MATHS PROJECT

• Acknowledgement 2
Section - A 3
• Introduction 4
• Increasing and decreasing function 4
• Definition of increasing and decreasing function 4, 5
• First derivative test for monotonic function 5, 6
• Constant function 6
• Intervals of increase and decrease 6, 7
• Questions 7, 8, 9, 10
• Conclusion 10
Section - B 11
• Introduction 12
• Definition 12, 13
• Calculating cross(or vector) product 13
• Properties of cross product 13, 14
• Other results 14, 15
• Vector area of a triangle 15
• Vector area of a parallelogram 15, 16
• Questions 16, 17
• Conclusion 17
• Bibliography 18
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is made by my own hard work. I would like to thank my parents
for helping me a lot in this project.

I would also like to thank my mathematics teacher “ Dr. Achin Jain Sir” who
gave me an opportunity to make this interesting project. I not only enjoyed
this project a lot from this project.

MADE BY:

KAJAL BISHT
 SECTION-A

Explain the concepts of increasing and

decreasing functions, using geometrical
significance of dy/dx. Illustrate with
proper examples.
# Introduction
Increasing and decreasing functions is one of the application of derivatives.
Derivatives are used to identify whether the function is increasing or
decreasing in a particular interval. Increasing and Decreasing functions are
called “monotonic functions”. The term “increasing” and “decreasing” and

“constant” are used to describe the behavior of a function over an interval as

we move left to right along its graph.

# Increasing and Decreasing Function

A function is said to be an increasing function if the value of y increases with
the increase in x. In the diagram given below, we can see that at the right of
the origin, the curve is going upwards as we are going to right .
A function is said to be an decreasing function if the value of y decreases
with the increase in x. As visible in diagram above , in the left of the origin,
the curve is going downward if we are moving from left to right.

# Definition of Increasing Function

If there is a function y=f(x).
• A function is increasing over an interval, if for every x1 and x2 in the
interval, x1 < x2, f( x1) ≤ f(x2)

• A function is strictly increasing over an interval, if for every x1 and x2 in the

interval, x1 < x2, f( x1) < f(x2)

# Definition of Decreasing Function

If there is a function y = f(x)
 A function is decreasing over an interval , if for every x1 and x2 in the

interval,
 A function is strictly decreasing over an interval, if for every x1 and x2 in the
interval, x1 < x2, f( x1) ≥ f(x2)

#First derivative test for monotonic

functions
We can use the first derivative test to check whether the function is increasing
or decreasing.
Theorem: Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on the open
interval (a, b) Then
1. If f(x) >0 for each x € (a, b) then f is in increasing in interval [a,
b].
2. If f(x) <0 for each x € (a, b) then f is in decreasing in interval [a,
b].
3. If f(x) =0 for each x € (a, b) then f is a constant in interval [a, b].

# Constant function
Constant function is a horizontal line.

As we know that the derivative is zero and y is always 4 in the above figure. If
we talk about curve, the function will be constant if its fꞌ(c) = 0. The slope of
the curve is zero at these points. It could be the highest or the lowest point of
the curve in its neighborhood.

# Intervals of increase and decrease

Interval is basically all the numbers between given two numbers. If we talk
about curve, we can say the portion of curve which is coming in between the
two given numbers on the x-axis is the required interval.

For the above diagram,

INTERVAL TYPE OF FUNCTION

(-5, 7)-(-2, 4) Decreasing
(-2, 4)-(0, 4) Constant
(0, 4)-(2, 0) Decreasing

# Questions of Increasing and Decreasing

functions
Question 1: When the function is said to be Increasing and Decreasing at a
point?
Solution: Let x0 be a point on the curve of a real valued function f. Then f is
said to be increasing, strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing at
x0, if there exists an open interval I containing x0 such that f is increasing,
strictly increasing, decreasing or strictly decreasing, respectively in I.
If there is a function f and interval I = (x0 – h, x0 + h), h > 0
1. It is said to be increasing at x0 if, f is increasing in (xo - h, x0 + h)
 x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1 )≤ f(x2)

2. It is said to be decreasing at x0 if , f is decreasing in (xo - h, x0 + h)

x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f(x1) ≥ f(x2).
Question 2: Find the intervals in which the function f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 -36x +7
is : (a)Strictly Increasing (b)Strictly Decreasing.

