See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/314506218

Factors governing the muck pile characteristics

Conference Paper · January 2017

CITATIONS READS
0 1,149

2 authors, including:

Sp Singh
Laurentian University
90 PUBLICATIONS   458 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Blast damage control in geologically dominant rock masses View project

Factors governing the configration of a muck pile View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sp Singh on 10 March 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics

S. Paul Singh and David Cheung

Bharti School of Engineering, Laurentian University
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

Abstract

The characteristics of a blasted muck pile can have a significant effect on the productivity and economy
of loading and hauling operations. Poorly fragmented and tight muck piles, caused by insufficient
displacement of the broken rock, lead to higher digging and hauling costs. Therefore muck pile must be
tailored to suit the loading and hauling equipment. In order to achieve this objective, it is imperative to
understand the relevant muck pile characteristics and factors governing them .In general, muck pile
characteristics are governed by the blast design parameters, rock mass geology, explosive characteristics
and post-blasting requirements.
The field work was done in three phases, which involved the monitoring of nineteen blasts. The pre-
blasting rock mass conditions, blast design parameters and explosive characteristics were documented
for each blast. The first phase involved four blasts and muck piles were measured by a laser profiler and
the following characteristics were obtained:
(a) Skewness (b) Spread (c) Distance thrown (d) Flatness (e) Swell factor
The second and third phase involved fifteen blasts and following muck pile characteristics were
measured:
(a) Muck pile height and its distance from the face
(b) Distance of throw
(c) Width of the power trough
(d) Size distribution by image analysis
The effects of blast design parameters, explosive characteristics and size distribution of the fragments on
muck pile shape and size were examined. It was observed that muck pile height and distance of throw
are strongly influenced by the burden, bench height, heave energy of the explosive and size distribution
of the muck. Row-to-row delay, powder factor and total burden strongly influenced the width of power
trough. The inter-relationship between size distribution of the blasted rock and other muck pile
parameters has also been discussed in this paper.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 1 of 14
Introduction
The outcome of a blast affects the economy and safety of loading and hauling operations, not only due
to the fragment size distribution but also because of the shape and other characteristics of the muck pile.
The position, shape, size and looseness of the muck pile affect the speed, cost and efficiency of
subsequent operations. In fact, muck pile characteristics act as a bridge between the effectiveness of the
blasting process and the performance of the loading and hauling equipment. The characteristics of a
muck pile depend upon the blast design parameters, explosive properties and rock mass geology. The
aim of achieving optimum productivity requires that rock displacement be controlled to produce a muck
pile suitable to the type and size of the loading equipment. In the case of shovels, muck pile with good
fragmentation, limited throw, proper height and without low productivity zones is desired. If front-
loaders are used, then blasting should produce maximum throw, sufficient swelling, adequate
fragmentation and lower muck pile height.
This study was conducted with the following objectives:
(a) To pinpoint the factors governing the muck pile characteristics
(b) To investigate the relationship between the relevant factors
During a field blasting study, it is not practical to cover all the factors. Therefore, some factors
governing the muck pile characteristics have been discussed in the light of prior studies.

