IBP2095_17

PIPELINE RIGHT-OF-WAY EROSION AND SUBSIDENCE

DETECTION IN FLAT LANDS WITH DISTRIBUTED
OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS

Fabien Ravet1, Etienne Rochat2, Marc Niklès3

Copyright 2017, Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute - IBP

This Technical Paper was prepared for presentation at the Rio Pipeline Conference & Exhibition 2017, held between October,
24-26, 2017, in Rio de Janeiro. This Technical Paper was selected for presentation by the Technical Committee of the event. The
material as it is presented, does not necessarily represent Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute’ opinion or that of its
Members or Representatives. Authors consent to the publication of this Technical Paper in the Rio Pipeline Conference &
Exhibition 2017.

Abstract
Whenever possible, Pipelines are built in low lands or plateau area limiting the exposure to slope stability risk.
Nevertheless, such regions present natural hazards of their own depending on the geological history of the soils,
climatic conditions and hydrography of the area. In fact, pipeline ROW (Right-Of-Way) can experience subsidence
caused by permafrost thaw settlement, water table lowering, underground resources exploitations or cavities
collapses in karstic terrains. Heavy rainfalls, water streams or wind combined with soil texture are at the origin of
erosion which is another source of hazard for pipelines. The mitigation of all these risks requires the continuous
monitoring of the transport line. Such feature can be fulfilled by optical fiber monitoring. As an example, it can be
mentioned that several pipelines crossing mountain areas are currently being monitored for geohazard detection with
Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors (DOFS) based on Brillouin scattering. Such monitoring solution combining
distributed strain and temperature measurements has proven to be efficient and reliable tools as commented by
operator’s geotechnical engineers. Recent advances in these monitoring techniques also demonstrated the ability to
detect and locate soil settlement as well as erosion phenomenon. In the case of subsidence, distributed soil strain is
measured and vertical displacement inferred from the deformation profiles. In the case of erosion, whatever the
cause of the event is, the temperature profiling locates and characterizes the extension of eroded area. The present
work aims at demonstrating how the DOFS is implemented and practically used to monitor geohazards in lowlands
and plateau regions. The specificity of the technique is described and application to real cases in the arctic, in
tropical terrains as well as in temperate zones are discussed.

1 Introduction
Geohazards are natural threats that can cause severe damages to pipeline and eventually result in pipeline
ruptures. Depending on the pipeline route, local climate and landscape, different types of geohazards can impact the
Right Of Way (ROW), ranging from landslide and rock fall in mountain areas to soil subsidence, erosion and water
flooding or other environmental condition changes like permafrost thaw settlement along northern pipeline route or
dune migration in desert [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6]. Table A is an attempt to associate various pipeline routes
characteristics with potential geohazards.
Pipeline routes often cross remote areas in difficult terrain as the Andes range [4, 9]. Combined with
adverse weather conditions, pipeline protection is a difficult operation to conduct. Operators have developed asset

1
PhD in Science (Physics), Omnisens do Brasil
2
PhD in Science (Physics), Omnisens
3
PhD in Technical Science, Omnisens
integrity programs to secure their pipeline’s operation [9, 10, 11, 12]. Operators include various approaches
including monitoring to fulfil the task. In difficult environments, remote sensing solutions for pipelines offer
significant advantages over conventional inspection techniques. Fiber Optic Pipeline Integrity Monitoring Systems
(FOPIMS) have started to be used for the detection of leaks (LDS or Leak Detection System), ground movement,
intrusion (TPI or Third Party Intrusion) and deformation [13].

Table A: Types of terrain and climate as well as associated geohazards [7 and 8]

Type of climate Geohazard
Tropical Landslide, erosion
Temperate Landslide, erosion
Mountain Range
Arctic/sub-arctic Landslide, erosion, subsidence
Arid/semi-arid Landslide, erosion
Tropical Erosion, subsidence
Temperate Erosion, subsidence
Flat land
Arctic/sub-arctic Erosion, subsidence
Arid/semi-arid Erosion (including dune migration), subsidence,
Subsea / Underwater Shallow water Erosion (including seabed migration and scouring)

The current work aims at presenting the application of one of the FOPIMS components, the Geotechnical
Monitoring System (GTMS), in low lands and flat terrains where erosion and subsidence are the main hazard causes.
It reviews the technology principle, how distributed fiber sensing can detect signs of geohazards such as erosion and
subsidence. It also describes several cases where the GTMS was implemented and successfully detected such
natural events.