Solution: Given, f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 -36x +7

fꞌ(x) = 6x2 – 6x -36
= 6(x2 – x -6)
= 6(x2 – 3x + 2x – 6)
= 6[x(x – 3) + 2(x – 3)]
= 6[(x + 2) (x – 3)]
Now we know that fꞌ(x) = 0 , so x = -2, 3
Now -2 and 3 are dividing the number line in the three intervals → (-∞,-2),
(-2, 3), (3, ∞).

On the interval On the interval (−2, 3), On the interval (3, ∞),
(−∞,−2),

Let x = −3 Let x = 0 Let x = 4

f’(−3)=6[(x + 2) (x – 3)] f'(0)=6[(0 + 2) (0 – 3)] f'(4) = 6[(4 + 2) (4 – 3)]
f’(−3)=6[(- 3 + 2)(- 3-3)] f'(0)=6( – 6) f'(4) = 6[6.1]
 f’(−3) = 6[(-1) (- 6)] = – 36 < 0 = 36 > 0
= 6(6)
= 36 > 0

Hence, the function is strictly Increasing in the intervals: (−∞, −2) and (3,
∞) and the function is strictly decreasing in the interval: (−2, 3).
Question 3: Find the intervals of increase and decrease of the function
f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2.
Solution: f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2.
f'(x) = 3x2 −3.

Now , f'(x) = 0
=> 3x2 −3 = 0
=> 3x2 = 3
=> x2 = 1
x = -1 and x = 1

On the interval(−∞, −1), On the interval (−1, 1), On the interval (1,∞)

=> Let x = −2 => Let x = 0 =>Let x = 2

=> f’(−2) = 3(−2)2 −3
=> f’(−2) = 12 −3
=> f’(−2) = 9 > 0
=>f'(2) = 3(2)2 −3
=> f'(0) = 3(0)2 −3
=>f'(2) = 12 −3
=> f'(0) = −3 < 0
=>f'(2) = 9 > 0
.
Hence, the function is increasing in the intervals: (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and
the function is decreasing in the interval: (−1, 1)
Question 4: For what values of x is the function f(x) = ½x(x2 - 3x - 9) strictly
decreasing?
Solution: The graph of the function f(x) = ½x(x2 - 3x - 9) is:

It is decreasing on the part of the curve shown in red

i.e. for values on x greater than -1, but less than 3
i.e. on the interval (-1, 3)

#Conclusion
For a given function f if after differentiation [f'(x)] at a point the function
f'(x)>0 , then the curve in graph or f is increasing and if f'(x) <0 , then the
curve on graph or f is decreasing. If f'(x)=0 at a point then f is constant.
 SECTION-B

Using vector algebra find the area of a

parallelogram / triangle . Also derive the
area analytically and verify the same.
# Introduction
A vector has magnitude (how long it is) and direction.

The length of the line shows its magnitude and the arrowhead points in the
direction. Two vectors can be multiplied using the "Cross Product".

The cross product or vector product is a binary operation on

two vectors in three-dimensional space by the symbol ”x”. Given two linearly
independent vectors a and b, the cross product, a × b (read as "a cross b"), is
a vector that is perpendicular to both a and b, and thus normal to the plane
containing them. .

# Definition
The Cross Product a × b of two vectors is another vector that is at right
angles to b . It is named so because a cross(x) is placed between the vectors.
It is also called vector product because it is a product of two vectors. The
cross product is:
 • zero in length when vectors a and b point in the same, or opposite,
direction
• reaches maximum length when vectors a and b are at right angles

# Calculating the cross (or vector)

product

a × b = |a| |b| sin(θ) n

• |a| is the magnitude (length) of vector a

• |b| is the magnitude (length) of vector b
• θ is the angle between a and b
• n is the unit vector at right angles to both a and b

# Properties of vector product

• Property 1: Vector product is not commutative.
Let a and b be two non-zero, non parallel vectors and let θ be the
angle between them, where 0< θ<π and let n be a unit vector
perpendicular to both a and b, then from definition
a × b =(ab sin θ) n
where the orientation is anticlockwise , and this orientation is taken as
positive.
 Now (b × a) is also a vector, but its orientation is clockwise and so is in
the direction opposite that of (a × b).
Also |b × a| =| b| |a| | sin θ| = b a sin θ
Since ba = ab therefore the two vectors (a × b) and (b × a) are equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction.
(b × a) = - (a × b)
• Property 2: The vector product of a vector a with itself is a null vector,
i.e., (a×a) =0.
Here the angle between the vectors is 0° , therefore sin 0° = 0.
• Property 3: Vector product is associative with respect to a scalar.
Thus if a and b are any two vectors and m is a scalar, then
m(a × b) = (m a) × b = a × (m b)
• Property 4: Distributive law. For any three vectors a, b , c
a× (b × c)= (a × b )+(a × c).