Review of the Muck Pile Assessment Approaches

Assessment of the muck pile configuration can be made by observation, surveying, terrestrial
photography and laser profiling. In this study some muck piles were measured by laser profiling and
others by surveying.
Carter (1990) proposed the following precisely defined and objective set of measures to assess the
configuration of a muck pile:
(a) Centre of gravity of the mass to assess distance thrown
(b) Spread to determine the concentration of muck about the centre of gravity
(c) Skewness to define asymmetry in the sense of preferred concentration of muck close to or far
from the bench
(d) Flatness, to assess the topography of the muck pile
(e) Rotation – the direction of the principal axis of rotation of the mass
Cardu et. al. (2015 ) described the shape of the muck pile by the dimensionless ratio of the spread length
of the muck pile normalized with the length of the blast hole before blasting. Choudhary (2013) used
throw, drop and lateral spreading as muck pile shape parameters. Throw is the horizontal distance from
bench face where centre of gravity of muck lies. Drop is the vertical lowering of the muck pile, w.r.t the
crest of the bench and lateral spreading is the horizontal distance of the blasted muck from the bench
face. Sastry and Chander (2008) proposed “Throw-burden ratio” and “Muck pile ratio” for assessing the
movement and throw of the blasted material. Muck pile ratio is the ratio of the muck pile height to bench
height and Throw-burden ratio is the ratio between muck pile throw distance and burden. Hanspal and
Scoble (1995 ) stated that another physical measure relating to the muck pile is floor profile and damage.
This is determined by the sub-grade drilling and blast design. It was also observed that the heave
performance of a blast is best described by the maximum throw, horizontal & vertical displacement of
the center of gravity, muck pile swell and characteristics of any “power trough” along the rear of the
muck pile. LeJuge and Cox (1995) suggested to use height of muck pile at different distances from the

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 2 of 14
face, total extent of throw and center of gravity of the rock mass before and after the blast to determine
the configuration of the muck pile.
Research Methodology
Field Work
The field work was done in three phases which involved the monitoring of nineteen blasts. The pre-
blasting rock mass conditions, blast design parameters and explosive characteristics were documented
for each blast. The first phase involved four blasts and muck piles were measured by a laser profiler and
the following characteristics were obtained using approach suggested by Carter (1990).
(a) Skewness to define asymmetry in the sense of preferred concentration of muck close to or far
from the free face (b) Spread to determine the concentration of muck about the centre of gravity
(c) Distance thrown - centre of gravity of the muck (d) Flatness to assess the topography of the
muck pile (e) Swell factor
The second and third phase involved fifteen blasts and following muck characteristics were measured:
(a) Muck pile height (Maximum)
(b) Distance of throw – horizontal distance of the muck pile peak from the face
(c) Width of the power trough
(d) Size distribution of the blasted muck pile by image analysis
Results for field work have been presented in tables 1, 2 and 3. A typical cross-section of the muck pile
has been displayed in figure 1.
Laboratory Experiments
Swell factor or percentage of voids: For the purpose of this study, Percentage of voids is defined as
the volume of void space expressed as a percentage of total volume. The mean size of the samples on
which these tests were conducted ranged from 15 to 30mm (0.59” to 1.18”) with an increment of 5mm
(0.2”) and indices of uniformity were 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.8 and 2.0. Prepared samples were mixed
thoroughly and poured into a cylinder of known dimensions and weight. Water was added to the
cylinder until the water just submerged the sample. As water occupied the void spaces in the sample, the
volume of water gave the volume of voids. The percentage voids were calculated from the data obtained.
Angle of repose: Samples of known mean sizes and index of uniformity were prepared and mixed
thoroughly. A sample was poured out freely from a height of approximately 0.5 m (1.67ft). The heap
angle formed was measured at different locations to obtain an average value. The procedure was
repeated couple of times for each sample. The samples with mean sizes of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 mm
(0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 inch) were used. The indices of uniformity were 1.0, 1.4, 1.8 and 2.2 for
each mean size.

Table 1. Blasting parameters and muck pile data for phase 1.

Blast ID Burden, Powder “Bench Distance Skewness Spread Swell
m (ft) factor, height / thrown, factor
Kg/m3 Stemming” m (ft)
3
(lb/ft ) ratio
7-27 3.8 0.21(0.013) 2.64 13.2(44) 0.46 8.48 1.37
(12.7)
8-05 3.4 0.37(0.023) 2.34 18.6(61.9) 0.39 11.87 1.18

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 3 of 14
 (11.3)
8-08 2.8 0.28(0.018) 2.76 13.3(44.3) 0.6 9.21 1.52
(9.3)
8-16 3.4 0.30(0.019) 2.40 15.5(51.6) 0.82 11.96 1.61
(11.3)
8-26 3.9 0.19(0.012) 2.76 8.2(27.3) 0.89 6.11 1.61
(13.0)

Table 2. Blasting parameters and results for phase 2.