2 Distributed Sensing System and technology

2.1 Monitoring System
In the present work, the discussion will focus on the GTMS which is part of a more comprehensive
FOPIMS. Any FOPIMS and hence GTMS is usually composed of the following components:
 Strain and temperature interrogator units, including combinations of measuring units, remote
signal regeneration modules and optical switches; each of these units constitutes an optical node
located in a pipeline node such as a pumping or compressor station;
 SMC and TMC as strain and temperature measurement cable sensors; TMC also ensures the
communication between stations and control centers as well as interrogator units and monitoring
servers;
 Monitoring software including measuring unit control, GIS (Geographical Information System)
visualization and configuration. The software operates on the monitoring servers.

2.2 Measurement Principle and Recent performance Improvements

The core instrumentation of the GTMS relies on Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis (BOTDA).
BOTDA uses stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) in single-mode fibers. Brillouin scattered light encountered a
frequency shift proportional to both temperature and strain variations. This shift can be measured by analyzing the
interaction in standard optical fibers between a pump lightwave (pulse) and a counter-propagating probe lightwave
(continuous). Such interrogator can use a broad variety of single-mode optical fibers. Typically, the Brillouin
frequency shift at ambient temperature of such fiber is comprised between 10.7 and 11.0 GHz at 1.55 m
wavelength and varies with strain and temperature coefficients of 0.05 MHz/ and 1 MHz/oC respectively. This
linear relationship makes it an easy method for sensing mechanical and thermal effects, whilst the pulse nature of the
pump lightwave allows accurate localization (time of flight measurement) and defines spatial resolution (pulse
duration). Further details on the measuring unit configuration and fiber sensitivity to strain and temperature can be
found in Niklès et al. [13, 14, 15]. Performance parameter definitions are discussed in reference [16] and formalized
in the IEC 61757-3-1 standard for DTS application. Recent advances in optical technology extended the
measurement range to distances over 70 km per sensing direction (Figure 1) without the need of repeaters.
Measurement range over 300km can be achieved with periodic optical amplification as recently demonstrated [17].
Such approach is key when the power supply along the pipeline is scarce. Cases of offshore structures with long tie
backs and jungle pipelines can benefit of these technology improvements.

Figure 1. BOTDA temperature resolution, 2 on measurement

repeatability, (similar strain resolution curve can be evaluated
with a temperature resolution of 2°C (or 40 along a 70 km Figure 2. Trench cross-section showing a typical cable
sensor (loop of 140km) measured with a spatial resolution of installation
5m.

2.3 Sensing and Communication Cables: Existing Technology and New Developments
Strain Measurement Cables (SMC) are robust fiber optic cables specifically designed for distributed strain
monitoring applications. Unlike telecommunication fiber optic cables, the SMC design allows the cable strain to be
transferred to the optical fiber, which in turn can be detected and monitored by the BOTDA interrogators. In order
to address a broad variety of conditions, various models of strain measurement cables were developed and qualified
[18 and 19]. As discussed in these two references, three robust versions were implemented so far for ground
movement detection and alarming, for ground movement measurement and for pipeline deformation measurement.
Their design was based on a FIMT structure, where the fiber is embedded in a Stainless Steel (SSL) tube. Recently,
a new fully dielectric model was introduced, combining improvement of the mechanical strength and measurement
sensitivity. The cable is also an order of magnitude lighter than the previous designs which turns its handling and
installation in difficult terrains much easier.
Temperature Measurement Cables (TMC) are high quality grade versions of standard armored
telecommunication fiber optics cable usually used for direct burial applications. The cable includes the optical fibers
used for temperature monitoring as well as fibers for data communication between the instruments and the control
room.
In some cases, a single cable installation is required for cost and practical purposes. These requirements
lead to the introduction of multifunctional cable [20]. It is a new variety of cable combining strain, temperature and
vibration measurement capabilities with conventional Datacom functionalities. Such cable was designed to offer the
appropriate sensitivity and the required mechanical strength.
It is key that mechanical and optical characteristics of all sensing and communication cables must be in
compliance with IEC 794-1 Optical Fiber Cables Specifications.