# Other results
• Vector product of two parallel or collinear vectors is zero.
• If a × b = 0 , then either a=0 or b = 0, or a and b are parallel or
collinear.
• Vector product of two perpendicular vectors :
If θ= 90°, then sin θ=1, i.e., a × b= (a b )n or ab.
• Vector product of unit vectors î , ĵ and ƙ:
Then, î × ĵ =ƙ ĵ × ƙ= î ƙ × î= ĵ
And, î × î = ĵ × ĵ = ƙ × ƙ= 0
 • Vector product expressed as a determinant:

The angle between the two vectors →a and →b is, sinθ = (|a×b|)/(|a||b|)

# Vector area of a triangle

The vector of a triangle ABC is equal to [ (1/2) AB × BC]. The vector area of
triangle ABC with vertices having a, b, c is [1/2( b×c + c×a + a×b)].
Proof: The sides of the triangle is given by
AB=b−a, and BC=c−b
Then the area of the triangle is given as: Area=(1/2)×base×height =(1/2)AB×BC
=1/2(b−a)×(c−b)
=1/2[b×(c−b)−a(c−b)]
=1/2[(b×c)−(b×b)−(a×c)+(a×b)]
Now b×b=0
Hence, Vector area of triangle =1/2[(b×c)−(b×b)−(a×c)+(a×b)]
=1/2[(b×c)−(a×c)+(a×b)]
=1/2[(b×c)+(c×a)+(a×b)]

# Vector area of a parallelogram

If OACB be a parallelogram. Let OA =a and OB = b. Let n be a unit vector
perpendicular to plane of a and b so that a, b, n form a vector triad in a
right-handed system.
Area of triangle OAB=1/2 |OA×OB| = ½ |a×b|
Area of the parallelogram OACB = 2×area of the triangle = 2×(1/2) |a×b| =
|a×b|

# Questions
Question 1: Find the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are
determined by the following vectors, a = i – j+ 3k and b = 2i– 7j + k.
Answer :We know that if a and b represent the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then its area is |a × b|.
a × b = i{[(-1) × 1)] – [(-7) × 3]} – j{[1 × 1)] – [2 × 3]} + k{[1 × (-7))] – [2 × (-1)]}
= 20i + 5j – 5k
|a x b| = √(202 +52 +( -5)2) = √450 = √25×9×2 = 15√2.
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram is 15√2.
Question 2: When can we say that two vectors are parallel?
Answer: Two vectors A and B will be said to be parallel if and only if they
happen to be scalar multiples of one another. A = k B, where k is a constant
and not equal to zero.
Question 3: If a = (-2, 1, 1), b = (2, 1, 1) and c = a × b, what is the magnitude
of c?
Answer: ax = -2, ay = 1 and az = 1
bx = 2, by = 1 and bz = 1
• cx = aybz - azby = 1 × 1 - 1 × 1 = 1 - 1 = 0
• cy = azbx - axbz = 1 × 2 - (-2) × 1 = 2 - (-2) = 2 + 2 = 4
• cz = axby - aybx = -2 × 1 - 1 × 2 = -2 - 2 = -4 ... So c = (0, 4, -4).
Thus, |c| = √(02 + 42 + (-4)2) = √(0 + 16 + 16) = √32 = 4√2
Question 4: Using vectors, find the area of the triangle with
vertices: A(1,2,3), B(2,−1,4) and C(4,5,−1)
Answer: Area of triangle ABC=1/2(AB×AC)
We have AB = OB−OA = (2−1)i^+(−1−2)j^+(4−3)k^ = i^−3j ^+k^
AC = OC−OA = (4−1)i^+(5−2)j^+(−1−3)k^ = 3i+3j−4k
AB×AC = (12−3)i^−(−4−3)j^+(3+9)k^ = 9i^+7j^+12k^
Magnitude of AB×AC = √(92+72+122)
|AB×AC| = √(81+49+144) = √274
Area of △ABC = 1/2 (|AB×AC|) = (1/2)×√274 =√274/2 sq.units.

# Conclusion
Vectors generally in addition to the magnitude also tells us about direction.
Vector algebra can be used to calculate area of quadrilaterals. Now we know
that : Area of triangle =1/2[(b×c)+(c×a)+(a×b)]

Area of parallelogram =|a×b| .

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

I made this project by taking my matter from:

• ISC Mathematics Book 2 for Class 12.

• www.google.com
• www.wikipedia.com

MADE BY:

KAJAL BISHT