Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

Thomas F. Tate

Although it is widely accepted that peer influence is a powerful factor in

adolescent development, profession use of this resource has been
generally confined to exceptional or problematic populations. The research
literature suggests that peer group programs have produced orderly,
productive, and positive academic and rehabilitative environments. Peer
group paradigms have also generated positive results in creating
productive social group living environments and have helped reduce
aggressive behaviors in group living settings. Some article suggests
elements to facilitate a peer group approach to cognitive problem-solving
development school and group living settings while highlighting the adult-
imposed roadblocks to that process.

Peer pressure is the influence of a social group on an individual.

Children and teenagers feel social pressure to conform to the group of

peers with whom they socialize. This peer pressure can influence how

children dress, what kind of music they listen to, and what types of

behavior they engage in, including risky behaviors such as using drugs,

cigarettes, and alcohol, and engaging in sex. The intensity of peer

pressure differs from situation to situation.

Peer groups are usually cliques of friends who are about the same

age. Peer pressure can begin in early childhood with children trying to
get other kids to play the games they want. It generally increases through

childhood and reaches its intensity in the preteen and teen years.

Virtually all adolescents in middle and high school deal with peer

pressure, often on a daily basis. It is how children and teens learn to get

along with others of their own age group and eventually learn how to

become independent. Depending on the group trying to apply the

influence, peer pressure can be negative or positive.

Starting in middle school, children begin to spend more time with

their friends and less time with their parents and family. Although some

children remain loners and not part of any group, most preteens tend to

be part of a small group of friends called a clique. In children ages eleven

to fourteen, it is most common for members of these cliques to be of the

same sex. Children will spend a lot of time with friends in their clique,

interacting by going to the movies or the mall, talking on the telephone,

or chatting online with instant messaging. They know which kids belong

to particular cliques and who the loners are. Within the cliques, talk

about the opposite sex is popular as is making arrangements for out of

school activities.

Children also generally belong to a crowd, which is a larger group

of kids from several cliques. While members of the cliques are close

friends, members of the crowd outside a clique are casual acquaintances.

Crowds are often large groups with common interests such as athletes

(jocks), kids who like school (preppies), kids lacking good looks or social

skills but who excel at particular intellectual interests (nerds), and drug

users (druggies).

Some kids give in to peer pressure because they want to be liked,

to fit in, or because they worry that other kids may make fun of them if

they do not go along with the group. Others may go along because they

are curious to try something new that others are doing. The idea that

"everyone is doing it" may influence some kids to ignore their better

judgment or their common sense. Peer pressure can be extremely strong

and seductive. Experiments have shown how peer pressure can influence

children to change their minds from what they know for sure is

acceptable behavior to unacceptable behavior just because everyone else

in their peer group is doing it. These studies have also shown that all it

takes for individuals to stand their ground on what they know is right is

for one other peer to join them. That principle holds true for youth of any

age in peer pressure situations, according to the Online organization

KidsHealth (www.kidshealth.org).

Children and adolescents cannot always avoid negative peer

pressure. It may continue to be a fact of life through childhood,

adolescence, and into adulthood. Quoted from an article in the

September 2002 issue of Current Health 2, A Weekly Reader Publication,

the following are strategies young people can use to deal with negative

peer pressure effectively:

• Avoid putting yourself in situations that make you feel

uncomfortable. For example, if you don't want to start smoking, stay

away from areas where you know kids go to smoke.

• Choose your friends wisely. If you hang around with people who

share your values, chances are you'll never be asked to do something you

don't want to do.

• Think about the consequences whenever you are asked to do

something you are not sure about. Stop for a moment and ask: Will this

activity get me in trouble? Will it be harmful to my health?

• Be true to yourself. Think about the reasons why you are

considering doing something you are uncomfortable with. Is it to gain

popularity? Although there is nothing wrong with wanting to be popular,

there are right ways and wrong ways to achieve it. If you change your

behavior just to fit in with a particular group, you are not being true to

yourself.

• Learn how to say no. This is perhaps the most difficult thing in the

world for many people to do, but it is an essential skill if you are to

successfully fend off negative peer pressure. There are many ways to say

no, some of them subtle and some of them a little more "in your face."

Several examples are: "You see it your way. I see it my way." "If you are
really a friend, then back off." "You must think I'm pretty dumb to fall for

that one."

Negative peer pressure occurs when a child's or teen's friends or

other people their age try to convince them to do something that is either

harmful to their body or is against the law. Examples include drinking

alcohol, taking drugs, smoking cigarettes, cutting classes, vandalizing,

and stealing. Although teens usually know when something is bad for

them, they often choose to do it because they want to be liked, to fit in,

to be accepted, or because they're afraid they'll be looked down upon or

made fun of.