3 Optical fiber sensors installation

GTMS implementation is possible both on new pipeline construction and on retrofit. It is more and more
common if not a requirement to install optical fiber cables along pipelines for telecommunication purposes.
Depending on the nature of the terrain and taking advantage of LDS capabilities of DTS technology, pipeline OO’s
can take the decision to integrate geohazard monitoring at an early stage. In such a case, the GTMS is part of the
project scope and can be installed during pipeline construction. The optical cables are simply laid in the trench
when it is backfilled with selected materials (Figure 2). As such, the selected material avoid the cable to be exposed
to stones that could affect their integrity during the back-fill. The GTMS will then monitor the pipeline from the
beginning of its operation. It makes sure that the section classified with the highest risk remains safe but it also will
detect events in sections where movement was not expected as described in references [21] and [22]. In such a way,
the geotechnical monitoring can be qualified as of preventive. In fact, the experience has shown that soils not only
moved in sections identified as critical by a preliminary survey but also in unexpected areas as the construction
works perturbed the soil structure weakening its long term stability.
Geotechnical monitoring is not limited to new projects for which the solution is part of the scope. When
sections of a pipeline are significantly exposed, a retrofit can be executed. There is no need to install the whole
pipeline length but just the sections at risk [22] which can be qualified as of corrective monitoring. An example of
recommended retrofit installation is presented. It shows that cable position relative to the pipeline does not matter as
much. The following rules must be applied:
 the SMC must be laid in the ROW;
 the SMC trench depth must be larger must be larger much larger than 50cm;
 the cable shall not be in direct contact with coarse material that could threaten it integrity.

4 Simple Models Applied to Geotechnical Monitoring in Flat Land

The GTMS aims at detecting and locating at an early stage all the natural events that can be a threat to the
pipeline. It will emphasize the preliminary signs of these threats. Geohazards and associated sensing parameter
which are either strain or temperature are listed in Table B.
Table B: Geohazards and sensing methods
Geohazard Soil Strain Measurement Soil Temperature Measurement
Erosion X
Subsidence X

4.1 Erosion Monitoring

Among all heat transfer mechanism, the dominant process in soil is conduction [8]. Fourier’s work
regarding heat propagation in solids and dating back to 1822, lead to the second law of heat conduction which can
be expressed in its one dimensional form as
𝝏𝑻(𝒛,𝒕) 𝝏𝟐 𝑻(𝒛,𝒕)
=𝑫 Eq. 1
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛𝟐

where D is the thermal diffusivity coefficient which is defined as the ratio of the thermal conductivity  to the
𝜅
volumetric heat capacity Cv, or 𝐷 = 𝐶 ..
𝑣

Table 3. Thermal diffusivity Coefficients for distinct soil The form of these equations assumes that D is
types as per reference [8]. independent on depth. That assumption is reasonable
Soil Thermal Diffusivity [m2/s] as the fiber optic cables are usually buried in a trench
presenting uniform soil conditions. Examples of
Peat 0.14 x 10-6 Thermal diffusivity coefficients are listed in Table 3.
Dry Sand 0.20 x 10-6 In the absence of thermal sources or sinks, the
temperature change in the ground has diurnal and
Wet Sand 0.33 x 10-6 annual origins. Assuming that these variations at the
Clay 1.00 x 10-6 surface z=0 can be approximated by a linear
combination of sinusoids

𝑇(0, 𝑡) = 𝑇̅ + 𝐴𝑦 (0) sin(𝜔𝑦 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑑 (0) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡) Eq. 2

Where 𝑇̅ is the annual average surface temperature while Ay(0)and Ad(0) are the surface annual and diurnal
amplitudes respectively. The temporal behavior is controlled by the annual and diurnal d radial frequencies noted
y and d respectively. At z, the temperature tend to be constant and reaches the annual average 𝑇̅. In a
uniform medium without heat source and sink, the temperature temporal change should remain periodic and the
following general solution is proposed

𝑇(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑇̅ + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑧) sin (𝜔𝑦 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑦 (𝑧)) + 𝐴𝑑 (𝑧) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙𝑑 (𝑧)) Eq. 3

Substituting Equation 3 in Equation 1, we obtain the following general temperature relation describing the variation
as a function of time and depth

𝑇(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑇̅ + 𝐴𝑦 (0) sin(𝜔𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑧⁄𝑑𝑦 )𝑒 −𝑧⁄𝑑𝑦 + 𝐴𝑑 (0) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝑧⁄𝑑𝑑 )𝑒 −𝑧⁄𝑑𝑑 Eq. 4

