 14, (February), pp. 72-86.
Woodside, A.G. and Waddle, G.L. (1975). ‘‘Sales Effects of In-Store Advertising,’’
Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 15, (No. 3), pp. 29-33.
Yalch, R. and Spangenberg, E. (1990). ‘‘Effects of Store Music on Shopping Behav-
ior,’’ Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 7, (Spring), pp. 55-63.