Blast # Burden Bench Muck Distance Mean
m(ft) Height pile from the particle
m(ft) height face size,
m(ft) m(ft) cm(inch)
1 3.05(10.16) 3.35(11.15) 6.6(22.0) 3.3(10.0) 7.18(2.8)
2 3.05(10.16) 2.13(7.09) 6.6(22.0) 3.3(10.0) 7.75(3.05)
3 3.96(13.18) 5.79(19.28) 6.6(22.0) 6.6(22.0) 6.99(2.75)
4 3.96(13.18) 8.53(28.4) 11.5(38.3) 5.0(16.65) 8.14(3.20)
5 4.88(!6.25) 7.01(23.34) 9.9(33.0) 6.6(22.0) 7.49(3.05)
6 3.05(10.16) 3.05(10.16) 5.0(16.65) 0(0) 5.94(2.34)
7 4.88(16.25) 7.01(23.34) 10(33.3) 3.3(10.0) 6.51(2.56)
8 5.49(18.28) 9.14(30.43) 13(43.3) 6.6(22.0) 9.41(3.70)
9 4.88(16.25) 7.62(25.37) 10(33.3) 5.0(16.65) 8.42(3.31)
10 3.05(10.16) 3.96(13.18) 6.0(20.0) 3.3(10.0) 6.18((2.43
11 2.74(9.12) 2.44(8.13) 5.0(16.65) 3.36(11.2) 8.32(3.28)
12 5.79(19.28) 10.06(33.5) 13(43.3) 6.0(20.0) 11.12(4.38)

Table 3.Blasting parameters and width of the power trough for phase 3.
Blast # Bench height Burden Row-to-row Powder factor Power trough
m(ft) m(ft) delay (ms) Kg/m3(lb/ft3) width (m)
1 10.5(35.0) 3.05(10.16) 90 0.79(0.05) 3.0(10)
2 9.14(30.43) 2.74(9.12) 105 1.29(0.08) 6.0(20)
3 11.58(38.56) 3.66(12.2) 150 1.61(0.1) 9.0(30)

Figure 1. A typical cross-section of the measured muck pile (Dimensions in meters)

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 4 of 14
Factors Governing Muck Pile Characteristics
Rock Mass Characteristics
The rock mass is the raw material, we must respond to in our choice of blast design and mining
equipment. The physical properties of the material to be loaded determine the forces required to dig into
the muck pile. Rock mass characteristics have a huge influence on explosive efficiency and blasting
results. Explosive energy always seeks the path of least resistance. Where the rock burden is composed
of alternate zones of hard material, weak zones or voids, the explosive energy will be vented through the
weak zones and resulting in poor fragmentation and throw.
The orientation, frequency and strength of the joints controls the in situ block size. When the in situ
block size is small, conventional wisdom suggests the use of low VOD, high heave energy explosives
for adequate fragmentation and throw. When the in situ block size is too course then there can be a
conflict between the demands of fragmentation and throw of rock. In this case, fragmentation can be
optimized by the use of high VOD explosives but this may not help throw.
The movement of the burden is influenced by the stiffness of the rock. Stiff rocks tend to get into motion
quickly. More plastic rocks like kimberlite and weathered rocks have a tendency to absorb energy and
require more time to get into motion.
Drilling of Holes
Drilling serves blasting as blasting serves loading and hauling operations (Hagan, 1986). If the drilling is
not carried out properly, blasting will be unable to provide muck piles suitable for subsequent
operations. There are three basic types of drill patterns used in surface mines: square, rectangular and
staggered. Staggered blast hole patterns are more effective than square or rectangular patterns because
they produce more uniform distribution of explosive effect. Ideally blast holes should be drilled on
equilateral triangular grids, since this facilitates the optimum two-dimensional distribution of energy
within the rock mass and also allowing a high degree of flexibility in initiation sequence.
Accurate drilling is a prerequisite for optimum blasting. The occurrence of marking, collaring, depth and
trajectory errors should be minimized. The trajectory deviation is not only related to the rock strength
but also to the relative strength in different directions. The magnitude of deviation is a function of the
angle between the penetrating structure and the drill hole axis (Singh, 1998). Inaccurate drilling can
have a substantial impact on the fragmentation and throw