Two new parameters are introduced which are the annual and diurnal damping depths, noted dy and dd respectively
and defined as𝑑𝑦 = √2 𝐷⁄𝜔𝑦 , and, 𝑑𝑑 = √2 𝐷⁄𝜔𝑑 . Figure 3 illustrates the influence of diurnal and annual variations
as well as depth on soil temperature. There is an obvious delay between surface and underground temperatures.
Figure 4 displays the damping rate for diurnal (𝑒 −𝑧⁄𝑑𝑑 ) and annual (𝑒 −𝑧⁄𝑑𝑦 ) changes. It confirms that the damping
effect is significant larger for diurnal variation. Below 20cm, the diurnal temperature change is barely perceptible
while the annual change is lightly influenced. A larger depth (over 10m) needs to be considered to see no influence
from annual temperature change. The damping depth for annual fluctuations is about 19 times larger than the
diurnal ones.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Diurnal (a) and annual (b) temperature variations as a function depth. Curves are calculated using meteorological data
from Cuzco, Peru, situated 3000m the above sea level and considering the thermal diffusivity of clay (Table 3).

Annual

Diurnal

Figure 5. Erosion phenomenon leaving the pipeline exposed

Figure 4. Annual and diurnal damping rate for peat, dry and and eventually under tension due to a free span.
wet sand as well as clay (Table 3).

In common pipeline applications, the cable is buried at least one meter from the surface. From previous
section discussion, it implies that diurnal temperature changes cannot be captured when the cable depth is over
50cm. The last step of erosion is an exposure to the environment which consequently increases the threat
probability against the pipeline integrity. Erosion increases the risk of human interaction with the pipeline or
possible hit by dropped objects or materials. These last events are particularly common in the North Sea where an
exposed pipeline can be dragged by fishing nets or anchors. Another consequence of erosion when large sections
are exposed is a free span inducing excessive strain.
Rainfall infiltration and ground water are known precursors of erosion phenomena. Soil erosion around the
pipeline introduces temperature changes as the pipeline is exposed to water or ambient temperature changes.
Similarly water infiltration from flooding and change of soil condition between frozen and thawed states have an
impact on the local soil temperature. Figure 5 illustrates how soil erosion can leave the pipeline in a hazardous
situation leading to a possible mechanical damage and what can be prevented by monitoring the temperature change
as the buried cable is not exposed to the same conditions as the exposed cable. Indeed, the monitoring system can
detect such temperature changes and an alarm showing their location can be generated. Investigations can then be
carried out and risks mitigated in due time.
Similar conclusions can be drawn for erosion originated from wind as it would be observed in deserts and
in particular regions covered by sand dunes.
Subsea or underwater erosion is a well-known phenomenon in arctic and shallow water transport systems.
As an example, in the north shore of Alaska, ground is in permafrost condition. The fluid transported by the
pipeline heats up the ground changing the soil texture. Trench material is then more easily erodible and prone to be
washed away or scoured by currents or streams. Details about the application of temperature can be found in
reference [23].

4.2 Subsidence Monitoring

Figure 6 illustrates schematically the soil consolidation caused by a vertical load. It induces a vertical
displacement h. The settlement then pulls the underneath cable down and induce a transition zone, whose width is
l, at the shear interface due to soil cohesion ensuring a continuous behaviour between the stable and settling
grounds. In the present section discussion, we assume that the transition zone suffers a uniform strain over a
stationary width (l). If an optical fiber sensor is embedded in the ground as shown in the figure (blue line), it will be
subjected to a stress when the soil displaces down. As a consequence, it will experience a strain . The strain
induced along the fiber sensor axis is measured by the DSS interrogator.

is no physical reason to consider horizontal stress

Figure 6. Soil settlement (consolidation due to a vertical
load applied on its surface. An optical fiber strain sensor is
laid underneath the surface (blue line). The load induces a
vertical displacement h. and a transition zone (of length l)
at the shear interface.
In a flat area where soil settlement is the
only cause of movement and assuming that the stress
source is a vertical load (), we can consider that the
shear interface remain stable over time. In fact there
other than induced by the vertical load. A simple
relation can then be established between the strain on
the fiber () in the transition zone (l) at the shear
interface and the vertical displacement (h) induced
by soil consolidation. Relying on the geometry of the
movement illustrated in (Figure 7), the relation can
be expressed as
l
   1  h l 2  1 Eq. 5
l
The quantity l is the fiber length increase associated
with  and caused by the settlement. The strain is
then a function of the shear interface length l and the
amplitude of the vertical displacement h.
Alternatively, the vertical displacement can be
calculated from strain  with the following relation
derived from (1):
𝛿ℎ = 𝑙√(𝜀 + 1)2 − 1 Eq. 6
Figure 8 illustrates the settlement for a 10m
long transition zone as a function of strain. The
measured strain data can be correlated to actual soil
displacement as it was reported in references [9] and
[21] for landslides in Peru.