Bruce A. Epstein in "How to combat negative peer pressure," in the

September 2002 issue of Current Health 2, A Weekly Reader Publication,

is quoted as saying, The "desire to be accepted by their peers is perhaps

the strongest motivating force during dolescence." Many studies reinforce

his theory. One study showed, for example, that a student who knew the

correct answer to a question gave the wrong answer just because

everyone else in the class gave the wrong answer.

There are various reasons why children are disliked by their peers.

When trying to find ways to help these children, it is easy to fall into the

trap of thinking about what they do that bothers others. This focuses
only on reducing these behavior problems but most rejected children also

lack important social skills. They may not cooperate or be responsive to

others, or they may not know how to respond in certain social situations.

Teaching a child the missing skills is often more effective in improving

peer relationships than working only on reducing negative behavior.

The impact of peer influence on adolescent development is

generally associated with negative connotations. I believe that the use of

the peer group as a vehicle for problem-solving development has not

been fully utilized, even though it presents significant opportunities for

childcare practitioners and educators.(T.F. Tate)

It is widely accepted that membership in peer groups is a powerful

force during adolescence. These groups provide an important

developmental point of reference through which adolescents gain an

understanding of the world outside of their families. Failure to develop

close relationships with agemates, however, often results in a variety of

problems for adolescents – from delinquency and substance abuse to

psychological disorders (Hops, Davis, Alpert, & Longoria, 1997).

Furthermore, higher peer stress and less companionship support from

peers has been associated with a lower social self-concept in adolescents

(Wenz-Gross, Siperstein, Untoh, & Widaman, 1997).

 As children progress through adolescence, they build knowledge

bases that help them navigate social situations. An abundance of

literature has suggested that there is considerable individual variation

regarding cognitive skill development during adolescence as it relates to

peer influence. Dodge’s (1993) research indicated that poor peer

relationships were closely associated with social cognitive skill deficits.

He found that adolescents who had developed positive peer relationships

generated more alternative solutions to problems, proposed more mature

solutions, and were less aggressive than youth who had developed

negative peer relationships. Along those same lines, Bansal (1996) found

that adolescents who compared themselves negatively in reference to

their peers experienced a reduction in attention to problem-solving tasks.

The impact of peer influence on adolescent development is

generally associated with negative connotations. I believe that the use of

the peer group as a vehicle for problem-solving development has not

been fully utilized, even though it presents significant opportunities for

childcare practitioners and educators.

It is widely accepted that membership in peer groups is a powerful

force during adolescence. These groups provide an important

developmental point of reference through which adolescents gain an

understanding of the world outside of their families. Failure to develop

close relationships with agemates, however, often results in a variety of

problems for adolescents – from delinquency and substance abuse to

psychological disorders (Hops, Davis, Alpert, & Longoria, 1997).

Furthermore, higher peer stress and less companionship support from

peers has been associated with a lower social self-concept in adolescents

(Wenz-Gross, Siperstein, Untoh, & Widaman, 1997).

As children progress through adolescence, they build knowledge

bases that help them navigate social situations. An abundance of

literature has suggested that there is considerable individual variation

regarding cognitive skill development during adolescence as it relates to

peer influence. Dodge’s (1993) research indicated that poor peer

relationships were closely associated with social cognitive skill deficits.

He found that adolescents who had developed positive peer relationships

generated more alternative solutions to problems, proposed more mature

solutions, and were less aggressive than youth who had developed

negative peer relationships. Along those same lines, Bansal (1996) found

that adolescents who compared themselves negatively in reference to

their peers experienced a reduction in attention to problem-solving tasks.

The literature clearly highlights the potential for adults to

capitalize on the influence of peer relationships in facilitating

adolescents’ cognitive development. The only thing that gets in our way is
our mindset regarding the value of adolescents as partners in this

process. The phenomenon of adultism, much like other “isms,” relies

upon the adult’s unwillingness to view adolescents as social equals. In

addition, those adults using peer influence solely for behavior

management purposes continue a process that is both discouraging and

dehumanizing for adolescents.

Teachers who resist entering into partnerships with students point

out that their role is to educate – not raise – children. However, preparing

students to responsibly solve life’s problems is a primary function of the

educator’s role. Failure to recognize the impact of peer relationships on

this process only serves to make teachers’ jobs more difficult and results

in more troubled adolescents facing ejection from public school settings.

Because the literature suggests that peer and familial influences

interact to help children develop healthy cognitive problem-solving skills,

the importance of substitute caregivers cannot be understated. In the

family’s absence, teachers and childcare practitioners provide valuable

points of reference for the developing adolescent and potentially could

have an even greater impact on those students experiencing poor parent-

child relationships. Seita, Mitchell, and Tobin (1996) argued for a

concept they labeled “connectedness,” which entitles every child to

significant relationships with his or her adult caregivers.

 Adults unwilling to accept an expanded role in the child’s

development should be encouraged to examine their biases and

stereotypes about families. When the family has been unable to fully

meet a child’s needs, other adults who play a significant role in the

child’s life have extraordinary potential for influencing the child in taking

charge of his or her life.