16
Muck pile height in meters

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Bench height in meters

Figure 2: Bench height Vs. Muck pile height

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 5 of 14
 7

Distance of throw in 
6
5

meters
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Bench height in meters

Figure 3: Bench height Vs. Muck pile throw

Blast Design Parameters

Bench height: Several researchers have stated that bench height has a significant impact on the throw
and height of the muck pile. In this study, it was observed (Figure 2) that muck pile height increases
with the increase in bench height. Though it is commonly believed that higher benches will move farther
than shorter benches in a similar blast but the data from this study did not show any conclusive trend
(Figure 3). Normally, it is considered that the higher objects will take longer before it hits the ground
and therefore will travel farther. However, rocks in a muck pile do not behave this way because most of
the fragments do not end up at floor level (Thornton, 2009). They move forward and stop when
obstructed by previously blasted and landed fragments.

14
Muck pile height in 

12
10
meters

8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8
Burden in meters

Figure 4. Burden Vs. Muck pile height

Burden: This is the most important blast design parameters. The ratio between burden and explosive
energy determines the ejection velocity of the fragmented rock from the face and as a consequence, the
distance of throw. The ejection velocity is directly proportional to the explosive energy and inversely
proportional to the burden distance. It has been displayed in figure 4, that the height of the muck pile

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 6 of 14
increases with the increase in burden. In the case of higher burden the ejection velocity attained by the
muck pile will be low therefore majority of the material lands at a shorter distance as compared to blasts
with lower burden.
Stemming: The upper section of a blasthole with inert material is stemming or collar length. The
purpose of this blast design parameter is to confine and retain the gases produced by the explosion
within the blasthole. Confined gases promote rock fracturing by penetrating into the inherent and
induced cracks before the stemming is released. Adequate confinement facilitates proper throw of the
muck and prevents wastage of energy, poor fragmentation and environmental problems such as airblast,
flyrock etc. According to Brinkman (1990) almost 50% of explosive energy is lost if premature venting
is allowed to occur through the collar region of the blasthole. Inadequate or excessive stemming produce
poor throw and oversize in the blasted muck. The retention of the gases of explosion for a longer time
enhances the heaving characteristics of the blasted rock.
During analysis of the results of phase 1, a parameter “Bench height/Stemming length’ ratio was
calculated. It was found that the throw of the muck is dependent upon this ratio as displayed in figure 5.
Higher ratio means relatively less stemming which causes higher throw of the rock as long as the
explosive is properly confined.
Initiation of a Blast
There are four main aspects to blast initiation; (a) Method of initiation (b) Point of initiation
(c)Initiation sequence (d) delay times. But in this paper, the focus will be on later two aspects.
Initiation Sequence: In general, there are four main configurations of the initiation sequence of a blast.
(i) Row to row (ii) Diagonal (iii) V-type or closed chevron (iv) Open Chevron. Initiation sequence
provides a pathway for the detonation wave to initiate explosive loaded in different holes and sequential
generation of free faces as the blast progresses.

20
Distance of throw in 

18
16
14
meters

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
"Bench height/Stemming" Ratio

Figure 5. “Bench height/Stemming” ratio Vs. Throw of muck.