5 Case Studies
5.1 Erosion
Erosion is a common event in regions subjected to heavy rains. Such event was detected in the oriental
slopes of the Andes as abnormal temperature behaviors were reported by the GTMS near KP25+600 of Peru LNG
pipeline in 2010 and presented in references [21] and [22]. In these works, the described temperature variation was
correlated to a soil structure change. A tension crack developed allowing water infiltration when a sudden rainfall
arouse. The infiltration provoked a fast and significant temperature drop while remaining localized and small in
spatial extension. Similar events experiencing identical pattern were also detected along other pipelines. The case
of the Ramones pipeline can be reported and is emblematic of a flat land area. In the present case, erosion induced a
local temperature decrease and was pin pointed by the GTMS (Figure 10).

2.0

1.5

Settlement [m]
1.0

0.5

0.0
Figure 7. Optical fiber sensor elongation in the transition 0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%
Strain
zone.
Figure 8. Settlement calculated with Equation 6 considering a
transition zone of 10m at shear interface.

The DITEST technique is capable of

detecting soil displacement at a very early stage when
the soil motion cannot be visually detected as
demonstrated by field data [9, 21, 22]. Such
performance is possible thanks to the detection
sensitivity of the DITEST which can be as low as
0.002%. Figure 9 shows the strain relation with the
vertical displacements calculated from equation (1).
It is obvious that displacements of a few centimeters
Detection Sensitivity over tens of meters can be detected.
Any combination of longitudinal and lateral
displacements shall be detected as the DITEST
Figure 9. Detection sensitivity for longitudinal (continuous measures both strain induced motions with sufficient
lines) and lateral (dotted lines) soil displacements. Strain sensitivity. Note that vertical settlements push down
detection sensitivity is 0.002%. the sensing cable similarly to the lateral displacement
inducing measurable elongation by the DITEST.
Temperature events can present other pattern as illustrated in Figure 11. This event, detected along the
Peru LNG pipeline, featured a narrow cold spot presenting periodic time dependence. The period of the
phenomenon was 24h, which is a typical behavior when the sensing cable is exposed. The event was confirmed by
inspectors and associated with a manual excavation in the ROW conducted for maintenance purposes. The pattern
would have been identical in the case of erosion that would have exposed the cable. These two examples behave as
expected by the thermal model discussed: if not completely exposed, the temperature of the cable does not vary
periodically and returns slowly to the soil ambient value after completely drying out; when the soil cover of the
cable is thin (less than 50cm) or completely removed, the temperature follows the daily change and returns to soil
ambient temperature once completely covered
Shallow water flowlines subjected to arctic conditions also suffer from erosions due to the pipeline acting
as a heat source affecting locally the soil characteristics which is permafrost. The pipeline trench is then more prone
to erosion or scouring by sea current or water streams flowing from shore. Cold water can then ingress in the
naturally excavated trench and induce a cold spot than can be detected by the GTMS as illustrated in [23].
Erosional event as well was detected along the Sakhalin–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok gas transport system-
Shortly after pipeline operation began; the monitoring system gave early warning of an event in the soil mass [ 22].
During a subsequent right-of-way inspection significant erosion were seen. In only a few days the presence of a new
spring and associated groundwater had led to soil being 'washed away' 400 m below the ROW. This erosion put the
pipeline at risk of deformation, with all the associated threats to security of supply. Sakhalin operators carried out
rapid remedial actions to the ROW while allowing the water to follow its course. The primary threats to pipeline
integrity were addressed by geotechnical and biological remediation in this remote and environmentally sensitive
region.
All these temperature events associated with erosion are not isolated cases and are common in most of the
pipeline instrumented so far with DTS technology. Similar behaviors are reported in power cable applications as
well and temperature sensing can help assess soil coverage of the structure [24].
2 2 18.05.2016
25247m
16.05.2016

1 (a)
25265m
(b) 15.05.2016

Relative Temperature [°C]

0
Temperatura Relativa [°C]

0
-1

-2 -1

-3 -2

-4
-3
25100 25150 25200 25250 25300 25350 25400
-5
Distance [m]
14.05.2016 15.05.2016 16.05.2016 17.05.2016 18.05.2016 19.05.2016

Figure 10. Erosion detection along Ramones pipeline. Temperature event was detected: (a) time evolution shows the zone
temperature history at the infiltration site and nearby; (b) the fiber represents the temperature profile before the rainfall, once the
soil was infiltrated and after, once the soil dried; (c) picture shows the nature of the event detected.

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Temperature event detected at KP7+020 of Peru LNG pipeline: (a) temperature profiles measured in 2013 and 2014
show that a temperature anomaly developed (circled in red) which appears as a cold spot at the time of the measurement; (b) the
temperature temporal evolution indicates that the cable was exposed to daily change. The event was caused by a human
excavation during a maintenance activity but similar behavior is observed when erosion is the temperature anomaly cause.

1500 02.06.2016 09:57

01.07.2016 13:11
0.040
1000
0.035
Strain [microstrain]

0.030
500
Settlement [m]

0.025

0
0.020

0.015
-500
Plate 4 70m
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.010
Plate 6 84 m
-1000 0.005
Distance [m]
0.000
30.05 04.06 09.06 14.06 19.06 24.06 29.06 04.07
Figure 12: Picture on the top left shows the load applied to the Figure 13. Soil settlement at two positions extracted from
terrain to simulate the settlement. The strain profile shows the the strain profile measurement campaign.
effect of soil settlement measured by the interrogator. Orange
curve is the measurement before the load is applied. The green
curve is the strain profile measured a month later.
5.2 Soil Subsidence
A particular case of soil subsidence concerns settlements which are more common in low lands covered by
swamps or at the bottom of valley previously occupied by glaciers or lakes. By the mechanism of volume reduction
or consolidation, the soil settles when a load is applied. In fact the water content is moved away by the applied load
pressure. The phenomenon can be quantified by a vertical displacement.
Soil settlement phenomenon was observed in the bed of the former Texcoco Lake near Mexico City during
a measurement campaign conducted in summer 2016 with the GTMS. Figure 12 shows the strain profiles measured
before and after the load is applied. The measured strain profile is not uniform and presents tensile and compressive
effects. The consequent vertical displacement can be computed from the strain profiles as function of time from two
positions as shown in Figure 13 using a simple model based on relation (1). To complement the measurement
campaign, a finite element analysis was conducted to understand the strain profile shape which shows tensile and
compressive strains. The result of the modelling confirmed qualitatively the measured strain profile shape as
presented in Figure 14. Further analysis is required to investigate the quantitative discrepancy.

6 Conclusions
The GTMS, component of the FOPIMS, was developed to meet the requirements of pipeline owners /
operators in terms of geohazard prevention. The GTMS aims at the early detection of natural hazards such as
ground movement and soil property change. The uniqueness of the solution allows continuous monitoring of soil
stability in real time. It is an essential complement to FOPIMS scope which also covers the detection of leakage
(LDS) and third party intrusions (TPI) with possible integration to end user SCADA or DCS.

1500
Distance [m] The GTMS use over the past 15 years in
areas exposed to landslides revealed that erosion and
1000
subsidence can also be detected as emphasized in the
present work. Such intuition is sustained by simple
Strain [microstrain]

500
mechanical and thermal soil models. The
measurements of strain and temperature provide
0 0 30 60 90 120 150 useful information about the development of these
geohazards. Since the beginning of use in various
-500
projects, the technique allowed the implementation of
preventive geotechnical works before geohazard
-1000
develop dramatically. It also helped the operator to
optimize the time spent in site inspection as it
Figure 14: Comparison of measured strain profile with pinpoints areas where soil is moving. It results in
finite element modelling. The numerical analysis presents reduction in maintenance and surveillance costs as
similar structure as the actual measurement indicating a well as in the mitigation of health, safety and
qualitative agreement.
environmental risks.

7 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to warmly thank Omnisens team for the continuous and sustained support in the
execution of all projects. Furthermore, the authors are grateful to all partners that helped them develop these
projects. In particular, they would like to acknowledge the fruitful cooperation and appreciated feedbacks from
Hunt LNG//Peru LNG, COGA/TGP, Techint, Wood Group, Gasoducto de Chihuahua/Ienova, GMCM, Gazprom
Group, Laser Solutions, Smartec, Prysmian, Corning, Brugg Cables and ETHZ.

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