Row to Row or Plough Cut: It fires the entire row at one time and corner holes may be fired later. It
gives long linear muck pile along the face. Open free face helps to avoid confinement problems.
Movement perpendicular to throw tends to maximize forward throw. Timing should be set for proper
heaving effect. This type of muck pile is generally suitable for a wheel loader.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 7 of 14
Diagonal: This sequence is similar to row to row but the rows are formed diagonally and not parallel to
the bench face. In this case the direction of throw is not perpendicular to the bench face.
V-Type or closed chevron: This sequence changes the position of free face for later firing charges. With
square pattern, it provides a spacing to burden ratio of 2:1. It tends to throw material in a centrally
located muck pile which is good for a limited bench room. It produces a high profile muck pile with a
possible secondary fragmentation due to impacts between fragments projected from opposite directions.
This type of muck pile is good for a cable shovel. Centre location has a potential to create more
confinement. Cap scatter and misfire can have a significant effect on the blasting results. Rai and Yang
(2010) observed that a shift in firing from diagonal to V-type pattern was effective in improving
fragmentation, reducing oversize and also improving the throw and spreading.
Open Chevron: An open chevron pattern gives evenly spread rock piles particularly suitable for front-
end-loaders and may produce less toe problems. Since the front-end-loaders can’t dig high muck piles
safely, therefore open chevrons are used to promote the throw and displacement of rocks over a wider
area. But there must be sufficient free face and bench area available for the application of open
chevrons.
Delay Times: Delay time influences how the blasted rock will move and helps in achieving the desired
throw and fragmentation.
Hole-to-hole delay: In general, Short hole-to hole delays are necessary so that holes interact to achieve
greater throw. Grant (1990) suggested that for a front row of holes, the greatest throw is achieved, when
all holes were initiated simultaneously. Johansson and Ouchterlony (2014) also found an increase in
throw when adjacent holes were simultaneously detonated.
Number of rows and Row-to row delay: All shots need an adequate free face for the proper movement of
the blasted material. With several rows, a row must wait for material in front to move and create a free
face. Lack of free face turns throw energy into vibrations and flyrock. Tight row-to row delays will tend
to diminish the desired displacement of the blasted rock. During this study, in three blasts, the row-row
delays were kept at 90, 105 and 150 milli-seconds. It has been displayed in figure 6 that with the
increase in the inter-row delay there was a corresponding increase in the width of the power trough.
Proper delay time is essential for systematic release of energy and proper burden relief, which in turn,
governs the muck pile shape. The delay time between rows should be from two to three times longer
than the delay interval between holes in a row. During multi-row blasting to ensure proper throw, after
first row, either row-to-row delay should be increased or burden decreased. The incremental delays or
reduced burdens with the blast progression are very useful in providing adequate relief to the subsequent
rows. The optimum inter-row delay lies in the range of times which allows desirable throw and adequate
fragmentation of each burden without the presence of cut-offs.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 8 of 14
 Power trough width in 
10
8

meters
6
4
2
0
90
105
150
Row‐to row delay in ms

Figure 6. Row-to-row delay Vs. width of the power trough.

Explosive Characteristics
Explosive distribution and blast timing control the degree of confinement at the time of detonation.
Burden relief also relies on both the charge geometry and blast timing. While designing delays and
sequencing, it is prudent to distinguish between the static and dynamic burden & spacing.
Heave Energy of the Explosive: The detonation of an explosive produces large volume of gases of
explosion at high temperature and pressure which heave the burden forward. It has been displayed in
figure 7, that distance of throw of the muck is controlled by the heave energy of the explosive. In the
three blasts, three different emulsion/ANFO blends (60/40 emulsion; 70/30 emulsion and 80/20
emulsion) were used as explosives. It was found that the distance of throw from the face was maximum
in the case of 60/40 emulsion/ANFO blend with the greatest heave energy. It shows that total burden
movement depends upon the heave energy provided by the gases of explosion. As the energy increases,
the burden moves with higher velocity and results in greater displacement from the initial location
(Lejuge and Cox, 1995). This increased displacement generally produces increased swell factor and
improved muck pile diggability.
Powder Factor: Powder factor is a function of the type of explosive, rock characteristics and blasting
requirements. This is the ratio between the mass of explosive required to fragment and displace a certain
quantity of rock. Optimum powder factor determines the energy available to yield desirable
fragmentation and rock displacement without any adverse side effects. It was observed in figures 8 and
9 that distance of throw of muck and width of power trough are dependent upon the powder factor of the
blast.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 9 of 14
 Distance of throw from 
40

face in meters
30

20 60/40 Emulsion
70/30 Emulsion
10 80/20 Emulsion

0
1 2 3
Type of explosive

Figure 7. Heave energy of the explosive Vs. throw distance

Size Distribution and Muck Pile Characteristics

The size distribution of the muck, on one hand is dependent upon the blasting parameters and on the
other hand it also influences other muck pile characteristics. These muck pile characteristics along with
size distribution have a significant impact on the down-stream operations. But in this study, the focus
was on the inter-relationship between size distribution and the muck pile characteristics (Singh and
VanDoorselaere, 2015).

20
Distance of throw in 

15
meters

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Powder factor in Kg/meter3

Figure 8. Powder factor Vs. distance of throw

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 10 of 14
 10

WIDTH IN METERS
POWER TROUGH 
8

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

POWDER FACTOR IN KG /METER3

Figure 9. Powder factor Vs. width of power trough.

Muck Pile Swell: Muck pile swell is caused by the gaps between the broken rock fragments. Based
upon the controlled laboratory experiments, the figures 10 and 11 display that % void (swell factor)
increases with the increase in the mean particle size and index of uniformity. Higher values of index of
uniformity means very uniform fragmentation which will produce greater voids in the fragmented
material resulting in higher muck pile swell. When coarser fragments rest on each other, they will create
more voids resulting in higher swell. It may not impact loading rates but will have an adverse effect on
the fill factors of the loading and hauling equipment.
Muck Pile Shape and Throw: It was observed in the field, that in the case of coarser fragmentation the
distance of throw will be shorter and the muck pile is generally D-shaped with relatively higher muck
pile. It has been displayed in figure 12 that muck pile height increases with the increase in the mean
particle size of the muck. If the size distribution is finer, it will have a higher spread and a shorter muck
pile. But there are exceptions. If the heave energy is less, even the finer size distribution may result in a
muck pile close to the initial location.

46
44
42
% VOID

40
38
36
34
32
30
10 15 20 25 30 35
MEAN PARTICLE SIZE IN MILIMETERS

Figure 10. Mean particle size in mm Vs % void.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 11 of 14
 46
44
42

% VOID
40
38
36
34
32
30
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
INDEX OF UNIFORMITY

Figure 11. Index of uniformity Vs percent void.

Angle of Repose of the Muck Pile: During controlled laboratory experiments, it was observed that the
muck with higher mean particle size resulted in higher angle of repose. The angle of repose values
varied from a minimum of 37 degrees for 10mm (0.4 inch) mean size to a maximum of 44 degrees for
35mm (1.38 inch) mean particle size. No significant effect of index of uniformity was found on the
angle of repose. In muck piles with higher angle of repose, productivity of loading equipment will be
higher because the bucket has to travel less to attain a high fill factor. In high muck piles with greater
angle of repose, the bucket fill time is less since the material rills and assists in the filling of the bucket.

16
MUCK PILE HEIGHT IN 

14
12
METERS

10
8
6
4
2
0
4 6 8 10 12
MEAN PARTICLE SIZE IN CENTIMETERS

Figure 12. Mean particle size Vs muck pile height.

Conclusions
Muck pile characteristics are influenced by a host of parameters which may be grouped into rock mass
properties, blast design and explosive characteristics. The following main conclusions can be drawn
from this study:
1. The rock mass characteristics influence the movement of the burden and digging forces required.
2. Higher “bench height/stemming length” ratio results in higher throw of muck pile provided the
explosive is adequately confined.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 12 of 14
 3. The height of the muck pile increases with the increase in the burden and bench height. But
height of the bench may or may not affect the throw distance of the muck.
4. Initiation sequence determines the direction of throw and shape of the muck pile.
5. The width of the power trough and throw of muck is strongly affected by the powder factor and
heave energy of the explosive.
6. Adequate inter-row-delays provide sufficient time for burden movement and formation of power
trough.
7. Swell factor as represented by the percent void increases with the increase in the mean fragment
size and index of uniformity.
8. The muck pile height increases with the increase in the mean fragment size of the muck.
9. Angle of repose of the muck increases with the increase in the size of the muck. No significant
effect of the index of uniformity was observed on the angle of repose.

Acknowledgements
Thanks to the mining industry for funding and facilities to conduct the study.

References
Brinkman, J.A. (1990). An experimental study of the effects of shock and gas penetration in blasting.
Proceedings 3rd International symposium on rock fragmentation by blasting, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 55-
66.

Cardu, M., Seccatore, J., Vaudagna, A., Rezende, A., Galvao, F, Battencourt, J. and de Tomi, J. (2015).
Evidence of the influence of the detonation sequence in rock fragmentation by blasting-Paret II. Revista
Escola de Minas, vol. 68, No. 3, July-Sept,Universidade Fedral de Ouro Preto, Brasil, pp. 337-342.

Carter, C.L. (1990). A proposed standard for the objective measurement of muck pile profiles.
Proceedings 3rd International symposium on rock fragmentation by blasting, Brisbane, Australia,
pp.159-162.

Choudhary, B.S. (2013). Firing patterns and its effect on muck pile shape parameters and fragmentation
in quarry blasts. International journal of research in engineering and technology, 2(9), pp.32-45.

Grant, G.R. (1990). Initiation systems-what does the future hold? Proceedings third International
symposium on rock fragmentation by blasting, Brisbane, Australia, pp.369-372.

Hagan, T.N. (1986). The influence of some controllable blast parameters upon muck pile characteristics
and open pit mining costs. Proceedings Large open pit mining conference, Melbourne, Australia, pp.
123-132.

Hanspal, S. and Scoble, M. (1995). Anatomy of a blast muck pile: Influence of loading machine
performance. Proc. 21st International conference on explosives and blasting, Nashville, USA, pp. 57-67.

Johansson, D. and Ouchterlony, F. (2014). Shock wave interactions in rock blasting: the use of short
delays to improve fragmentation in model scale. Rock mechanics and rock engineering, Vol. 46, Issue 1,
pp. 1-18.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 13 of 14
 LeJuge, G.E. and Cox, N. (1995). The impact of explosive performance on quarry fragmentation.
Proceedings Explo’95 conference, Melbourne, pp. 445-452.

Rai, P. and Yang, H. (2010). Blast design for controlled augmentation of muck pile throw and drop.
Tunnel and Underground Space, Journal of Korean society for rock mechanics, 20(5), pp. 360-368.

Sastry, V. and Chander, R. (2008). Fragmentation and throw due to blasting – Role of initiation systems.
Proceedings 36th International conference on explosives and blasting, Los Angles, USA, pp.371-376.

Singh, S.P. (1998). The effects of rock mass characteristics on blast hole deviation. CIM Bulletin,
Vol.91, No. 1016, pp. 90-95.

Singh, S.P. and VanDoorselaere, D. (2015). The relationship between blasting parameters and muck pile
configuration. Proceedings 11th International symposium on rock fragmentation by blasting, Sydney,
pp. 369-374.

Thornton, D.M. (2009). The application of electronic monitors to understand blast movement dynamics
and improve designs. Proceedings 9th International symposium on rock fragmentation by blasting,
Granada, pp. 287-300.

Copyright © 2017 International Society of Explosives Engineers

2017G - Factors Governing the Muck Pile Characteristics 14 of 14

View publication stats